Particles in Russian language table with examples. Particles in Russian: classification and spelling

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"Particles in Russian"

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Morphological characteristics

Particle - service part speech, which serves to express various semantic shades of any member of a sentence or a sentence as a whole, as well as to form moods. The particle contributes additional shades of meaning into a sentence and serves to form word forms. Immutable part speech. The particle is not a member of the sentence.

Morphological features: formative, negative, modal. Formatives serve to form the conditional and imperative mood of the verb. These include: yes, come on, let's, would (b), let, let. Negatives serve to express negation, strengthen negation, or add to a sentence positive value with double negative. These include: no, neither. Modals are used to express various shades of meaning and feelings in a sentence. These include: really, really, what for, how, here, only, only, really, etc.

Modal particles introduce the following semantic shades:

1) question: whether, really, really, for example: Have you prepared the previous material for today’s lesson? Didn't you do right choice by continuing your education?

2) instructions: here, there, for example: Here are the necessary tools for the practical lesson;

3) clarification: exactly, just, for example: This particular specialist will be in demand to work in our company;

4) allocation, restriction: only, only, exclusively, for example: Only those who passed will be allowed to take the exams. Medical worker must be an exceptionally kind, sympathetic, merciful person;

5) exclamation: what the, like, for example: How nice it is for a teacher to see the success of his students!

6) doubt: unlikely, hardly, for example: It is unlikely that you will cope with the task if you do not make an effort;

7) strengthening: even, really, after all, after all, for example: How many times have they repeated the basic terms;

8) mitigation, requirement: - ka, for example: Repeat this topic again.

Also, particles are a class of words that express diverse relationships realized in an act of speech or text, namely: the relationship of what is being communicated to the participants in the speech act (speaker, listener), as well as the relationship between them; the relationship of what is being reported to reality (in terms of its reality, unreality; reliability, unreliability); the relationship between statements and their components. By expressing these relationships, particles realize their meanings. Some meanings of the particle contain semantic components that modify the content of what is being communicated (only, all, was, not, nor).

Particles, in addition, serve to form morphological and syntactic moods (would, let, let). In "Grammar of modern Russian" literary language» Particles are classified on a different basis - by function. There are three main categories: syntactic (would, let, yes, come on, etc.), subjective-modal (after all, even, really, really, etc.) and negative (not, nor) particles. Among the subjective modal particles, intensifying (-that, even, after all, here, right), excretory (only, only), etc. differ in meaning. In the “Russian Grammar” the main categories of particles are also distinguished by function. Characterizing a sign (action or state) by its course over time, by the completeness or incompleteness of implementation, by effectiveness or ineffectiveness (it was, it happened, it happens, etc.). Particles in this grammar are also classified according to their structure: they are divided into primitive and non-primitive, into simple (and, fortunately, more, etc.) and composite; composite particles are divided into dismemberable (it would be, here and, like this, etc.) and non-divisible (it would be good, if only, if only, etc.); inside composite particles phraseological particles are distinguished (no, no, and; which of that, etc.). Thus, the question of classes of particles and the principles of their isolation is solved in different ways. When studying particles, how lexical units their system reveals a large number of intersecting subclasses, interconnected by a variety of relationships.

Can be applied to particles as units of language various classifications, taken as a classification unit separate meaning particles (for example, in the classification proposed below). The most adequate to linguistic reality are those classifications that reflect semantic properties particles. However, analysis of the semantics of particles is impossible without taking into account the specifics of their functioning. According to the main classification criterion - semantic, particles are divided into eleven categories. Modal particles expressing different types subjective relations. With the help of such particles, meanings associated with two types of modality are expressed: reality/irreality and reliability/unreliability.

The meanings “possibility”, “desirability”, “necessity” associated with the opposition reality/irreality correspond to the particular meanings of expectation expressed by particles (simple, and, precisely, nevertheless, after all; for example, And you agreed!), surprise (well, look how), motivations, encouragements, demands, wishes (come on, well, so that, otherwise, let, if, when, it would be good; for example, I wish I was alive!; So that I would be good meeting!), reminders/memories (tea, more, same; e.g., Take some candy! - I can’t see the candy!; Do you remember her: she also sang a song to you!), assumptions (perhaps, as if, exactly, as if, like , definitely, not at all; eg, As if someone came in?), fears (unequal); Associated with the opposition of reliability/unreliability are the particular meanings of confirmation (yes, exactly), assumption (albeit, well, good), doubt, distrust [yes, no, directly, perhaps; eg: I'll find you a book! -Yes, you will find it! (meaning “you won’t find it”); I'm staying. No, really? (meaning “I can’t believe it”)]. Emotionally expressive particles expressing various emotional characteristics(threat, surprise, dissatisfaction, annoyance, irony, mockery): well, you see, you see, simply, directly. Some researchers classify these words (except simply, directly) as interjections as words serving the sphere of emotions. They come close to particles when they function as a modal component of a sentence.

