What are goals and means? Goals and means: arguments from the literature of domestic and foreign classics

Concept of goal

Target - one of the most complex and at the same time ancient categories. It is present in one form or another in the consciousness of a person carrying out any type of activity, and is transferred by him to many natural and artificial systems.

They talk about a goal or purpose:

Surrounding objects (a chair is made for sitting, a knife is made for cutting);

Technical systems (a radio receiver is made to receive transmissions, an industrial robot is made to replace a person when performing technological operations);

Socio-economic systems (an enterprise was created to produce certain products), etc.

Knowledge of the goal helps to understand the essence of the systems under study and that is why interest in the content of this concept is continuously growing. The category “goal” has gone through a long development path from the simplest forms to complex structural and functional concepts. The evolution of the concept of “goal” can be traced in Table 5.1.1, which shows its definitions, reflecting the process of changing the idea of ​​goal in philosophy.

Table 5.1.1

The last definition of the goal (TBD) can to a certain extent claim to be universal, but the content of the goal is so meaningful and multivariate that it is hardly possible to assume for such a category any single definition, even the wisest one.

Other definitions of purpose. These include:

Goals are future states desired by an individual or a socio-economic system;

Goals are perceived restrictions imposed on current and future behavior and are based on an analysis of past and future needs, desires, aspirations (refusal of junk food and bad habits for the sake of a healthy and long life);

Goals are not only desirable guidelines for future achievements, they imply certain behavior and the allocation of resources necessary to bring the goals to life.

Aspects of purpose

The founders of Marxism-Leninism noted that the goal has a complex reflective nature, manifested in two respects:

1. a goal is a human need that arises due to the latter’s contradiction with the environment;

2. human goals are generated by the objective world and presuppose it.

The need leads to the “actual” goal - the image of the object (“mentally represented object”), which should arise as a result of upcoming actions.

The goal is the main form of anticipatory reflection, which covers the actual cognitive and projecting aspects (anticipation - anticipation, anticipation of events).

The goal reflects the expected result of people’s conscious activity.

The relationship between the form and content of the goal is shown in Fig. 5.2.1.

Rice. 5.2.1

The cognitive aspect of the goal corresponds to the forecast of the future.

The projecting aspect of a goal corresponds to ways of moving towards a desired future or plan.

Representing an image of what a person or some system wants to achieve, the goal is characterized and expresses itself in many aspects, which can be seen in Fig. 5.2.2.

Rice. 5.2.2.

Purpose as a working category of various sciences. Purpose serves as a working category not only in philosophy, but also in a number of other sciences, such as control theory, mechanics, physics, biology, economics, cybernetics, and psychology. Each of these sciences specifies the concept of “goal” from the perspective of the research apparatus used.

In economics, a goal is associated with specific final results towards which production activities are aimed. This understanding of the goal opens up broad opportunities for increasing the efficiency of economic systems based on management by results.

Types of goals

Based on the availability of information about how to achieve it, three types of goals can be distinguished:

Functional;

The goal is analog;

Development goal.

1. Functional goal. This is a goal, the method of achieving which is known to a given system (or person), which has already achieved this goal. Functional goals are repeated in time and space.

Examples:

· results of production operations that are repeated many times from shift to shift;

· standard control functions, etc.

All systems created by man are functional goals achieved.

2. Analogue goal. This is an image that was obtained as a result of the actions of another system (person), but was never achieved by this system (person) or, if achieved, then under a different state of the external environment.

Examples:

· production of color televisions for a plant producing televisions with black and white images;

· transition from pilot production to serial production at the same enterprise.

3. Development goal or new goal. We will consider this a goal that has never been achieved by anyone before. This goal is usually related to education new systems

Examples:

· creation of the first artificial Earth satellite;

· formation of market relations at a specific enterprise in the Russian economy.

All three types of goals are interconnected. The development goal, subject to its successful achievement by one of the systems, turns into an analogue goal for all other systems, and for a given system it becomes a functional goal under constant external conditions and an analogue goal if the conditions have changed (Fig. 5.3 .1.).

Rice. 5.3.1.

