Erik Erikson's epigenetic theory of personality

The emergence of the personality theory of the American psychoanalyst E. Erikson (1904–1994) was facilitated by works on psychoanalysis. Erikson accepted Freud's personality structure and created a psychoanalytic concept about the relationship between the “I” and society. He paid special attention to the role of the “I” in the development of personality, believing that the foundations of the human “I” lie in the social organization of society.

He came to this conclusion by observing the personal changes that occurred with people in post-war America. People have become more anxious, rigid, prone to apathy and confusion. Having accepted the idea of ​​unconscious motivation, Erikson paid special attention to socialization processes in his research.

Erikson's work marks the beginning of a new method of studying the psyche - psychohistorical, which is the application of psychoanalysis to the study of personality development, taking into account the historical period in which it lives.

Using this method, Erickson analyzed the biographies of Martin Luther, Mahatma Gandhi, Bernard Shaw, Thomas Jefferson and other prominent people, as well as the life stories of contemporaries - adults and children.

The psychohistorical method requires equal attention to both the psychology of the individual and the nature of the society in which the person lives. Erikson's main task was to develop a new psychohistorical theory of personality development, taking into account a specific cultural environment.

Conducting ethnographic field studies of child-rearing in two Indian tribes and comparing them with child-rearing in urban families in the United States, Erickson discovered that each culture has its own special style of mothering, which each mother perceives as the only correct one.

However, as Erikson emphasized, the style of motherhood is always determined by what exactly the social group to which he belongs - his tribe, class or caste - expects from the child in the future.

Each stage of development has its own expectations inherent in a given society, which the individual can justify or not justify, and then he is either included in society or rejected by it.

These considerations by E. Erikson formed the basis of the two most important concepts of his concept - group identity and ego identity.

Group identity is based on the fact that from the first day of life, the upbringing of a child is focused on his inclusion in a given social group and on the development of a worldview inherent in this group.

Ego identity is formed in parallel with the group identity and creates in the subject a sense of stability and continuity of his “I”, despite the changes that occur to a person in the process of his growth and development.

Based on his works, E. Erikson identified the stages of a person’s life path. Each stage of the life cycle is characterized by a specific task that is put forward by society. Society also determines the content of development at different stages of the life cycle.

However, the solution to the problem, according to Erikson, depends both on the already achieved level of psychomotor development of the individual, and on the general spiritual atmosphere of the society in which this individual lives.

In table Figure 2 shows the stages of a person’s life path according to E. Erikson.

The development crisis is accompanied by the formation of all forms of identity. According to E. Erikson, the main identity crisis occurs in adolescence. If the development processes go well, then an “adult identity” is acquired, and if difficulties arise in development, a delay in identity is noted.

Erikson called the interval between adolescence and adulthood the “psychosocial moratorium.” This is the time when a young man, through trial and error, strives to find his place in life.

The turbulence of this crisis depends on how successfully the previous crises (trust, independence, activity, etc.) were resolved and on the spiritual atmosphere in society. If the crisis in the early stages is not successfully overcome, there may be a delay in identity.

E. Erikson introduced the concept of ritualization into psychology. Ritualization in behavior is an agreement-based interaction between two or more people, which can be resumed at certain intervals in repeating circumstances (ritual of mutual recognition, greeting, criticism, etc.).

A ritual, once it has arisen, is consistently included in the system that arises at higher levels, becoming part of subsequent stages.

Lecture 8

8.1. Driving forces of development

The concept of Erik Erikson (1902-1994) is rightfully one of the most significant theories of developmental psychology, both in terms of its contribution to the study of the patterns of personality development in ontogenesis, and in the influence it had on the formation of the problem field of research in the field of developmental psychology and the creation of particular theories. Although Erikson himself considered himself a proponent of psychoanalysis, he created the original epigenetic theory of development in the context of ego psychology.

We can highlight a number of fundamental differences between psychoanalysis and Erikson’s theory in the interpretation of the patterns of personality development:

* E. Erikson’s focus is on the structure of the Ego and its development.
Freud's focus is on the structures of the Id (It) and the Super-Ego.
(Super-ego);

* Freud represents the relationship “child - society” as
antagonistic, hostile, whose history is tragic
confrontation between the individual and society, the struggle of two worlds - peace
childhood and the world of adults. Erikson's view of relationships
individual and society as a cooperative relationship, provide
promoting the harmonious development of personality;

* Freud assigned a decisive role to sexuality. E. Erickson, with
knowing its meaning, objects to the postulate of the primacy of in
fanciful childish sexuality. He believed that the latter
is not the main source of development;

* concept 3. Freud is locked in the paradigm of two factors
as a determinant of development. E. Erickson offers a more complex
a new system of causes, conditions and factors of personality development,
including her activity and communication. Personal activity
is immanently assumed in the recognition of two options about
the progress of a psychosocial crisis and, accordingly, two
development options - constructive and destructive. Role

106 ■ Developmental psychology. Lecture notes

and the meaning of a child’s communication with the social environment are revealed by E. Erikson in such concepts as “radius of significant relationships” and “ritual”.

Personality development, according to E. Erikson, is determined by the unity and interaction of three main lines: somatic, psychosocial, psychosexual. The main content of personality development is the process of formation of ego identity. Identity is understood as self-identity and includes three main parameters: self-identity as internal identity with oneself in time and space; recognition of the individual’s self-identity by a significant social environment; confidence that internal and external identity is preserved and stable.

So, the concept of “identity” includes a subjective feeling of continuous identity with oneself; deep functional unity of one's own personality; awareness of one's own temporal extent; awareness of the uniqueness of one’s own personality; a sense of community with the social ideals and values ​​of the group to which the individual belongs, a sense of social support and recognition. Personal identity is a condition for the effective functioning of a person in a certain culture and system of social relations. E. Erikson considers the entire process of personality development from the point of view of the formation and transformation of identity.

Epigenetic principle determines the sequence of stages of personality development. Epigenesis is the presence of a holistic innate plan that determines the main stages of development. The plan provides for the gradual formation of organs, i.e. psychological abilities. It postulates the presence of “critical periods” for the emergence and development of personality structures. In each period there is a special sensitivity to the formation of some personality trait, and if this period is missed, personal development is distorted. Each stage is based on the previous one - there is continuity and interconnection of stages.

Development is the process of overcoming psychosocial crises that naturally arise at each age stage. The essence of the crisis is the choice between alternative development paths. Depending on the choice, personal development takes on a different direction - it can be positive, harmonious or negative, with developmental disorders and disorders of the emotional, personal and cognitive spheres. If the choice is made positively,

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then the formation of personality occurs according to a positive scenario, if negative - according to a destructive scenario. The destructive scenario is an obstacle to the formation of personal identity and is accompanied by many problems.

A positive resolution of the crisis contributes to the formation of a positive new formation or a strong personality trait; negative - a destructive neoplasm that prevents the formation of ego-identity.

The crisis occurs within the radius of significant social relations. Society helps in resolving the crisis by offering ritualization, stable socio-cultural forms of interaction between the individual and his social environment, creating the necessary conditions for the successful resolution of the crisis. Ritualization has a number of features:

1. Ritual actions have a general meaning, understandable and
shared by all participants. For example, prom night
awarding a matriculation certificate “assigns” to a boy or girl
new rights and responsibilities of an adult.