Addressive particles expressing semantics associated with social sphere. This semantics can be reduced to the oppositions superior/inferior/equal; yours/someone else's. The following particles belong to this category: -ka, -s (obsolete). In the meanings of a particle, the sign of categorical/non-categorical is revealed, which leads to the sphere of modal meanings. Contextual particles that serve to identify authorial behavior and to draw attention to certain components of a statement or text. Contextual particles are associated with the organization speech activity(yes, and, yes, no, here, there; e.g., Yes, another piece of news; Yes, I almost forgot, I have a letter for you), with various kinds clarifications regarding the chosen expressions, filling in the “voids” in speech (or that, namely), and with instructions on the transmission of someone else’s speech (they say, de, they say, supposedly). Quantitative particles expressing quantitative characteristics component of propositional content from the point of view of the speaker (only, only, like this).

Negative particles specialized in expressing negation (no, no). A phase particle (was), which modifies the propositional semantics of a verbal predicate, expressing that the action began or was assumed, but did not take place or was interrupted. Excretory particles expressing the meaning of inconsistency or correspondence between the assumed, expected and actual (only, only, even, even, exactly, and).

Identifying particles [same, and; for example, He was born here and lives here all his life; I have the same book (like the one on the display)], which serve to express anaphoric relations in the text (relations of coreference or equilexicality). Gradational particles expressing an increase in a characteristic (even). Replica particles and capable of functioning in dialogue as a replicating component (yes, okay, okay). Semantic classification covers this entire class of words, but does not reflect all the properties of this class. Second classification sign- features of the functioning of the particle: some of them can function in a relatively closed statement (well, ek, only, there, you), others - bring the statement into a wider text, being non-union indicators of connection in the text (like, and, an. well, only, even, exactly). Particles can also be classified according to their correlation with the type of speech act: question - is it possible, is it possible, is it possible; by impulse - let it, give it, well, so that, otherwise; statement - all other particles. This classification does not cover the entire class - some words in this regard are neutral, indefinite, not marked (only, even, total). Particles, being words that have a wide variety of parameters, can simultaneously be included in several classifications. Thus, the particle is even excretory, textual, not marked from the point of view of its relevance to the speech act; particles ek - emotional-expressive, functions in isolated statements and in statements; Is the particle modal, textual, interrogative (in relation to the speech act).

Separate writing of particles

The particles would (b), same (g), li (l) are written separately: would read, if, here, which, however, however, hardly, hardly.

Note. The rule does not apply to those cases when the specified particles are part of the word: so that, also, also, really, or, etc.

Hyphenated spelling of particles

Particles (suffixes) are written through a hyphen: -de, -ka, koe- (koy-), (-kas - dialect), -or, -ni, -s, -tka, -tko, -to: you-de, she -here, here, here, look, someone, someone, someone, some, from somewhere, yes, sir, well, look, somewhere , once upon a time, something. Note. The particle -de (colloquial) is used when conveying someone else's speech, as well as in the meaning of the verb says (they speak) and in the meaning of particles they say, they say; cf.: And if I see that the execution is too small for him, I will immediately hang all the judges around the table (Kr.). - My fellow countryman turned to the commander at a halt: so and so, - allow me to leave, they say, it’s an expensive occasion, they say, because local resident, just a stone's throw from the yard (TV). The particle say (colloquial) was formed by merging two words: de and say.

A particle is a service part of speech that serves to express shades of meaning of words, phrases, sentences and to form word forms.

In accordance with this, particles are usually divided into two categories - semantic and formative.

Particles do not change and are not members of the sentence.

In school grammar, however, it is customary to emphasize the negative particle not together with the word to which it refers; This is especially true for verbs.

Formative particles include particles that serve to form the conditional and imperative forms of the verb. These include the following: would (indicator conditional mood), let, let, yes, let (those) (indicators of the imperative mood). Unlike semantic particles, formative particles are components verb form and are part of the same part of the sentence as the verb, they are emphasized together with it even with a non-contact arrangement, for example: I wouldn’t be late if it hadn’t rained.

Semantic particles express the semantic nuances, feelings and attitudes of the speaker. According to the specific meaning they express, they are divided into the following groups:

1) negative: not, neither, not at all, far from, not at all;

2) interrogative: really, really, whether (l);

3) demonstrative: here, there, this;

4) clarifying: exactly, just, directly, precisely, exactly;

5) restrictive-excretive: only, only, exclusively, almost, solely;

6) exclamation marks: what for, well, and how;

7) intensifying: even, same, nor, after all, really, after all, well;

8) with the meaning of doubt: hardly; unlikely.

In some studies, other groups of particles are also identified, since not all particles can be included in these groups (for example, they say, allegedly).

The particle neither acts as a negative in the constructions of an impersonal sentence with an omitted predicate (There is not a sound in the room) and as an intensifying one in the presence of an already expressed negation (There is not a sound in the room). When repeated, the particle does not act as a repeating coordinating conjunction(No rustling or other sounds are heard in the room.)

The semantic particle -must be distinguished from the word-forming postfix -that, which acts as a means of formation indefinite pronouns and adverbs. Let's compare: some, somewhere (postfix) - I know where to go (particle).

The postfixes -sya (-s), -to, -or, -ni and the prefixes not and are not particles in negative and indefinite pronouns and adverbs, as well as participles and adjectives, regardless of whether they are written together or separately.

Morphological analysis of a particle

Particles are sorted according to the following scheme:

1. Particle.

2. Grammatical features:

Immutable,

Rank by value.