When considering the diverse issues of the topic, we will encounter varieties and modifications of goals, interpretation of their definition and other points that include the process of cognition of the goal. The acquired knowledge will help the manager to correctly navigate the goals when managing systems.

Means and ends, their relationship

Each means can be considered simultaneously as an end, and each end as a means. Each intermediate goal can be considered as a means to achieve subsequent goals.

Examples:

· acquiring money to create a company – goal (initial);

· materials, equipment, labor are purchased with money, i.e. the goal serves as a means;

· the acquisition of equipment is the goal, and the acquired and installed equipment is a means for the production of goods - achieving the goal.

Value of funds. The effectiveness of a particular means represents the likelihood of achieving the desired goal. The higher this probability, the more effective the remedy. Thus, the effectiveness of a product is a measure of its extrinsic value.

The internal value of means is directly related to the satisfaction received, and the external value is related to the expected results. Satisfaction is a very subjective concept, it is an aesthetic goal, it is difficult to evaluate it using indicators of target or economic efficiency.

If goals are not viewed as means to other goals (i.e., their extrinsic value is not considered) and, therefore, the possible consequences of their achievement are not taken into account, then this can itself have serious consequences.

Striving for ideal. The result of solving a problem can always be considered as a means to achieve a more distant result - the final goal. Therefore, to determine the external value of any intermediate result, it is necessary to know what outcome is ultimately necessary and how close the intermediate outcome is to it

The possibility of approaching final outcomes makes the degree of progress towards them an important indicator of the external value of any intermediate result (Figure 5.4.1.).

Figure 5.4.1.

Ideal – desired end result. The feeling of moving toward ideals gives meaning to life and makes choices meaningful.

Goals are constructed as a result of taking into account means, and vice versa, means are selected in accordance with the goal. The goal becomes the means, and the means itself serves as the goal until it is mastered. The acquisition of equipment is the end (the means serves as the end), and the purchased and installed equipment is the means (the end becomes the means).

FIPI commentary on “Goals and Means”:
“The concepts of this direction are interconnected and allow us to think about a person’s life aspirations, the importance of meaningful goal setting, the ability to correctly correlate the goal and the means of achieving it, as well as the ethical assessment of human actions. Many literary works feature characters who deliberately or mistakenly chose unsuitable means to realize their plans. And it often turns out that a good goal serves only as a cover for true (base) plans. Such characters are contrasted with heroes for whom the means of achieving a high goal are inseparable from the requirements of morality."

Recommendations for students:
The table presents works that reflect any concept related to the “Goals and Means” direction. You DO NOT need to read all of the works listed. You may have already read a lot. Your task is to revise your reading knowledge and, if you discover a lack of arguments within a particular direction, fill in the existing gaps. In this case, you will need this information. Think of it as a guide in the vast world of literary works. Please note: the table shows only a portion of the works that contain the problems we need. This does not mean at all that you cannot make completely different arguments in your work. For convenience, each work is accompanied by small explanations (third column of the table), which will help you navigate exactly how, through which characters, you will need to rely on literary material (the second mandatory criterion when evaluating a final essay)

An approximate list of literary works and carriers of problems in the direction of "Goals and Means"

“Goals and means” is one of the topics of the final essay on literature offered to graduates of 2019 by the developer of knowledge control materials, the FIPI Institute. What can you write about in such a work?

First, you need to explain what a goal is. For example, it can be seen as a fundamental part of human life. Write how important it is to have a goal, to strive for heights, to achieve something, to realize self-realization. You can mention great discoveries, scientific or geographical - this will make the essay more interesting and give you a chance to get a higher grade. Secondly, we can give a brief classification of goals, because they can be different - true and false, great and selfish. Another version of the work topic is “Does the end justify the means?” Consider whether a great goal achieved in an unjust way can be justified, write about an ethical assessment of the means to achieve the goal. Albert Einstein once said: “No goal is so high that it justifies unworthy means to achieve it.” Goethe also agreed with him: “High goals, even if unfulfilled, are more valuable than low goals, even if achieved.” You can agree with them or not, but in the second case you will have to try and present your convincing arguments. Write examples from literary works in which characters mistakenly or deliberately choose “bad” means to achieve a goal. You can also mention cases from life or history when a goal that is good at first glance actually serves only as a cover for base, true plans. Be sure to contrast such characters with heroes who do not separate the means of achieving the goal from the requirements of morality.