2. Ritual actions combine stability and repetition.
interaction with a certain novelty. Psychological meaning
combination of stability and novelty of the ritual is to create an op
optimal conditions for the development of the child’s personality. Stability
and stability provide a sense of security and confidence
in the near future, readiness and opportunity to actively participate
interact with adults. The child focuses on
script-ritual, can predict the actions of the partner and dos
learns very early to adapt to interaction, into the distance
thus taking the initiative in carrying out the ritual.
Introducing elements of novelty into ritual expands the boundaries of
capabilities of the child, teaches him to act in new situations, with
teaches you not to be afraid of new things. For example, putting a small child to bed
how close adults imagine going to sleep or waking up
fight is a special ritual. The central place in it is occupied by the emotional
loaded actions - smiling, kissing, rocking, stroking
singing, lullaby and other signs of attention that create the atmosphere
warmth and safety. At the same time, ritual actions every time
include something new that expands the boundaries of independence
ty of the child and his acquaintance with the world.

3. Ritual actions not only persist throughout
throughout a person’s life, but are transformed and acquire new forms
we absorb the experience and growing competence of the child.

108 ■ Developmental psychology. Lecture notes

Forms of interaction that are opposite to rituals and lead to the reproduction of a negative scenario for personality development are ritualisms. An example of ritualism is totalitarianism. Society offers a person both ritualizations and ritualisms, which leads to a variety of scenarios for personal development.

Each stage of development is characterized by a mode (modality) - the way the personality functions, its mode of action and attitude to the world.

8.2. Periodization of personality development

E. Erikson identifies eight ages, covering the entire life cycle from birth to death. The central line of development is the formation of ego identity. Table 4 presents the main characteristics of development: psychosocial crisis, radius of significant relationships, positive and destructive new formations and ritualization.

Infancy, oral-sensory stage(0-1 year) is of fundamental importance for the further development of the individual. In psychoanalysis, birth is interpreted as a trauma; the child is helpless, the mother creates a special supportive environment. The mother determines by her care and upbringing, determined by culture and traditions, either a position of trust, openness to the world, or mistrust and hopelessness. At this stage of development, the incorporative mode is realized, expressed in the actions “receive - give”, “take - hold”. “Deifying” ritualization presupposes a certain stability and reciprocity in the relationship between mother and child. Recognition represents an early form of identity.

Belief in kindness, justice, rationality and stability of the world, which forms an optimistic position, ensures the child’s readiness to experience frustration and further development. The child learns to set reasonable boundaries of trust.

Early age, muscular-anal stage(1-3 years) is characterized by a psychosocial crisis - a choice between autonomy and shame and doubt. The development of the child’s actions, mastery of the muscular system and its regulation, and the appearance of speech provide the conditions for the development of autonomy and the implementation of the “I myself” attitude. Identity comes in the form of “I am what I can freely will.” The leading mode is retentively-eliminative-

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tive (restraining-rejecting), expressed by the actions “holding, delaying” - “letting go”. Distance from the mother and the desire for independence are realized within the framework of judicious ritualization. The type of family education - accepting, encouraging independence or prohibiting, authoritarian - largely determines the resolution of the crisis. Shame occurs when a child loses or is unable to exercise self-control and is at the mercy of parental external control. A sense of self-control without loss of self-respect gives rise to free will. Obsessiveness manifests itself in ritualistic repetition, compulsivity, excessive shame, dependence and insecurity, or outright defiance and stubbornness. Preschool age, locomotor-genital stage- age of play(3-6 years) is considered in connection with the Oedipus complex. The source of the psychosocial crisis is the Oedipus complex, feelings and experiences associated with relationships with parents. The leading mode is invasion and penetration. The castration complex creates fear in boys and guilt in girls. Moral feelings are born. The child is faced with an alternative: either refuse to set and achieve goals, or show initiative and ingenuity in searching for socially acceptable goals that meet his desires. The essence of a crisis is the choice between initiative and guilt. Society offers dramatic ritualization to resolve this crisis. In essence, this is a playful, role-playing dramatization - the ability to play out, model the relationships of adult life. In the game, restrictions are lifted, in the game everything can be everything. Play or dramatic ritualization opens up opportunities for free exploration and experimentation without the threat of guilt associated with violating social taboos. In the process of play, the child masters these roles and develops the ability to proactively put forward goals. In the case of a positive resolution of the crisis in favor of initiative, such a positive quality as determination is formed - the ability to set goals and make efforts to achieve them. Otherwise, a quality such as inhibition is formed, i.e., refusal of initiative. An example is the phenomenon of “learned helplessness” as a refusal to achieve goals, a refusal to be active in achieving goals when faced with the slightest difficulties, and any tasks that a child faces are perceived by him as difficult. Feature

Periodization of personality development (according to E. Erikson)

Table 4

112 Developmental psychology. Lecture notes

for such a child - passivity, the desire to be under the tutelage of an authoritative person.

School age, latent stage(6-12 years) covers the period from the start of school to the onset of puberty. The Oedipus complex was overcome at the previous stage. The latent stage is characterized by the fact that sexual development is interrupted. The most important process is the process of sublimation, that is, the switching of energy to socially desirable goals. This is the age of psychosexual moratorium, restrictions on sexual life. Society sets goals for the child related to mastering culture and offers technological ritualization. Formal technological ritualization meets the objectives of developing competence, helping to make a choice between hard work and a sense of inferiority. Speaking about mastering technology, we have two aspects in Evidu: subject, mastery of subject disciplines (language, science, mathematics, etc.); technologies of cooperation, communication and interaction.

The child must learn to communicate and build joint activities to achieve common goals. Mastery of technology leads to the need to take responsibility, readiness for self-restraint, and even submission. The main new development of this age is competence (determined by efforts, abilities and skills, the ability to cooperate with others in learning and work). The child's main skill is his ability to learn. The opposite quality to competence is inertia, which can come in two forms. Inertia is associated with a feeling of inferiority, which pushes towards two types of behavior. The first is hyper-competition, when a child, motivated by a feeling of inferiority, strives to be the first in all areas. The second is passive withdrawal from tasks, activities in fantasy, imagination, compensatory activities. This is also a manifestation of inertia associated with the refusal to set goals and search for ways to achieve them.

At school age, a choice arises between the formation of abilities for creativity and creation and a feeling of inferiority, which limits the individual’s capabilities in solving the problems of self-education and self-development. Ego identity appears in the form of “I am what I can learn.”

Adolescence, youth, puberty stage(12-19 years old) - critical for identity formation. The essence of a psychosocial crisis is the choice between ego identity and

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identity confusion. Radius of significant relationships - peer groups. A strong quality is loyalty. A pathological property is denial or refusal of a role. Ritualization is ideological.

It is at this age that the formation of the main, personal new formation - ego-identity, the integration of multiple images of the Self into a single whole, the formation of a sense of self-identity in time and space, recognition of the identity of the Self by a significant social environment. Ego-identity is the core, the core of the personality, allowing one to preserve one’s I am throughout my life cycle.