According to school grammar, all particles - both semantic and formative - should be parsed according to this scheme, but it should be noted that the formative particle is a component of the verb form and is written out during morphological analysis along with the verb when parsing the verb as a part of speech.

Sample morphological analysis particles:

I'm not saying that he didn't suffer at all; I’m just now completely convinced that he could continue about his Arabians as much as he wanted, giving only the necessary explanations.

(F. M. Dostoevsky)

not - particle, unchangeable, semantic, negative.

only - a particle, unchangeable, semantic, restrictive-exclusive.

only - a particle, unchangeable, semantic, restrictive-exclusive.

According to school grammar, in this sentence you should also parse the particles as follows:

b - a particle, unchangeable, formative, serves to form the conditional form of the verb.

Particle– this is an unchangeable auxiliary part of speech that will add, clarify or specify various semantic (gradual, evaluative, optative, etc.), modal, emotional and expressive meanings words, parts of sentences or sentences and participates in the formation of individual morphological categories, and also expresses attitude speaker to reality or what is being communicated. For example: I sameI will give my life for you; The enemy is near Notyou'll be patient etc. Wed: [Chatsky] For what same way secret? – [Molchalin] In my summer Not must dare / Have your own judgment. – [ Chatsky] For mercy, we are with you Not guys / Why same other people's opinions only holy? (A. Griboyedov); Only The Black Sea is noisy... (A. Pushkin); Here the master will come - the master will judge us (N. Nekrasov); Here's the mill! She really collapsed (A. Pushkin); Here youth!.. read!.. and then grab it! (A. Griboyedov), etc.

By structure particles may be primitive(isn’t it, it’s only) And derivatives (it was just everything etc.). In turn, derivatives particles are divided according to the nature of their relationship with those parts of speech from which they originated:

• – adverbial (simply, directly, precisely);
• – pronominal (all);
• – verbal (it was, it happened, give);
• – excretory particles correlated with unions(What thethe beauty of these tales; I, however,I won't follow you);
• – particles similar in meaning to prepositions (sort of).

From the point of view of the performed functions particles are:

• A) formative(give, come, let, let, let (Let it thunder stronger storm! (M. Gorky)) and word-forming(derivative. then, or etc. (someone, anyone etc.));
• b) semantic, emotionally expressive And modal.

TO semantic include next particles:

• – index fingers (here, there, this);
• – definitive and clarifying (exactly, just, exactly, almost);
• – excretory-restrictive (. only);
• – amplifiers ( same, straight, after all, simple);

TO emotionally expressive(they are pronounced with force, pressure) include particles what the, that, where is it, what is there, well, well And etc.

TO modal, expressing subjective attitude the speaker is assigned to the communicated particle:

• – affirmative (yes, that’s right);
• – negative (neither, no, not, by no means, of course);
• – interrogative (oh, really, really);
• – comparative (exactly, as if, as if);
• - indicating someone else's speech (de, they say – I mean, I don't know etc.).

In the texts works of art particles express

various shades of meaning words, phrases and sentences:

Wed: I same told you! Spoke same I'll tell you! Or: I whether you Not talked about this?! Isn't it I tell you Not talked about this?! Knew whether are you talking about this? etc. – What the aces in Moscow live and die! (A. Griboyedov). I whether to you Not my own, I whether to you Not close, / In memory of the village I isn't it do I value it? (S. Yesenin).

In the Russian language there are two particles that express the meaning denial - not And neither. In connection with the particle Not particle neither receives intensifying meaning: Neitherdrops NotI'm afraid; Neithertrait NotI know. Area of ​​use of the particle Not in the Russian language is very wide, especially since in it “two homonyms merged, previously phonetically different (Not And n)". Complexity of the grammatical nature of the particle Not expressed in fluctuations in its use. It is characterized by prefix agglutination (indecent, independent etc.) and the function of a negative particle.

Particle neither expresses negation or in the structure itself unextended proposal (not a soul; not a sound; not from the place), or when spreading a negative sentence, combining the meaning denial with meaning gain (We haven't heard eithersound) or with the meaning of a union transfers (For you there is no letter or parcel,neither telegrams). In a particle neither there is an element of meaning of complete absence or categorical negation. Particle neither strengthens denial and participates in the formation of “hidden” meanings in the structure of counter-oppositions. Qualitative enhancement of the particle attribute neither expresses independently. Wed:

Neither bad, nor good, nor average.

They are all in their places,

Where there are neither the first nor the last...

They all slept there.

(A. Akhmatova)

// There are neither bad, nor good, nor average, nor the first, norlatest... // = "no" – the lowest degree of the characteristic.

Terminology problems

In modern Russian studies there is an opinion that particles are not a special part of speech, but a special function words. As an argument, the linguistic fact is given that a particle can also be modifiable word.

Particles unite with prepositions And unions syntactic nature of meaning: they do not express concepts they are assigned those semantic increments that a statement receives when a particle is introduced into it. For example, in sentences In the morning I drink only coffee with milk And In the morning I drink coffee with milk it is reported that coffee with milk is the only drink which (I) drink in the morning. Since the given sentences differ in composition only by the word only, we can say that the indicated restrictive-exclusive meaning is introduced by the particle and is its meaning. If in offer It started to rain introduce a particle at least the content of its syntactic modality will change: instead of the designated real fact the proposal will call desirable(optional) fact. As a result at least turns out to be a particle with the value of desirability.