categories that reflect the system-forming moment of the program (C.) and what serves its implementation, the embodiment of the C. in the result (C.). Ts., directing the activity, answers the question “for what?” or “why?”, being the core of the pattern of the result to which a being strives. Thus, it represents what Aristotle called the “end cause.” C. exists wherever there is subjective reality, and the latter is the universal attribute of being in its entirety. Even in humans, the goal is not always conscious, and outside the boundaries of human existence we still do not know those beings who are guided by conscious goals. Nevertheless, they are selective, have information programs and, therefore, are not absolute puppets of external circumstances. The basis of change and development is both an objective process, subject to laws, and subjective activity, in which objective and subjective systems are chosen under the C. - Sagatovsky V.N. Fundamentals of systematization of universal categories. Tomsk 1973. pp. 341-349.

Excellent definition

Incomplete definition ↓

GOAL AND MEANS

concepts, the relationship of which constitutes a problem expressed in the well-known maxim “the end justifies the means” and associated with the value aspect of the relationship between the goal and the means and, accordingly, the choice and evaluation of means in expedient activity. Regarding the solution to this problem, the antithesis of the so-called is formulated in popular literature. Jesuitism/Machiavellianism, etc. abstract humanism; It is generally accepted that the Jesuits, as well as Machiavelli, preached the principle according to which the end unconditionally justifies the means, while abstract humanists (who included L.N. Tolstoy, M. Gandhi, A. Schweitzer) argued the opposite, namely: the real value of the means entirely determines the value of the results achieved.

The named maxim goes back to the statement of T. Hobbes, made by him in explanation of the law of natural law (“On the Citizen,” chapter “Freedom”, I, 8); according to Hobbes, each person himself, on the basis of reason, i.e. natural law, must judge what means are necessary to ensure his own security. This maxim does not correspond to the spirit of Jesuit teaching, and although the formula “Whoever is allowed the goal, the means are also permitted” was developed in Jesuit theology (by G. Busenbaum), it only assumed that the means could be value-indifferent, and their value is determined by the worthyness of the goal , to achieve which they are used. The maxim was openly preached by a number of Jesuits, but principles of this kind were adhered to (openly or secretly) not only and not necessarily by the Jesuits, but in fact by all those thinkers and activists for whom ideal goals were the exclusive subject of moral evaluation.

From a formal point of view, the proposition that the end justifies the means is trivial: a good end actually justifies the means. From a pragmatic point of view, any practical, i.e., focused on a directly achievable result, action, by the very meaning of its intention, determines the means necessary to achieve it; achieving the goal compensates (justifies) the inconvenience and costs required for this. Within the framework of practical activity, efforts are recognized as a means only in their relation to a specific goal and acquire their legitimacy through the legitimacy of the goal. In praxeological terms, the problem of coordinating goals and means is: a) instrumental (the means must be adequate, i.e., ensure the effectiveness of activities) and b) goal-oriented (the means must be optimal, i.e., ensure the effectiveness of activities - achieving a result at the lowest cost ). According to the logic of practical action (see Benefit), successful and effective activity is a significant factor in the transformation of value consciousness: the achieved goal confirms updated evaluation criteria. In modern social sciences, antithetical ideas have been formed, correlating with the praxeological approach to this problem, regarding functionally different types of activities: a) in project activities it is recognized that means determine goals: technical capabilities presuppose their specific use (G. Shelsky), available financial resources predetermine the planned results and scale of the project; b) technical means develop within the framework of systems of purposeful rational action, one does not develop separately from the other (J. Habermas).

The demagogic-moralizing approach should be distinguished from the pragmatic one (see Moralism), in which the maxim “the end justifies the means” is used to justify obviously unseemly or criminal actions. Moreover, what is mentioned as a “good goal” is either (in perspective) a declaration, or (retrospectively) an event that chronologically followed the actions taken, and the actions themselves, taking into account the results obtained, do not actually turn out to be a means, but are committed irresponsibly and willfully or for their own sake.