Why does an identity crisis occur in adolescence, what is its essence? This crisis is being prepared by a number of conditions. Firstly, by the processes of rapid somatic development and puberty. The teenager is faced with a radical change in the physical bodily self, which poses the task of forming a new image of the self. Secondly, the emergence of tasks of self-determination and life choice. Society and he himself pose the questions: “Who am I?”, “What is the meaning of my life?”, “Who will I be?”, “What is my future profession?”, “What principles do I adhere to in this life?” etc.

Self-identity in time presupposes not only retrospective, but also perspective, planning for the future in the context of life choices. The essence of this crisis is either the acquisition of the integrity of the Self, or ego-identity, or the confusion of ego-identity, i.e., the inability to answer questions and build an integral structure of the Self.

To solve these problems, society offers the teenager ideological ritualization - a system of worldviews, values, principles, norms, rules, outlook on life in relation to the professional and ideological spheres. On the contrary, ritualism in the form of totalitarianism “frees” the teenager from choice, imposing the only “correct” model of building a life. The “dignity” of totalitarianism is that it saves a young man from searching, from suffering and the torment of choice. Ideological ritualization presupposes the possibility of choice, experiment, future prospects related to the prospects of society. The functions of ideology are to establish correspondence between the world of ideals and the world of reality; definition of ethnic identity, i.e. belonging to a certain ethnic group, nation, culture; encouragement to participate in collective, joint activities where personal interests

114 Developmental psychology. Lecture notes

sy must be correlated with public interests; proposing specific models of leadership and collaboration; representation of various religious, political movements, philosophical worldviews. Ideological ritualization is associated with the participation of young people in various groups, movements, and organizations.

According to Erikson, the mechanisms for acquiring identity can be three processes:

1. Introjection (Freud) is an investment from the outside in. In gesh-
talk therapy introjects are called undigested constructs
mi, uncritically transferred from outside to inside. This is the most accepted
tive mechanism that does not ensure the acquisition of true identity
tiness.

2. Identification is a mechanism based on
expression, modeling the steering behavior of significant figures. U
teenagers usually have m%identification with their parents, hero
yami, actors, musicians, athletes, etc. Everyone has peace
leniya their heroes, represented by the culture of society.

3. The mechanism of role-playing experimentation, providing
achieving ego identity. The teenager takes on the role
tries it on himself, loses. This can be compared to theater
rum of masks, when the hero, changing masks, dramatically changes himself. For
day or several hours can play the role of being the “soul of the company”,
sometimes an “unrecognized genius”, sometimes an outcast. Teenagers instantly have me
There are hobbies and passions. Impermanence, instability of behavior
thoughts, interests, moods reflect the process of role-playing experiment
menting. The peculiarity of adolescence is that this
the process of role-playing experimentation is carried out in conditions
yah psychosocial moratorium for final acceptance of the role.

We can identify a number of specific symptoms of adolescence/adolescence associated with the crisis of ego-identity formation. The first is the erosion of the sense of time, in the form of loss of time perspective, in teenage amnesia - forgetting events while maintaining a sense of a very intense inner life. For a teenager, night can be like one minute, and one minute can feel like hours. The second symptom is a relative, partial loss of productivity, meaning in creative and educational activities. During adolescence, stagnation of previous achievements in sports occurs, and the teenager begins to study worse. The third feature is a withdrawal from close relationships, the desire for loneliness, isolation, the desire to be alone with one’s feelings and experiences. Keeping a diary

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What is characteristic of this age is the opportunity for self-reflection alone. The last symptom is the formation of a negative identity. This is the adoption of a value system that is directly opposite to that offered by society. When trust is broken between the child and parents, a negative identity is often formed. Many teenagers seem to question what society offers and “try on” the exact opposite identity.

If the listed symptoms of the crisis persist after its completion, we can speak of a violation of identity development. Parents’ tasks to support in resolving the crisis: move to a position of equality with the teenager; accept his right to make independent life choices; provide an opportunity for role-playing experimentation; encouraging initiative, being ready for support and cooperation.

Identity statuses- characteristics of ego-identity development. The concept of identity statuses was first stated in the works of E. Erikson and was further developed in the works of his students and followers, primarily D. Marcia. Today, identity status is one of the central concepts of personality psychology.

Resolving an identity crisis involves making choices in the sphere of profession and in the sphere of ideology, including politics and religion. Depending on how the choice is made, we can talk about different identity statuses. The most important indicator of maturity is going through a crisis - through a period of trial, doubt and reflection. The criteria for identifying identity statuses, according to D. Marcia, are: passing through a crisis, exploring the possibilities of choice, making a choice. Accordingly, four identity statuses can be distinguished (Diagram 5): 1) predecision - there was no crisis, the choice was made; 2) moratorium - the crisis is relevant, the research is ongoing, the final choice has not been made; 3) achieved identity - the crisis is over, the choice is made; 4) diffuse identity - there was no crisis, or it took place, but the choice was not made. There can be two types - pre-critical diffusion, post-critical diffusion, well expressed by the word “don’t care.”

Currently, they are talking about other areas of choice - ethnic, family, gender, interpersonal identity. Identity statuses can be considered as a normative sequence of ego-identity development: Diffusion => Predecision =>

116 ■ Developmental psychology. Lecture notes

Criterion > making a choice

Prejudgment

Achieved identity

Diffuse identity

Moratorium

Yes Criterion

passing the crisis

Diagram 5. Ego-identity statuses

Moratorium ~> Achieved identity, allowing for significant variability in the trajectories of identity achievement, studied in the works of D. Marcia, A. Waterman.

Identity development is a process that continues without interruption throughout our lives. In adulthood, we can return to the identity crisis again, reconsider our life choices, and again, after going through a moratorium, find identity. One of the promising areas in modern developmental psychology is related to the study of how identity develops in adulthood.

A positive new formation is fidelity as the ability to be faithful to one’s attachments and promises, despite the inevitable contradictions in the value system.

A destructive neoplasm is denial, which can come in two forms. The first is the refusal of the role and the confusion of roles, i.e. the impossibility of achieving identity; the second is the adoption of a negative identity that does not correspond to the inner essence of the individual.

Early adulthood, youth, genital stage(20-25 years) - period of psychosocial crisis. The essence of the crisis is the choice between intimacy and isolation. The formation of ego identity is accompanied by a feeling of uniqueness, originality, awareness of the individuality of the Self. As a result, a feeling of loneliness arises.

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feelings, anxiety and fear associated with the questions: will I be accepted for who I am? will they understand me? Will I succeed in life as a person? Will the goals be achieved in those areas of life into which you have entered? Another reason for the crisis is associated with an increase in the energy of sexual desires and the need to find a partner, establish stable sexual relationships, and start a family. The radius of significant relationships is friends, people who are ready to share, accept and confirm identity in joint forms of activity and activity. The young man is faced with a choice: either to establish such relationships of intimacy and closeness that will allow him to realize his identity, or to remain alone and thereby not get the opportunity to realize his identity, in self-realization. Thus, the choice between intimacy and isolation constitutes a developmental task at this age stage.

Ritualization offered by society, ritualization of grouping. What do you mean? A person who is aware of his uniqueness and originality bears the imprint of a crisis - leaving close relationships, communication is quite difficult, i.e., it is alarming to violate the border of intimate space. Therefore, society offers a form of grouping that makes it easy to find “kindred spirits” and establish relationships. The phenomenon of youth subculture, grouping by tastes, interests, and beliefs makes it easy to get to know each other, establish relationships of mutual understanding, support and cooperation, and engage in interaction in accordance with the existing system of rules.