Particles are part of one or another member of a sentence if these particles are formative. I would say tell me about this(form subjunctive inclinations); Hallowed be it your name (form imperative inclinations). Some modal particles are also included in the members of the sentence, for example the particle not: He told me didn't believe it.

Various parts of speech can become particles. For example: In the audience only girls or stood in the room one table(one/one = "only just; nothing/nobody else"); On the street one pampering,It grows here one nettle - formation of particles from numerals. Another example - Think: give meI'll tell you, maybe he'll believe you – shows education verbal particles. Or compare: Allthe space was occupied by roses, He did Alldepending on him – cases of use of pronouns, according to: And he everything is silent and silent -everything - amplifier particle.

Particles are widely used in sentences, communicative purpose which is expression of the degree of magnitude of a characteristic. For example, low the degree of the attribute is conveyed by an intensifying particle Just meaning "completely": Our affairs are very badus I just have nothing to live with(A. Ostrovsky) // I just have nothing to live with = We have absolutely nothing to live with.

Limiting particle only appears in the statement in the first and second meanings of the particle only:

• 1) "no more than so much, nothing else but" - It only costs (= "only; just" five rubles // It's only worth(just)five rubles, that's only(= "only") start // This just the beginningand to be continued;
• 2) "only, exclusively" – Only(= "only") in the villageResting // I only relax in the village, nowhere else, Only(= "only") Youyou feel sorry for me // Only you feel sorry for me, no one else. Wed: union only carries the meaning "as soon as": Just enteredshe comes towards him // How just walked inshe meets him.

High the degree of manifestation of a characteristic is expressed by an intensifying particle only(or in combination "not + verb") in preposition in relation to the pronoun and adverb in negative sentences, used to enhance the idea of large quantities, volume, girth, etc. For example: Who hasn't beenin Gorky's house, who didn't writeto him, I wasn't interested in any kind of businessHe!(P. Pavlenko) // Who doesn't... + verb = "very many (almost all)"; just what kind (affairs) Not + verb= "very many (almost all)".

With a numeral, with a word total or without it, particle only used in the sense of “no more than, just”: He was raging [pestilence] just three hoursbut killed two hundred and forty breeders and an uncountable offspring(I. Ilf, E. Petrov). With the word more or without it particle only indicates the limitation of an action or phenomenon to initial, preliminary, etc. moment in the meaning “yet, for now”: It's only(= "yet") beginning, expresses meaning reinforcements - Everyone has been at work for a long time, and he only(= "yet") Dressing, Only(= "yet") seven weekshow he took over the regiment(L. Tolstoy). Wed: union only combined with words how, just, barely or without them attaches temporary or conditional subordinate clause in the meaning “at that moment, as, now, as”: Just sayI'll come // As soon as you say so, I will come. How adversarial union only used in the sense of “however, but, on condition”: I agree to go just not now //I agree to go however not now.

Particle even used to highlight and strengthen the word to which it refers: Evenhe will come; Here Pasha Emilievich, who had a supernatural sense, realized WhatNow hismaybe they will beat even with your feet(I. Ilf, E. Petrov).

In modern Russian language the lexeme Just functions as particle, adverb, predicative (short form adjective simple), conjunction And state category word.

As particles token Just functions in the preposition position in the following combinations:

• – simple + adjective(Justclumsy)
• – Just + noun (It was just a boyfrom the next street, this just a mockery - preposition in relation to the predicate expressed by a noun);
• – Just + verb (He he just doesn't lookon me, me I just want tohome – V impersonal offer);
• – simple + state category word (You just can'tbelieve here just deep).

In modern Russian adverb– one of the most productive and semantically complete grammatical categories. On its periphery there are transitional types of words close to particles, conjunctions and prepositions. As an adverb lexeme Just occurs predominantly in postposition in relation to the predicate, expressed by conjugated and inconjugated forms of the verb: he said Just; Write Justand clear.

lexeme Just belong to the class predicates(short adjectives) based on the expression quality condition And syntactic role predicate. The solution to the problem is quite Just ,Everything was Just ,war / / Just - short form of adjective simple as a function of part of a compound nominal predicate: Solution (was) Just,The state of affairs was extreme Just ,All Justand clear.

As union token Just acts to connect homogeneous members of a sentence and in complex sentences: He didn't hit, but Justlowered his fist onto the table; ...my haste was not explained by the fact that I was happy to be free from classes, JustI tried to do as quickly as possible what the teacher told me(F. Iskander).

The element is quite expressive Just in option gradation union not only... but also... Such expressiveness is created as a result of inherited from the name of the adjective simple, adverbs Just and particles Just meanings. The only feature of semes is the seme “not complex” (archiseme “measure, degree”). In all sentences as part of the gradational conjunction the element Just conveys the meaning: 1) “not containing many parts”; 2) “easier – more difficult”; “without intention - with purpose”; “ordinary – extraordinary, standing out from others.” The first meaning is present in coordinating sentences with gradational unions.