The actual ethical problem arises in connection with the assumption that for the sake of a good goal it turns out to be morally permissible to perform any necessary actions (even if they are usually considered unseemly, morally unacceptable, or even downright criminal). This point of view is objectively relativistic (see Relativism): although not all actions are considered acceptable, but only those that actually lead to what is recognized as the highest goal, ultimately the choice of means is determined by the strategy and tactics of the activity. This approach is fraught with a relativistic error. As Hegel showed, this error lies in the fact that actions considered as means are morally negative objectively, in themselves and in their concreteness, while the intended end is good only according to a subjective opinion based on the idea of ​​abstract good. In other words, from an ethical point of view, although actions as means are performed for a specific purpose, their moral significance is determined not by expediency, but by their correlation with general principles. Therefore, the problem of ends and means is constituted as an ethical one in opposition to pragmatism and prudentialism.

Significant clarifications were made to the very formulation of the problem of goals and means/Ms. Dewey in polemics with L. D. Trotsky. 1. The concept of goal has a double meaning: a) goal as a plan and motive, focused on the final, all-justifying goal, and b) goal as an achieved result, or a consequence of the use of certain means; the achieved results themselves act as means in relation to the final goal. 2. The assessment of funds should also be made from the point of view of the result that is achieved with their help; This is the principle of the interdependence of ends and means. The goal as a result depends on the means used and is determined by them; but their assessment also depends on the goal as an achieved result. Since the final goal is the idea of ​​final consequences and this idea is formulated on the basis of those means that are assessed as most desirable for achieving the goal, the final goal itself is a means of directing action. The scheme proposed by Dewey contains a real dialectic of ends and means, which is not exhausted by the generally accepted position that achieved goals themselves become a means for subsequent goals (suffice it to say that this position was shared equally by both Trotsky and Andy). Adhering to the principle of interdependence requires a scrupulous and critical examination of the means used in terms of how closely the results they produce correspond to those intended. 3. The actual unity of goals and means can be ensured provided that the means are actually determined in accordance with the goals, and are not “derived,” as often happens, from considerations external to the situation of choice (thus, Trotsky justified the methods of revolutionary struggle used “laws of social development”, in particular “the law of class struggle”), otherwise it turns out that the goal is made dependent on the means, while the means are not derived from the goal. 4. The highest goals are moral goals; ultimately, they must be understood as an ideal, the achievement of which in the sense of practical implementation, strictly speaking, is impossible; in ideal-oriented activities, it is all the more necessary to take into account the principle of interdependence of means and goals as the practical consequences of the use of means. This position was clarified by J. P. Sartre: the impossibility of achieving a goal that is in the unattainable future and functions as an ideal leads to a situation where the connection between the goal and the means is concrete, while the goal as an ideal plays the role of an imperative. To develop this, additional clarification is necessary: ​​morality is a value characteristic, but not the content of the goal. An attempt to accept “morality” as such as the goal of objectively defined activity, that is, to make the fulfillment of a principle or rule the content of actions, leads to rigorism. The assumption that “morality” can be the goal of activity results in practice in that the goals actually pursued are not analyzed for their compliance with moral criteria; intoxication with the goal leads to the assumption of any goals. The ideal, highest values ​​and principles should not be the actual goal pursued, but the basis for actions and the criterion for their evaluation. Morality is not the final goal of life, but the path of life (N. A. Berdyaev).

Good day, dear readers! In this article we will look at the topic and essay of the Unified State Examination. At the beginning of the article I will give all kinds of arguments that can be used to complete the task, and below you will find an argumentative essay.