Ritualism is elitism - the cultivation of any and all castes, groups, the establishment of the superiority of one group over another. This form of social interaction leads to alienation, repulsion, and isolation.

A positive new formation of youth is love as the ability to entrust oneself to another person and remain faithful to this relationship, even if it requires concessions and self-denial. Love manifests itself in a relationship of mutual care, respect and responsibility for another person. Love presupposes a willingness to self-restraint in the interests of the partner, to remain faithful to oneself and the partner.

A destructive neoplasm is exclusivity. We find a manifestation of exclusivity in hostility towards everything that is not mine. For example, xenophobia is hostility towards everything foreign. Well-known practice of youth groups

118 ■ Developmental psychology. Lecture notes

feasts: our own against others, “wall to wall.” The manifestation of exclusivity is the flip side of intimacy; if intimacy presupposes closeness and cooperation, then exclusivity is the beginning of the manifestation of rejection, hostility and readiness for confrontation.

Average maturity(26-64 years) - psychosocial crisis - a choice between generativity (productivity) and inertia, stagnation and stagnation. The radius of significant relationships is divided labor and a common home. At this stage, the individual accepts responsibility for everything that happens in the world, in the work collective, in the family. Ritualization is mentoring and education related to caring and passing on experience to a new generation. A positive new formation is caring, a destructive one is rejection.

The peculiarity of this stage is that, having reached maturity, having created a family, having made a choice of profession, a person takes responsibility for the social well-being of both himself and those around him. The essence of the crisis is the choice: whether to accept this responsibility or refuse it. If a person accepts responsibility, then this is a choice in favor of productivity. Erikson believes that throughout adulthood there is a constant expansion of the radius of significant relationships and thereby the responsibility of the individual. Everyone has their own measure of a “common home.” Its expansion allows you to avoid stagnation, stagnation, stereotypes and provides access to creativity. The metaphor of development is “scissors” between what we can (the achieved level of development) and what we want - our goals. As soon as there are no “scissors,” that is, the limit of our desires and our capabilities coincide, there will be no development. Crises of adulthood are crises of the meaning of life, the solution of which is for a person, having realized his life, to set new life goals that exceed his capabilities. And this is where development begins. A mentoring situation is also productive because if you teach something, you are eager to learn more yourself. Expanding the circle of care is a guarantee of future development. Going beyond the limits of productivity is the only way to maintain an active, progressive course of development.

If a person refuses to take care and responsibility, if he has not developed the ability to love and establish close relationships; if he is not included in active, productive activity, then there is a danger of the formation of rejection. Rejection can be directed both at oneself -

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self-aggression, and externally. The number of suicides, violence, aggression, and crime is growing in society. Therefore, society specifically creates unique buffers (the state, law enforcement agencies, various social services), protection against rejection. With the loss of productivity, the individual directs his efforts only to his own needs and consumption, which leads to a crisis, loss of meaning in life, and a feeling of hopelessness.

Late maturity, old age(65 years - until death) - a time of psychosocial crisis - a choice between ego integration and despair. The radius of significant relationships is the entire human race. Positive new formation is wisdom, negative is contempt, ritualization is philosophical, ritualism is dogmatism. The period of old age is the period of cessation of active productive and social activity; decrease in physical strength and capabilities, loss of many psychological capabilities; completion of the parent function. In old age, a generalization of sensory modes occurs. The essence of a psychosocial crisis is the choice between the path of personality disintegration, despair, loss of self, or ego integration. This task is solved thanks to philosophical ritualization, which allows us to summarize the results of life, accept the irreversibility of life and the inevitability of death, and see the continuation of the Self in subsequent generations. Ego integration, preservation of the Self, despite physical death, are possible only if one understands one’s own life as a link in the history of the human race.

Dogmatism manifests itself in the fact that a person, not being able to preserve his Ego, follows the path of stagnation of the world. Rejection of innovation, innovation, desire to keep everything the same, strict adherence to rules, rituals, norms, despite the realities of life changes. Dogmatism leads to emotional and personal impoverishment, a decrease in intelligence, without solving the problem of integrating the Self.

The path to a constructive resolution of the crisis leads to the formation of life wisdom as a meaningful and independent interest in life itself, despite death itself. Destructive resolution of the crisis leads to contempt for life as a chain of unrealized and missed opportunities and for oneself as “agonizing pain for aimlessly lived years.”

So, the life cycle of personality development is considered by E. Erikson as an integral system, where each stage is interconnected and interdependent.

120 ■ Developmental psychology. Lecture notes

When assessing E. Erikson’s concept, it is necessary to note its “strengths,” which reveal prospects for further research:

* personality development is considered in a holistic life
a cycle covering the entire ontogeny of man;

* development is seen as a dialectical process of overcoming
resolution of crises, resolution of emerging contradictions;

* development is understood as a process largely driven by
caught by the activity of the individual himself. Highlighted like a mini
Mum, two different development scenarios. Isn't there development?
linear and initially programmed process;

* the relationship between the individual and society acts as a relationship with
collaborations in which positive personal development is impossible
possible outside of social relations;

* identification of two types of neoplasms - destructive and
positive - defines the space of possible trajectories
personality development.

Erikson's epigenetic theory is an eight-stage concept that describes how personality develops and changes throughout life. This is a set of views that explain the nature of the formation of an individual from the moment of his conception until old age. It has influenced the understanding of how children develop during childhood and later in life.

As each person progresses in the social environment, from infancy to death, he encounters various problems that can be overcome or may lead to difficulties. Although each stage builds on the experience of earlier stages, Erickson did not believe that mastery of each stage is necessary in order to move on to the next. Like other theorists of similar ideas, the scientist believed that these steps occurred in a predetermined order. This action became known as the epigenetic principle.

Similar principles

Erikson's epigenetic theory has some similarities to Freud's work on the psychosexual stage, but with some key differences. His teacher focused on the influence of the Id (It). Freud believed that personality was largely formed by the time a child was five years old, while Erikson's personality spanned the entire lifespan.

Another important difference is that while Freud emphasized the importance of childhood experiences and unconscious desires, his successor paid more attention to the role of social and cultural influences.

Analysis of parts of the theory

There are three key components of Erikson's epigenetic theory:

1. Ego identity. An ever-changing sense of self that arises through social interactions and experiences.
2. Ego power. It develops as people successfully navigate each stage of development.
3. Conflict. At every stage of formation, people encounter some type of disagreement that serves as a turning point in the process of progressive advancement.

Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust

The world is safe and predictable, dangerous and chaotic. Erikson's epigenetic theory states that the first stage of psychosocial development was focused on answering these important questions.

The baby enters the world completely helpless and dependent on caregivers. Erickson believed that during these first two critical years of life, it is important for the baby to learn that parents (guardians) can be trusted to meet all needs. When a child is cared for and his or her needs are provided for properly, he or she develops a sense that the world can be trusted.

What happens if a baby is neglected or his or her needs are not met with any real consistency. In such a scenario, he may develop a feeling of mistrust towards the world. It can feel like an unpredictable place, and the people who are supposed to love and care for the child may not be reliable.