Element Just as part of a gradation union marks an equal component denoting a simple action, and with its lexical meaning indicates on the fact that the value of the first equal component is simple compared to the value of the second equal component: He not justnoticed errors but alsotried to fix them. The first equal component is notice – contains the seme “to see, discover”, the second component – try to fix – In other words, “to try to eliminate shortcomings in something.” The second component evokes in the consciousness of the speaker and listener what is named by the first: one action, designated by the predicate notice is a prerequisite for another - try to fix it. A similar ratio of two equal components syntactic construction creates material gradation, since one of the equal components actually includes in its content another equal component. Element Just as part of the union emphasizes the importance material gradation.

Particle even from an implementation point of view gradual semantics and grading of a sentence-statement is a productive enhancer and is freely used in combination with all syntactic elements of a sentence as predicative, so and non-predicative plan. Particle even fits freely with the words of everyone significant parts speech in all its forms.

Amplifiers components and, but, well both independently and in combination with other graders (cf. and even, but even, well, even; and simple, but simple, well simple; and more, by (a) more, well (a) more etc.), highlighting the word with which they are used, often require placing this word at the beginning of the syntagma: And a poor man can be happy!(A. Chekhov).

Particle more in different contexts expresses a number of meanings, for example in the text by I. Ilf and E. Petrov: The janitor stood at the workshop three more minutes,filling with the most poisonous feelings... – additional value; Victor Mikhailovich for a long time yetswaggered; Never beforeBartholomew Korobeinikov was not so vilely deceived– in combination with the pronoun particle more used to emphasize some feature. When used after pronouns and adverbs more acts as a particle to enhance expressiveness: What elsea gift for him! IN colloquial speech what else is used in the meaning “amazing, wonderful, exceptional”, and the combination nothing yet - meaning "to some extent satisfactory": This nothing yet!He's been doing this for years and have never been caught yet, Where more with a previous union and, yes acts in the sense of “in addition, in addition, in addition, in addition.” Particle more expresses the availability of sufficient time, sufficient conditions for some action:

In the center such subtropics long gone, but on the periphery, in the localities, they still meet; Madame Kuznetsova a long time yet she would talk about flour, about the high cost and about how she found Claudia Ivanovna lying by the tiled stove...

Combination and also... used in the sense of reproach, irony, condemnation ( And also a doctor!); to strengthen the expression of a greater degree:

And Ostap Bender told Ippolit Matveyevich a story, the amazing beginning of which excited the entire secular Petersburg, and the even more amazing end was lost and went completely unnoticed by anyone in recent years.

Wed: Little did I know that this would be the case? ABOUT, how else did you know! Knew it very well(N. Sergeev-Tsensky); What elseTeddy bear? NoneBears Don't know(M. Gorky) – reinforcing particle more used with adverb How(or pronoun what) to emphasize a sign, fact - Knew it very well; I didn’t know any Mishka. Like a limiting particle more used to clarify, emphasize any attribute or fact: Here, you see where still at the low pointrows of mown hay lie, here is the bridge(L. Tolstoy).

Functioning of particles in text

Particle more is very productive and is used in constructions with the following meanings:

• 1) remembering, referring to the known: But you don’t know Lizaveta, the merchant ? She came down here. More I mended your shirt(F. Dostoevsky);
• 2) concerns: ...He will come, yes, perhaps more will be rude(M. Saltykov-Shchedrin);
• 3) inconsistencies (usually with complicated elements a, i): I am a peasant, but I won’t do this. And alsonobleman! (N. Gogol); Where did they stop? Alsosmart man...(N. Gogol);
• 4) condemnation, dissatisfaction, doubt: That brute is still talking! (V. Garshin); Where did you get it from?? My sister is healthy. - Bet some more!..(A. Ostrovsky);
• 5) assumptions;
• 6) accents: More, as if on purpose, with the newest pieces of paper(N. Gogol);
• 7) reinforcement (with pronominal words how, which)". And how else draws beautifully...; What elseclever...

Particle All can introduce the most different meanings and shades. This is an adverbial particle used in constructions with the meaning long-term, permanent And predominant feature : Do you know why he is like this? Allsad, Allsilent, you know? (I. Turgenev). Token All V this proposal is a particle, introduces a semantic sense of long-term and permanent sign, emphasizes what someone has been doing for a long time not happy, sad, silent etc. The proposal is two-part; particle All is part of the nominal predicate (still not so cheerful) and as part of the verbal predicate (everything is silent) is located directly in front significant word (funny- adjective is silent- verb). The particle introduces into the sentence, in addition to its semantic meaning, a stylistic shade of colloquialism. Likewise: Father will even be glad; he keeps pushing me to serve, and I I keep making excuses ill health(F. Dostoevsky).

A touch of colloquialism gives the statement a complicated that's all. Wed: He lies in his hole day and day, doesn’t get enough sleep at night, doesn’t finish a morsel, and still thinks: "It seems like I'm alive?.."(M. Saltykov-Shchedrin) – particle All introduces into the sentence the meaning of continuity of action and dominance thought process faces and morph - That, adjacent to the particle, highlights, emphasizes, accentuates the semantic meaning of the predicate verb thinks.

Complex particle so and in modern Russian it functions in verbal sentences with the following meanings:

• 1) intensively And full emerging predicative sign (Rain it's pouring like that; Sun it's burning so hot);
• 2) signs like completion or identifying previous state (I'll leave, – I'll never know truth; Bed it was still untidy);
• 3) confident and defiant denial (They were so scared of you!).