Arguments from literature

1. M.A. Bulgakov “The Master and Margarita”. In order to reunite with the Master, Margarita sells her soul to Woland. The feeling of endless love turns out to be stronger than fears, and to achieve her main goal the heroine is ready to take the most extreme measures. This is a positive example of complete surrender for the sake of higher feelings.
2. F.M. Dostoevsky “Crime and Punishment”. The main character Raskolnikov adheres to his own theory, dividing people into “trembling creatures” and “those with the right.” An idea arises in his head: if he can kill a person without experiencing anything, he will be special. For the sake of his goal, he is ready to commit murder, to step over himself, through nature, society and moral principles. He unprincipledly decides that he can be the arbiter of other destinies, for which he ultimately has to pay. Raskolnikov not only kills the old pawnbroker, but also a random witness. He is overcome by terrible torment and painful feelings for what he has done.
3. M.A. Bulgakov “The Master and Margarita”. Ivan Bezdomny is a famous poet of the society in which he lives. He is considered a talent, even though he is not one, although he himself is aware of this. However, this situation does not bother him at all; for the sake of his goals, he is ready to do what is profitable, even if he loses not only his talent, but also himself. Only a meeting with the Master opens his eyes. Ivan begins to see clearly, the scales fall from his eyes. He can no longer sleep peacefully, and only the Master and Margarita, coming to him at night, calm his soul.
4. M.Yu. Lermontov “Hero of Our Time”. Pechorin, in order to fulfill his desires and goals, is ready to step over other people, forgetting about moral principles. The main character meets Bela, feels sympathy for her, and in order to attract attention enters into a conspiracy with the heroine’s brother. Pechorin steals Kazbich's horse, which his brother likes so much, and he, in turn, steals the heroine. Of course, this is a vile act. In the end, he quickly becomes uninterested in Bela, and he is partly responsible for her death. For Pechorin, only his goal is important, but not other people.
5. M.A. Bulgakov “Heart of a Dog”. Professor Preobrazhensky is driven by the desire to change people's lives for the better and make amazing scientific discoveries. His goal is to make a real person out of a dog. For this purpose, he performs an operation to transplant the pituitary gland from a human to a dog. The experiment goes well, but over time Sharikov demands more privileges and behaves inappropriately. The professor's goal fails, while he does not kill Sharikov, but only transplants the pituitary gland back. Preobrazhensky acts very wisely and accepts that achieving his goal is not worth such means.
6. A. Dumas “The Count of Monte Cristo”. At the beginning of the story, we are told about the wanderings at sea of ​​young Edmond Dantes. The ship's captain dies, handing over the reins to young Edmond. The captain's accountant is not happy about this news, because he wanted to take this high post. For the sake of his goal, the accountant frames Dantes. The main character loses everything: his father, his home, his beloved for the sake of the accountant’s base and endlessly disgusting goal. Moreover, some time after Edmond's arrest, the accountant resigns from his position.

Goals and means: essay on the Unified State Examination

What lengths are people willing to go to achieve their goals? Many people are ready to step over not only themselves, but also others, forgetting about respect and moral principles. It’s disgusting that some “go over their heads” for the sake of something base and completely unjustified, betraying their loved ones. The problem of ends and means is very relevant in our time.

In the novel “The Count of Monte Cristo” by Alexandre Dumas, a young guy, Edmond Dantes, is the victim of a monstrous act by the ship’s captain’s accountant. After death, the captain passes the reins of power to the main character. The accountant does not like this, he wants to take this position, although young Edmond showed great promise, was always honest, and his main credo in life was respect and dignity. To achieve his goal, the accountant brutally frames Edmond, setting the police on him. He is ready to do anything to get what he wants. Of course, this is very mean and disgusting.

We can observe a positive example in the work of Mikhail Afanasyevich Bulgakov “The Master and Margarita”. In a society ruled by deceit and self-interest, the story of a brilliant writer and his beloved Margarita is revealed to us. The author shows us a completely different world. A world where endlessly strong feelings for each other reign. The main character truly loves the Master. To be with her lover, she sells her soul to Woland. Such dedication, sincerity and purity of soul truly surprise Woland, and he grants the Master and Margarita eternal peace. In this case, for the sake of her goal, the heroine is ready to sacrifice her soul.

To summarize, it is worth saying that setting and achieving goals is the path to development for everyone, without exception. People can sacrifice something: many sacrifice their health, personal life, hobbies. All this can be justified if the end really justifies the means, and is completely unacceptable if this goal requires crimes through oneself and other people.