Some important things to remember about the trust and distrust stage:

1. If this stage is completed successfully, the child will emerge with the virtue of hope.
2. Even when problems arise, a person with this quality will feel that he can turn to loved ones for support and care.
3. Those who fail to acquire this virtue will experience fear. When a crisis occurs, they may feel hopeless, anxious, and insecure.

Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

According to the following statement in E. Erikson's epigenetic theory, as infants enter their childhood years, they become increasingly independent. They not only begin to walk independently, but also master the processes of performing a number of actions. Children often want to make more choices about the things that affect their lives, preferring certain products and types of clothing.

Not only do these activities play an important role in becoming a more independent person, they also help determine whether individuals develop a sense of autonomy or doubt about their abilities. Those who successfully complete this stage of psychosocial formation will demonstrate the willpower or feeling that they can take meaningful action that will influence what happens to them.

Children who develop this autonomy will feel confident and comfortable within themselves. Caregivers can help little ones succeed at this stage by encouraging choice, allowing them to make decisions, and supporting this increased independence.

What actions can lead to failure at this stage is an interesting question. Parents who are overly critical, who do not allow their children to make choices, or who are too controlling can promote shame and doubt. Individuals tend to emerge from this stage without self-esteem and self-confidence, and they may become overly dependent on others.

Some important things to remember about the stages of autonomy and shame and doubt:

1. This period helps set the course for further development.
2. Children who succeed during this time of maturation will have a greater sense of their own independence.
3. Those who struggle intensely may feel ashamed of their efforts and abilities.

Stage 3: initiative versus guilt

The third stage of E. Erikson’s epigenetic theory is associated with the development of a sense of initiative in children. From this point on, peers become more important as little individuals begin to interact more with them in their neighborhood or in the classroom. Children begin to pretend to play games and socialize more, often creating fun activities and planning activities with others like themselves.

At this stage of Erikson's epigenetic theory of development, it is important for the individual to make judgments and plan their actions. Children also begin to assert more power and control over the world around them. During this period, parents and guardians should encourage them to explore and also make decisions accordingly.

Important points about taking initiative versus guilt:

1. Children who successfully cope with this stage take initiative, while those who do not may feel guilty.
2. The virtue at the center of this stage is the goal, or feeling that they have control and power over certain things in the world.

Stage 4: Environment vs. Inferiority

During the school years through adolescence, children enter a psychosocial stage that Erikson calls “environment versus inferiority” in his epigenetic theory of development. During this time, they focus on developing a sense of competence. It is not surprising that school plays an important role at this stage of development.

As children grow older, they acquire the ability to solve increasingly complex problems. They are also interested in becoming skilled and proficient at various things, and they develop an aptitude for learning new skills and solving problems. Ideally, children will be supported and praised for completing various activities such as drawing, reading and writing. By receiving this positive attention and reinforcement, rising individuals begin to develop the self-confidence necessary to achieve success.

So what happens if children do not receive praise and attention from others for mastering something new is an obvious question. Erikson's epigenetic theory of personality believed that failure to master this stage of development would ultimately lead to feelings of inferiority and self-doubt. The fundamental virtue resulting from the successful completion of this psychosocial stage is known as competence.

Basics of psychosocial development depending on the industry:

1. Supporting and encouraging children helps them learn new skills while gaining a sense of competence.
2. Children who struggle at this stage may have problems with self-confidence as they get older.

Stage 5: Identity and Role Confusion

Anyone who clearly remembers the turbulent teenage years can probably immediately understand the stage of Erikson's epigenetic theory of personality as opposed to the role and current events. At this stage, teenagers begin to explore the basic question: “Who am I?” They are focused on exploring their sense of self, figuring out what they believe, who they are, and who they want to become.

In the epigenetic theory of development, Erikson expressed his belief that the formation of personal identity is one of the most important stages of life. Progress in a sense of self serves as a kind of compass that helps guide each person throughout his or her life. What it takes to develop a good personality is a question that worries many. It takes the ability to explore, which needs to be fueled by support and love. Children often go through different phases and explore different ways of expressing themselves.

Important in the identity and confusion stage:

1. Those who are allowed to undergo this personal exploration and successfully master this stage emerge with a strong sense of independence, personal agency and sense of self.
2. Those who fail to complete this formative stage often enter adulthood confused about who they really are and what they want from themselves.

The fundamental virtue that emerges after the successful completion of this stage is known as loyalty.

Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation

Love and romance are among the main concerns of many young people, so it is not surprising that E. Erikson's Stage Six Epigenetic Personality Theory focuses on this topic. This period begins around the ages of 18 and 19 and continues until the age of 40. The central theme of this stage focuses on forming loving, lasting, and supportive relationships with other people. Erikson believed that the sense of autonomy that is established during the phase of identity-role confusion plays a vital role in the ability to form strong and loving relationships.

Success during this developmental period leads to strong connections with others, while failure can lead to feelings of isolation and loneliness.

The main virtue at this stage in E. Erikson's epigenetic theory of personality is love.

Stage 7: Performance vs. Stagnation

The later years of adult life are marked by the need to create something that will continue after the person is gone. Essentially, people are starting to feel the need to leave some sort of lasting mark on the world. This may include raising children, caring for others, or making some positive impact on society. Career, family, church groups, social organizations, and other things can contribute to a sense of accomplishment and pride.

Important points to remember about the epigenetic thrust of Erikson's theory:

1. Those who master this stage of development envision themselves with a sense that they have made a significant and valuable impact on the world around them and develop the core virtue that Erikson called caring.
2. People who don't do this task effectively may feel unengaged, unproductive, and even disconnected from the world.

Stage 8: Honesty vs. Despair

The final stage of E. Erikson’s epigenetic theory of personality development can be briefly described in several key points. It lasts from approximately 65 years of age until the end of a person’s life. This may be its last stage, but still important. It is at this time that people begin to reflect on how they went through their life path, most of them ask themselves: “Did I live a good life?” Individuals who look back on important events with pride and dignity will feel fulfilled, while those who look back with regret will experience bitterness or even despair.

Key points in the stage of psychosocial development in the spirit of integrity and despair:

1. People who have successfully completed the last stage of life emerge with a sense of wisdom and understand that they have lived a worthwhile and meaningful life, even though they will have to face death.
2. Those who have wasted years and they are meaningless will experience sadness, anger and regret.

Description of value

Erikson's psychosocial theory is widely and highly regarded. As with any concept, it has its critics, but overall it is considered fundamentally significant. Erikson was a psychoanalyst as well as a humanist. Thus, his theory is useful far beyond psychoanalysis - it is essential for any study related to personal awareness and development - of oneself or others.

If Erikson's epigenetic theory of personality development is briefly considered, there is a noticeable, but not significant, Freudian element. Fans of Freud will find this influence useful. People who disagree with him, and especially his psychosexual theory, can ignore the Freudian aspect and still find Erikson's ideas superior. His body of views stands alone and is independent of the concepts of his teacher and is valued for its reliability and relevance.

In addition to Freudian psychoanalysis, Erickson developed his own theory largely from his extensive practical fieldwork, first with Native American communities and then also from his clinical therapy work associated with leading psychiatric centers and universities. He carried out his work actively and meticulously from the late 1940s until the 1990s.