A. A. Shakhmatov saw in combination so and“an adverb meaning a relationship, i.e. one or another degree of manifestation of a characteristic” and, accordingly, “a complementary circumstance.” In his opinion, construction " so and + verb form present, past,(less often) future time" in modern Russian colloquial speech are extremely common. For example: Boards underneath they bend and crack(I. Turgenev) – present tense verb; There was such an air of misfortune from his figure(L. Tolstoy) – past tense; Me it started shaking laughing(A. Chekhov) – past tense.

Particle So may be complicated by an element Here, and then the syntactic construction conveys the meaning of immediate and unhindered identification predicative feature:

The whole lower back hurts, and the leg that is above the bone, so it aches(N. Gogol); So All and hide it in a shop when you see him (N. Gogol); “How I love your Pokrovskoye,” he said, interrupting the conversation. – It would be so all my life and sat here on the terrace (L. Tolstoy).

Combination so and also used in η constructions with the meaning completion or identifying a pre-existing condition. Predicative feature expressed by the combination so and characterized as the result or natural completion of another characteristic that prepared it, independent and dissimilar to the final one ( I cried all evening so andfell asleep), close and similar to it ( been sick for a long time that's how he died), or the same sign emanating from the past, which lasted for some time and naturally ended on its own ( never arrivedto visit). Meaning syntactic parts With so and is revealed as a result of comparison, cf. I fell asleep, I died, I never came etc.: ...he realized that he was lost, that there was no return, that the end had come, completely the end, and doubt it's not allowed, it will remain that waydoubt(L. Tolstoy).

The meaning "very, to a large extent" is conveyed intensifying particle Where in colloquial speech: WhereYou cold and dry!(A. Pushkin). In combination with an adjective (or comparative adverb) particle Where means “significantly, incomparably, much” (MAC) and is characteristic of colloquial speech: Much more beautiful, Much cheaper,Work in progress much more friendly;...our oil pipeline – much more worthyobject for literature than all the delights primitivetaiga(V. Azhaev).

With a particle Where are being formed infinitives sentences with the meaning of confident denial of the possibility of performing an action - the dative subject is usually used as part of the sentence (as a rule, the particle begins the sentence): WhereI, a catechumen, have to go to big bars...(M. Saltykov-Shchedrin). Usually this particle is complicated by reinforcing elements already, there, here, same:

Well, where to should she marry, should she marry? Here I am getting married, so I am getting married (Gogol); Oh, no, master... don't transfer me to the hospital, don't touch me. I will only take more flour there. Where can I be treated!.. (I. Turgenev).

Sentences with particles Where, conveying the meaning of denying the possibility of performing this or that action, can only consist of a particle and the following one dative subject: Where should he go? Where are you going?! Where are you going?

Particle there too has the meaning of mocking disapproval, irony, assertion of the inconsistency of a characteristic with the internal capabilities and qualities of its bearer. The particle can be used both at the beginning and at the end of a syntactic construction - one-part, nominal or verb sentence: Every creature there tooclimbs to love! (I. Goncharov); Right thereone of the funny ones...(A. Griboyedov).

There are widespread sentences in which we use complicated enhancement particle Well -well; well... well; well yes and; well, yes and... well; well; well then :

Well, ball! Well, Famusov! (A. Griboyedov); Well your build, brother (A. Rybakov); Well was and a pig is just a lion! (K. Paustovsky); Well, really house! I got to the place! (A. Ostrovsky); Well, really and I'm glad same I saw you! (I. Turgenev); Well stupid same this girl... is kind, but... stupid - unbearable! (M. Gorky).

Graduation value conveyed by data linguistic units, is supported by the lexical meaning of the words that make up the sentence. A negative or positive assessment is revealed directly from the sentence itself, modal meaning which can be defined as an accentuated assessment combined with surprise caused certain quality or the nature of a feature, process, object or phenomenon.

Function gain particle transmits really in constructions where the predicative unit includes a word with a qualitatively characterizing meaning - a verb or name denoting a characteristic that manifests itself to a greater or lesser extent, an adverb of measure and degree or a pronominal such as:

And here we are fighting, fighting with money... How needed, how needed!(A. Ostrovsky); I don’t understand how you can hang out with such a fool. So stupid Here really true skank! (L. Tolstoy); And the dowry: stone house in the Moscow part, about two eltazhs, so profitable that is true pleasure (N. Gogol).

Complicated particle – already; already and... same; already... then; well; really– often used in one-component compounds nominal sentences, less often - in verbal or two-part ones. Such usages are characteristic primarily of colloquial and artistic speech:

Already bear same was (I. Gorbunov); Already horse! Kabardian catch-brand (L. Tolstoy); Before you can blink your eye, it will all be over. And I'm a grandmother, a midwife! (K. Fedin); Already didn't get angry whether He? (A. Ostrovsky); What does this mean? Already not suitors whether? (N. Gogol).

Accentological particle Yes quite productive from the point of view of use, including in sentences with gradual semantics. Characteristic feature particles is the fact that Yes in sentences with meaning accentuated opposition is located between opposed components, which can be any members of the sentence, but with the obligatory condition that the predicate, the main member of the sentence or the entire predicative basis is included in this group. Wed: Yes you dodon't you understand? – With him - yesdon't agree? (I. Turgenev); Yes you areGuess you don’t know how to work! – Sapper, Yescan't!(Yu. Nagibin) - the discrepancy between the predicative feature and its carrier (object) is emphasized.