So, this article discussed the topic goals and means: arguments from literature and the Unified State Exam essay were given below. You can use these materials to prepare for the Unified State Exam. We wish you successful preparation!

Examples of school essays on the topic "Revenge and generosity"

Revenge has existed for a long time.
The Drevlyans took revenge on Prince Igor.
Princess Olga took revenge on the Drevlyans for the death of her husband.
The Montague and Capulet families no longer knew what caused their enmity, but they continued to feud to death. The victims of this enmity were young lovers - Romeo and Juliet.

The chain reaction of revenge is endless. There are many things in the world that can cause the death of a loved one. There are events that are difficult to survive. Revenge is sharp. It affects both the victim and the avenger, binding them forever, and the death or disappearance of one does not mean the end of the suffering of the other. It is impossible to adapt to the thirst for revenge. In the East they say: if you decide to take revenge, it is better to prepare two coffins at once.

The consequences of revenge, inflicted impulsively, in a state of passion, have the force of an explosion. But there is also petty revenge, mutual “pins”, perhaps witty, very quickly get out of control. For many people it turns into some kind of sport - rules, a system of blows in response. Life becomes hell, and no one can figure out who started it first. There can be no winners in this situation.

At the beginning of the 20th century, psychoanalysts established that the need for revenge is associated with a person’s desire to manage his life. When this is impossible, the avenger is capable of inflicting serious injuries even on himself - just to reproach the person who needs revenge. The terrible destructive power of revenge is incompatible with a humane personality.

Revenge has no meaning. But how many people, like the Count of Monte Cristo, build their lives on revenge! Today, in an aggressive world, a person cannot survive without an appropriate aggressive reaction.

Even in biblical times, the Christian religion offered to abandon the path of revenge, forgive each other great and small evils and live in harmony. But humanity is still following this path, living according to the rules of ancient times: an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth. The destruction of the World Trade Center towers in New York by terrorist planes has resulted in a new war in Afghanistan - innocent people killed and maimed. Infinite evil can destroy our entire planet, about which Yuri Gagarin said: “Take care of our Earth, it is so small!” Probably, you need to rise high - into space itself, above yourself, above humanity, in order to see the Earth and feel what our first cosmonaut felt.

People must give up the desire to destroy. It is important to rise above yourself, step over terrible feelings and dare to live without evil. We must learn to forgive. There is even a science that was developed by New Age psychologists - the science of forgiveness. Let those who don’t know how to do it just really want it. Start living again. And be happy.

Essay-reasoning on the thematic area of ​​Revenge and generosity
Generosity and mercy are integral character traits of a good person.
Generosity is manifested in the ability to give in to someone not for the sake of profit, but to show kindness.
A generous person knows how to sacrifice himself if necessary.
Mercy is a manifestation of sincere love for one’s neighbor and a constant desire to help.

Mercy is shown to close people, to complete strangers, and to animals.
Helping a stranger on the street or feeding dogs in the freezing winter are all examples of mercy. There is a lot of evil and cruelty in the world. But if each of us developed such positive and wonderful qualities as mercy and generosity, then there would be more good.

Essay on the topic of Revenge and generosity
What is revenge?
Everyone has their own opinion, but all these opinions are united by only one meaning - this is evil in its manifestation.
By hating another, trying to offend someone with something, we first of all humiliate only ourselves.
Life is a cruel boomerang that will definitely return, no matter how much you run from it.

Unfortunately, not everything can be punished by law, but everything will be punished by the judgment of God.
So why take revenge on people?
Is this really what self-esteem speaks to us?
Only strong people know how to forgive.
Forgive not in words, but with your soul and heart.
Forgive sincerely and with a smile.
In my opinion, these qualities are given to us in order to be called people.

Not every person who has experienced grief, insults, humiliation and life’s difficulties will be able to lend a helping hand to their offenders, and not only to the offenders, but simply to those who are just as offended.
There is probably too much evil in our world that revenge has come to be taken for granted.
But will we prove anything to anyone by taking revenge?
Hardly. And whether we will need all this is also unknown.
I would like everyone to think about their actions and deeds.
You don't always have to hold a grudge. Let her go, otherwise she will never let you go.