Development of basic provisions

If we briefly consider E. Erikson’s epigenetic theory of development, we can highlight the key points that influenced the further development of this teaching. The concept strongly incorporated cultural and social aspects into Freud's biological and sexually oriented idea.

Erikson was able to do this because of his strong interest and compassion for people, especially young people, and because his research was conducted in societies far removed from the more mysterious world of the psychoanalyst's couch, which was essentially Freud's approach.

This helps Erickson's eight-step concept become an extremely powerful model. It is very accessible and obviously relevant to modern life from several perspectives, for understanding and explaining how personality and behavior develop in people. Thus, Erikson's principles are of great importance in learning, parenting, self-awareness, managing and resolving conflicts, and in general, understanding oneself and others.

Basics for the emergence of a future model

Both Erickson and his wife Joan, who collaborated as psychoanalysts and writers, were passionately interested in childhood development and its impact on adult society. His work is as relevant as when he first laid out his original theory, in fact taking into account contemporary pressures on society, family, relationships and the desire for personal growth and fulfillment. His ideas are probably more relevant than ever.

Briefly studying the epigenetic theory of E. Erikson, one can note the scientist’s statements that people experience eight stages of psychosocial crisis, which significantly affect the development and personality of each person. Joan Erickson described the ninth stage after Eric's death, but the eight-stage model is most often referenced and treated as the standard. (Joan Erickson's work on the "ninth stage" appears in her 1996 edition of The Complete Life Cycle: An Overview.) Her work is not considered canonical when studying problems with human development and his personality.

Appearance of the term

Erik Erikson's epigenetic theory refers to "psychosocial crisis" (or psychosocial crises, which is the plural). The term is an extension of Sigmund Freud's use of the word "crisis", which is an internal emotional conflict. One can describe this type of disagreement as an internal struggle or challenge that a person must come to terms with and deal with in order to grow and develop.

Erikson's term "psychosocial" comes from two original words, namely "psychological" (or the root, "psycho", relating to the mind, brain, personality.) and "social" (external relationships and environment). Occasionally one can see the concept expanded to biopsychosocial, in which “bio” refers to life as biological.

Creating Stages

By briefly considering Erikson's epigenetic theory, one can determine the transformation of the structure of his scientific work for assessing personality. Successful passage through every crisis involves achieving a healthy relationship or balance between two opposing dispositions.

For example, a healthy approach in the first stage of formation (trust vs mistrust) can be characterized as experiencing and growing through the crisis of "Trust" (of people, life and future development), and going through and developing a suitable capacity for "Distrust", where appropriate, so that Don't be hopelessly unrealistic or gullible.

Or to experience and grow in the second stage (Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt) to be essentially "Autonomous" (to be one's own person and not a mindless or fearful follower) but have enough capacity for "Shame and Doubt" to gain free-thinking and independent, as well as ethical, thoughtful and responsible.

Erikson called these successful, balanced outcomes the “Core Virtues” or “Core Strengths.” He identified one specific word that represented their power acquired at each stage, which is commonly found in psychoanalyst diagrams and written theory, as well as other explanations of his work.

Erickson also identified a second supporting word, “strength,” at each stage, which, along with the core virtue, emphasized the healthy outcome of each stage and helped convey the simple meaning in summaries and diagrams. Examples of core strengths and supporting strong words are “Hope and aspiration” (from the first stage, trust versus mistrust) and “Willpower and self-control” (from the second stage, autonomy versus shame and doubt).

The scientist used the word "achievement" in the context of successful results because it implied the achievement of something clear and permanent. Psychosocial development is not complete and irreversible: any previous crisis can effectively return to any one, albeit in a different guise, with successful or unsuccessful results. Perhaps this helps explain how the successful can fall from grace and how hopeless losers can ultimately achieve great things. No one should be complacent and there is hope for everyone.

System development

Later in his life, the scientist sought to warn against interpreting his work on a “scale of achievement” in which the stages of crisis represent the only safe achievement or goal of the extreme “positive” option, secured once and for all. This would eliminate a number of possible errors in personality assessment.

E. Erikson, in the epigenetic theory with age periods, noted that at no stage can goodness be achieved that is impervious to new conflicts, and that believing in this is dangerous and inappropriate.

The stages of a crisis are not clearly defined steps. Elements tend to overlap and blend from one stage to the next and to those before them. It is a broad framework and concept, not a mathematical formula that accurately replicates all people and situations.

Erikson's epigenetic theory of personality development sought to point out that the transition between stages overlaps. Crisis periods fit together like intertwined fingers, not like a series of neatly stacked boxes. People don't suddenly wake up one morning and enter a new stage of life. Changes do not occur in regulated, clear steps. They are graduated, mixed and organic. In this respect, the feel of the model is similar to other flexible frameworks of human development (e.g., Elisabeth Kübler-Ross's The Cycle of Grief and Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs).

When a person unsuccessfully goes through a stage of psychosocial crisis, he develops a tendency towards one or another of the opposing forces (either syntonic or dystonic, in Erikson's language), which then becomes a behavioral tendency or even a mental problem. Roughly speaking, we can call this “baggage” of knowledge.

Erikson emphasized the importance of both "reciprocity" and "generativity" in his theory. The conditions are interconnected. Reciprocity reflects the influence of generations on each other, especially in families between parents, children and grandchildren. Everyone potentially influences the experience of others as they move through different stages of crisis. Generativity, actually a named location within one of the stages of crisis (generativity versus stagnation, stage seven), reflects the significant relationship between adults and the best interests of individuals—one's own children and, in some way, everyone else, and even the next generation.

Influence of ancestry and family

Erikson's age-based epigenetic theory notes that generations influence each other. It is obvious that the parent shapes the child’s psychosocial development by his example, but, in turn, his personal growth depends on the experience of communicating with the child and the pressure created. The same can be said for grandparents. Again, this helps explain why, as parents (or teachers, or siblings, or grandparents), people go out of their way to deal well with a young person to solve their emotional problems.

The psychosocial stages of Erikson's epigenetic theory clearly delimit the onset of new periods. However, depending on the individual, their duration may vary. In a sense, development really peaks in the seventh stage, as the eighth is more about appreciation and how one has used life. The prospect of giving and making positive change for future generations resonates with the scientist's humanitarian philosophy, and it is this, perhaps more than anything else, that allowed him to develop such a powerful concept.

To sum it up

Erikson's epigenetic theory of personality development marked a significant departure from many earlier ideas in that it focused on the gradual development that accompanies a person throughout his life. Today, many psychologists prefer concepts that are less focused on a set of predetermined stages, and recognize that individual differences and experiences often mean that development can differ markedly from one person to another.

Some criticism of Erikson's theory is that it says little about the root causes of each formative crisis. It also tends to be somewhat vague regarding the distinctions between events that mark the difference between success and failure at each stage. Moreover, the theory lacks any objective way of determining whether a person has passed a particular developmental stage.

Erik Erikson, a student of Freud, based on Freud’s theory of the phases of psychosexual development, created a new theory - psychosocial development. It includes eight stages of development of the “I”, at each of which guidelines in relation to oneself and the external environment are worked out and clarified (Erikson, 1996). Erikson noted that the study of personal individuality becomes the same strategic task of the second half of the 20th century as the study of sexuality was during the time of Freud, at the end of the 19th century. First of all, Erikson's theory differs from Freud's theory in the following ways:

Erikson's 8 stages are not limited only to childhood, but include the development and transformation of personality throughout life from birth to old age. Adulthood and mature age are characterized by their own crises, during which the corresponding tasks are solved.