From the point of view of pronunciation, such constructions are distinguished by a longer pause between the compared words. The pause is intensified and emphasized also in the case when the particle is followed by so that dividing the sentence structure into two parts: With his abilities Yesdon't study! // With his abilities yes sodon't study; At the forester's yes sothere was no money! (A. Chekhov).

Among the sentences of accented opposition, the following meanings are distinguished: concession restriction(N. Yu. Shvedova) and "affective expression"(A. A. Shakhmatov).

In offers concession restriction(with an unknown subject, object or circumstance) must include adverbs or pronouns something, anyone, somewhere, somewhere, for some reason:

And always anything yes stuck to his uniform ... (N. Gogol); Yes to anyone to be killed or wounded is true (L. Tolstoy); In mechanics and me something yes I’m standing (A. Krylov).

Such sentences convey the meaning of such an accented feature, which is always combined with the meaning of confidence in its presence: “at least something (someone, something, etc.), but definitely...” – will stick; will be killed or wounded; has a price etc.

Offers affective expression are dialogue lines that emphasize the message (not always the answer) with an emotional connotation of meaning - irritation, bewilderment, confidence, evaluation, etc. In such statements, the particle always begins the remark, and the accentuation of the sentence is enhanced by complicating the construction with the particle same, following the logically selected word.

Wed. in the works of L. Tolstoy:

• “Natasha, lie down in the middle,” said Sonya.
• “No, I’m here,” Natasha said. . - Yes, go to bed“,” she added with annoyance.
• (War and peace)

Vasily Lenidych I told you, those boots. I can't wear these! Grigory. Yes and those they stand there.

Vasily Leonidych. But where is it?

Grigory. Yes there same.

Vasily Leonidych. You're lying!

Grigory. Yes you'll see.

(Fruits of Enlightenment)

It is obvious that the presence of particles in a sentence-statement presupposes both the selection of one of the words and a broad plan of messages, and an attempt to remove particles narrows, impoverishes and even distorts the content of the statement. The role of the particle lies not only and not even so much in allocation, how much in instructions on broader shades of meaning meanings. These shades are usually worn measuring character.

• Wed: Starodumova E. A. Russian particles (written monologue speech): monograph Vladivostok, 1996; Shibanova A. E. Semantic-functional characteristics of the particle even// Russian language at school. 1974. No. 1. P. 33-35; Nagorny I. A. Expression of predicativity in sentences with modal-persusive particles: abstract, dissertation.... Dr. Philol. Sci. M., 1999.
• Shakhmatov L. A. Syntax of the Russian language. (1941). P. 404.
• See additional: Kolesnikova S. M. The particle "here" in a Russian sentence: grammatical transformation, desemantization and gradual function // Russian language at school. 2013. No. 6. pp. 92–97.

Oh those particles! How much we have studied, how much we have trained, but we cannot remember: sometimes we confuse them with conjunctions, sometimes with adverbs. I just want to scream: “Help!”

First of all, remember that you won’t be able to learn particles using a “list”. It is necessary to understand the features of this auxiliary part of speech, the composition of which is constantly being updated.

It grows due to conjunctions (a, and, yes, either, whether), adverbs (exactly, directly, barely, really), pronouns (that, everything) and even verbs (you see, you see, let, come on, almost, something) . Such particles are considered derivative by their origin. Actually, there are not very many particles, the most famous ones are NOT, NOR, SAME, HERE, VON, -KA. These particles are non-derivative.

Based on their composition, particles are divided into simple and compound. When a particle consists of one word, it is called simple (What a disaster! Where did it go?). If it’s two words, less often three, then it’s already a compound word (I was just looking for you. Otherwise not?).

Just comparing similar words in a certain context, you can correctly determine where the particle itself is and where its homonym is - a conjunction or an adverb. It is best to clarify the differences in a sentence, because particles and their “doubles” immediately display special properties here.

For example, let's take four sentences: The world is very big and very beautiful. And Moscow was not built right away. She explained everything simply and clearly. I just got lost in an unfamiliar place.

In the first sentence, the conjunction AND connects two homogeneous compounds nominal predicates"big" and "beautiful". In the second, the particle I enhances the meaning of the subject “Moscow”. Alliances bind not only homogeneous members, but also parts complex sentence. But particles cannot be a means of communication; they play a completely different role: they introduce additional shades of meaning or help form the form of a word, but more on that later. In the third sentence, the adverb SIMPLY depends on the predicate “explained” and plays the role of an adverb of the manner of action. Fourthly, the particle is SIMPLY not a member of the sentence, it is impossible to pose a question to it from the predicate “got lost”, and it only strengthens the meaning of the sentence.

We use particles in almost every sentence, but often we do not notice these little “workers” of the language. And you can’t do without them, especially in colloquial speech, where they combine with each other and become components: That’s the problem! Oh yes Petka, dear rogue! So the lessons are over...