In contrast to Freud's pansexual theory, human development, according to Erikson, consists of three autonomous, although interrelated processes: somatic development, studied by biology; the development of the conscious self, studied by psychology, and social development, studied by the social sciences.

The basic law of development, according to Erikson, is the “epigenetic principle,” according to which at each new stage of development new phenomena and properties arise that were not present at the previous stages of the process.

Stages of mental development according to Erikson:

1. Oral-sensory. Corresponds to the oral stage of classical psychoanalysis. Age: first year of life. The task of the stage: basic trust versus basic distrust. Valuable qualities acquired at this stage: energy and hope.

The degree of trust an infant has in the world depends on the care shown to him. Normal development occurs when his needs are quickly met, he does not experience long-term illness, he is rocked and caressed, played with and talked to. The mother's behavior is confident and predictable. In this case, trust in the world into which he has come is developed. If he does not receive proper care, mistrust, timidity and suspicion develop.

2. Muscular-anal. Coincides with the anal stage of Freudianism. Age – second or third years of life. Stage challenge: autonomy versus shame and doubt. Valuable qualities acquired at this stage: self-control and willpower.

At this stage, the development of independence based on motor and mental abilities comes to the fore. The child masters various movements. If parents leave the child to do what he can, he develops the feeling that he controls his muscles, his impulses, himself and, to a large extent, his environment. Independence appears.

The outcome of this stage depends on the relationship between cooperation and self-will, freedom of expression and its suppression. From the feeling of self-control, as the freedom to manage oneself without loss of self-respect, comes a strong sense of goodwill, readiness for action and pride in one’s achievements, a sense of self-esteem. From the feeling of loss of freedom to manage oneself and the feeling of someone else's overcontrol comes a persistent tendency towards doubt and shame.

3. Locomotor-genital. The stage of infantile genitality corresponds to the phallic stage of psychoanalysis. Age – preschool, 4–5 years. The task of the stage: initiative (enterprise) versus guilt. Valuable qualities acquired at this stage: direction and determination.

By the beginning of this stage, the child has already acquired many physical skills and begins to invent activities for himself, and not just respond to actions and imitate them. Shows ingenuity in speech and the ability to fantasize.

The preponderance of qualities in a child’s character largely depends on how adults react to a child’s ideas. Children who are given the initiative in choosing activities (running, wrestling, tinkering, riding a bicycle, sledding, skating) develop an entrepreneurial spirit. It is reinforced by the parents’ willingness to answer questions (intellectual entrepreneurship) and not interfere with fantasizing and starting games.

At this stage, the most important division in terms of consequences occurs between the potential triumph of man and the potential for total destruction. It is here that the child becomes forever divided within himself: into a child set that maintains an abundance of growth potential, and a parent set that maintains and enhances self-control, self-government, and self-punishment. A sense of moral responsibility develops.

4. Latent. Corresponds to the latent phase of classical psychoanalysis. Age – 6–11 years. The task of the stage: hard work (skill) against feelings of inferiority. Valuable qualities acquired at this stage: systematicity and competence.

Love and jealousy are at this stage in a hidden state, as its name suggests - latent. These are the elementary school years. The child shows the ability to deduce, organized games, and regulated activities. Interest in how things work, how to adapt them, master them. During these years, he resembles Robinson Crusoe and is often interested in his life.

When children are encouraged to make crafts, build huts and airplane models, cook, cook and do handicrafts, when they are allowed to finish what they have started, and are praised for their results, then the child develops skill and ability for technical creativity.

When parents see their child’s work as nothing more than “pampering” and “messing around,” this contributes to the child’s feeling of inferiority. The danger of this stage is a feeling of inadequacy and inferiority.

5. Adolescence and early adolescence. Classical psychoanalysis notes at this stage the problem of “love and jealousy” towards one’s own parents. A successful solution depends on whether a person finds an object of love in his own generation. This is a continuation of Freud's latent stage. Age – 12–18 years. Stage task: identity versus role confusion. Valuable qualities acquired at this stage: dedication and loyalty.

The main difficulty at this stage is confusion of identification, the inability to recognize one’s “I”. The teenager matures physiologically and mentally, he develops new views on things, a new approach to life, interest in the thoughts of other people, in what they think about themselves.

The influence of parents at this stage is indirect. If a teenager, thanks to his parents, has already developed trust, independence, enterprise and skill, then his chances of identification, that is, of realizing his own individuality, increase significantly.

6. Early adulthood. Genital stage according to Freud. Age: courtship and early years of family life, from late adolescence to early middle age. Here and further, Erickson no longer names age limits. Stage Challenge: Intimacy vs. Isolation. Valuable qualities acquired at this stage: affiliation and love.

By the beginning of this stage, a person has already identified his “I” and is involved in work activities.

Closeness is important to him - not only physical, but also the ability to care for another person, to share everything essential with him without fear of losing himself. The new adult is willing to exercise moral strength in both intimate and companionate relationships, remaining faithful even when significant sacrifices and compromises are required. Manifestations of this stage are not necessarily sexual attraction, but also friendship. For example, close bonds are formed between fellow soldiers who have fought side by side under difficult conditions—an example of intimacy in the broadest sense.

The danger of the stage is avoidance of contacts that oblige intimacy. Avoiding the experience of intimacy due to fear of losing the Ego leads to a feeling of isolation and subsequent self-absorption. If he does not achieve intimacy either in marriage or friendship, loneliness awaits him, he has no one to share his life with and no one to care for. The danger of this stage is that a person experiences intimate, competitive, and hostile relationships with the same people. The rest are indifferent to him. And only by learning to distinguish a fight between rivals from a sexual embrace does a person master an ethical sense - a distinctive feature of an adult. Only now does true genitality emerge. It cannot be considered a purely sexual task. This is a combination of methods of partner selection, cooperation and competition.

7. Adulthood. Classical psychoanalysis no longer considers this and the subsequent stage; it covers only the period of growing up. Age: mature. The task of the stage: generativity versus stagnation. Valuable qualities acquired at this stage: production and care.

By the time this stage occurs, a person has already firmly tied himself to a certain occupation, and his children have already become teenagers.

This stage of development is characterized by universal humanity - the ability to be interested in the destinies of people outside the family circle, to think about the life of future generations, the forms of the future society and the structure of the future world. To do this, it is not necessary to have your own children; it is important to actively take care of young people and to make it easier for people to live and work in the future.

Those who have not developed a sense of belonging to humanity focus on themselves, and their main concern becomes the satisfaction of their needs, their own comfort, self-absorption.

Generativity, the central point of this stage, is an interest in the organization of life and the guidance of the new generation, although there are individuals who, due to failures in life or special talent in other areas, do not direct this interest to their offspring. Generativity includes productivity and creativity, but these concepts cannot replace it. Generativity is the most important stage of both psychosexual and psychosocial development.