Shape-forming particles are quickly remembered and easily recognized; there are few of them:

WOULD, B serve to form forms of the conditional mood of the verb, have the meaning of possibility, conjecture of action, can occupy different places in a sentence (If I were a wizard, I would make all people happy.);

YES, LET'S, LET'S, LET, LET help the verb form the imperative mood and sometimes act together with the particle KA, expressing a softening of the demand or request: LET'S KA, LET'S KA, LET'S KA, LET'S KA, NOW (Yes Long live peace on the planet! Let me read a book.).

We must not forget the particles that help form some comparative forms of adjectives and adverbs. Composite comparative degree in adjectives and adverbs it is formed with the help of particles MORE, LESS: stronger, less fast; more quickly, less forcefully. And the superlative compound of adjectives requires the presence of the particles MOST, MOST, LEAST: the strongest, the fastest, the least successful).

There are elements that are considered word-forming in their essence: -THAT, -EITHER, -ANYTHING, SOMETHING-, NOT-, NOR-. They participate in the formation of indefinite and negative pronouns and adverbs. These “building blocks” have lost their identity as particles, since they have ceased to be separate words.

And yet, most often we are dealing with semantic particles, in some school textbooks they are called modal. Their types are especially numerous in meaning, and most importantly, they are difficult to remember. So, get ready! The particles most commonly used in speech are indicated at the beginning of the table. At the very end there are three groups of particles that often do not fall into the usual classification.

Particle discharges

It is a pity that scientists and methodologists have not come to a unified classification of particles, which is why some school textbooks name only five categories, others eight. What should the teacher and students do? Rhetorical question!

Literature

1. Valgina N.S., Rosenthal D.E., Fomina M.I., Tsapukevich V.V. Modern Russian language. Ed. 2, add. and revised: publishing house " graduate School". - M., 1964. - P. 264-267.

2. Tikhonov A.N. Modern Russian language. (Morphemics. Word formation. Morphology). Ed. 2, stereot. - M.: Citadel-trade, Publishing House Ripol Classic, 2003. - P. 436-442.

3. Dudnikov A.V., Arbuzova A.I., Vorozhbitskaya I.I. Russian language: Tutorial for average specialist. textbook establishments. - 7th ed., rev. - M.: Higher. school, 2001. - pp. 217-228.

4. Shklyarova T.V. Russian language. Handbook for schoolchildren and applicants (a manual for high school). - M.: Literacy, 2002. - P. 260-268.

5. Voilova K.A., Goltsova N.G. Handbook-workshop on the Russian language. - M.: Education, 1996. - P. 127-137.

6. Bulatnikova A.E. Features of studying particles / Russian at school. - 1981. - No. 1. - P. 56-59.

7. Sokolova G.P. Once again about NOT and NEI... (Formation of spelling skills in repetition lessons) / Russian language at school. - 2003. - No. 5. - P. 15-23.

In a sentence. Particles in the Russian language are designed to give a variety of additional shades to words or even entire sentences. The second role of particles is word formation; with their help, word forms are formed.

For example:

1. Only he needs you.

Particle only enhances the meaning of the pronoun You in a sentence.

2. Let it will be the way you want.

Using a particle let is formed imperative verb: let will.

Although particles in the Russian language are not members of a sentence, they are inextricably included in its composition. For example:

1. Not the wind It's noisy outside the window and it's not rain.

Particles needed:

Imperative ( yes, let him, let him, come on): let will try;

Conditional ( would, b): sat down would, told would ;

2) when forming adverbs and adjectives, their degrees of comparison - less, more, most. For example: more important,less interesting, most brave, more powerful, less bright;

3) when creating a discharge: -something, -something, -either. For example: something, someone, anyone, someone etc.

The role of such particles is close to the role of morphemes.

Particle values

Particles in the Russian language give different shades to a sentence as a whole or to one word.

Particles really, really, really- interrogative. They are often used in questions. For example: Really forgiven? Isn't it is there anything more interesting?

Exclamation particles what the, how convey indignation, surprise, delight. For example: How the world is wide! What the lovely!

Reinforcing particles ( after all, even, after all) used if you need to strengthen separate word. For example: Even don't think! Still Great! He same It's my own fault!

In Russian it is Not And neither. They approach denial in different ways. Particle Not makes both the word and the entire sentence negative:

1. Not this may happen! The whole sentence is negative.

2. Not the wind broke the branch. The only negative word is wind.

In the case of two particles Not in a sentence, instead of a negative one, they create a positive meaning: I Not Can Not agree with you!

Neither- a particle designed to enhance the meaning of negation, especially if the sentence already has a negation or particle Not. For example: From the sky Not fell neither drops. Not in the forest neither mushroom, neither berries

In Russian, these are those that are associated with the expression of shades of meaning, attitude or feeling. This group includes the above categories and some others. Non-modal particles, not associated with the expression of feelings, were classified by Vinogradov as semantic.

This category of particles includes:

A group of defining and clarifying ones, such as exactly, exactly, simply etc. For example: exactly this, smooth the same amount.

A group of excretory-restrictive particles - only, only, exclusively etc. For example: only This, exclusively white.

Demonstrative particles here, there, which seem to indicate an object worthy of attention. For example: Here road!

All particles in the Russian language perform grammatical, lexical and word-formation functions. When used skillfully, they can enrich our speech, make it more colorful and varied.