8. Maturity. Age: retired. The task of the stage: integrity versus despair. Valuable qualities acquired at this stage: self-denial and wisdom. The main work in life is over, the time has come for reflection and fun with the grandchildren. A feeling of wholeness and meaningfulness in life arises for those who, looking back on their lives, feel satisfaction. Anyone to whom the life they have lived seems to be a chain of missed opportunities and annoying mistakes realizes that it is too late to start all over again and that what has been lost cannot be returned. Such a person is overcome by despair at the thought of how his life could have turned out, but did not work out. The absence or loss of accumulated integrity is expressed in the fear of death: it is not perceived as a natural and inevitable completion of the life cycle. Despair expresses the awareness that there is little time left to try to start a new life and experience other paths to wholeness.

Erik Erikson's theory arose from the practice of psychoanalysis. He interprets the personality structure in the same way as 3. Freud (as consisting of the “Id”, “I”, “Super-Ego”), the stages of personality development discovered by Freud are not rejected by Erikson, but become more complex and, as it were, re-interpreted with positions of the new historical time. The psychosocial concept of personality development, developed by Erikson, shows the close connection between the human psyche and the character of the society in which he lives. Comparing the upbringing of children in Indian tribes with the upbringing of white American children allowed him to conclude that each culture has a special style of raising children - it is always accepted by the mother as the only correct one. This style is determined by what the society in which he lives expects from the child. Each stage of human development has its own expectations inherent in a given society, which a person may or may not justify. The entire childhood of a person - from birth to adolescence - is considered by Erikson as a long period of formation of a mature psychosocial identity, as a result of which a person acquires an objective sense of belonging to his social group, an understanding of the uniqueness of his individual existence. The core around which personality is built is the acquisition of ego identity.

Erikson introduced the concept of “group identity,” which is formed from the first days of life. The child is focused on inclusion in a certain social group and begins to understand the world as this group does. But gradually the child also develops “ego-identity”, a sense of stability and continuity of his “I”, despite the fact that many processes of change are underway. The formation of ego identity is a long process that includes a number of stages of personality development. Each stage is characterized by the tasks of this age, and the tasks are put forward by society. But the solution to problems is determined by the already achieved level of psychomotor development of a person and the spiritual atmosphere of the society in which a person lives. At the stage of infancy (1st stage), the mother plays the main role in the child’s life; she feeds, cares, gives affection, care, as a result of which the child develops basic trust in the world. Basic trust is manifested in the ease of feeding, the child’s good sleep, normal bowel function, the child’s ability to calmly wait for the mother (does not scream or call, the child is confident that the mother will come and do what is needed). The dynamics of trust development depend on the mother. What is important here is not the quantity of food, but the quality of child care; the mother’s confidence in her actions is important. If the mother is anxious, neurotic, if the situation in the family is tense, if the child is given little attention (for example, a child in an orphanage), a basic distrust of the world and persistent pessimism are formed. A severe deficit in emotional communication with the baby leads to a sharp slowdown in the child’s mental development.

The 2nd stage of early childhood is associated with the formation of autonomy and independence, the child begins to walk, learns to control himself when performing acts of defecation; Society and parents teach the child to be neat and tidy, and begin to shame him for having “wet pants.” Social disapproval opens the child's eyes inward, he feels the possibility of punishment, and a feeling of shame is formed. At the end of the stage there must be a balance of "autonomy" and "shame". This ratio will be positively favorable for the development of the child if the parents do not suppress the child’s desires and do not beat them for offenses. At the age of 3-6 years, at the 3rd stage, the child is already convinced that he is an individual, since he runs, can speak, expands the area of ​​​​mastery of the world, the child develops a sense of enterprise and initiative, which is embedded in the child’s play. Play is very important for the development of a child, i.e. it forms initiative, creativity, the child masters relationships between people through play, develops his mental capabilities: will, memory, thinking, etc. But if parents strongly suppress the child and do not pay attention to his games, this negatively affects the development of the child, contributes to the consolidation of passivity, uncertainty, and feelings of guilt. At primary school age (4th stage), the child has already exhausted the possibilities of development within the family, and now the school introduces the child to knowledge about future activities and transfers the technological experience of culture. If a child successfully masters knowledge and new skills, he believes in himself, is confident, and calm, but failures at school lead to the emergence, and sometimes to the consolidation, of feelings of inferiority, lack of faith in his abilities, despair, and loss of interest in learning. In case of inferiority, the child, as it were, returns to the family; it is a refuge for him, if the parents with understanding try to help the child overcome difficulties in learning. If parents only scold and punish for bad grades, the child’s feeling of inferiority is sometimes reinforced for the rest of his life. During adolescence (stage 5), the central form of ego-identity is formed. Rapid physiological growth, puberty, concern about how he looks in front of others, the need to find his professional calling, abilities, skills - these are the questions that confront a teenager, and these are society’s demands on a teenager about self-determination. At this stage, all critical past moments arise anew. If in the early stages the child has developed autonomy, initiative, trust in the world, confidence in his usefulness and significance, then the teenager successfully creates a holistic form of ego-identity, finds his “I”, and recognition of himself from others. Otherwise, a diffusion of identity occurs, the teenager cannot find his “I”, is not aware of his goals and desires, a return occurs, regression to infantile, childish, dependent reactions occurs, a vague but persistent feeling of anxiety appears, a feeling of loneliness, emptiness, and constant expectation of something that can change life, but the person himself does not actively do anything, there is a fear of personal communication and an inability to emotionally influence people of the opposite sex, hostility, contempt for the surrounding society, a feeling of “non-recognition of oneself” by the people around him. If a person has found himself, then identification becomes easier. At the 6th stage (youth), it becomes important for a person to find a life partner, close cooperation with people, strengthening ties with his social group, a person is not afraid of depersonalization, he mixes his identity with other people, a feeling of closeness, unity, cooperation, intimacy appears with certain people. However, if the diffusion of identity extends to this age, the person becomes isolated, isolation and loneliness become entrenched. 7th - central stage - adult stage of personality development. Identity development continues throughout your life, there is influence from other people, especially children, they confirm that they need you. Positive symptoms of this stage: the individual invests himself in good, beloved work and care for children, is satisfied with himself and life. If there is no one to pour out one’s “I” on (there is no favorite job, family, children), then the person becomes empty, stagnation, inertia, psychological and physiological regression are outlined. As a rule, such negative symptoms are strongly expressed if the person was prepared for this throughout the entire course of his development, if there were always negative choices at the stages of development. After 50 years (8th stage), a completed form of ego-identity is created based on the entire path of personality development; a person rethinks his entire life, realizes his “I” in spiritual reflections on the years he has lived. A person must understand that his life is a unique destiny that does not need to be remade, a person “accepts” himself and his life, realizes the need for a logical conclusion to life, shows wisdom and a detached interest in life in the face of death. If “acceptance of oneself and life” does not happen, a person feels disappointed, loses his taste for life, feels that life was wrong, in vain.

According to Erikson, a person experiences eight psychosocial crises throughout his life, specific to each age, the favorable or unfavorable outcome of which determines the possibility of subsequent personal flourishing.

A person experiences the first crisis in the first year of life. It is related to whether or not the basic physiological needs of the child are satisfied by the person caring for him. In the first case, the child develops a feeling of deep trust in the world around him, and in the second, distrust of it.

The second crisis is associated with the first learning experience, especially with teaching the child to be clean. If parents understand the child and help him control natural functions, the child gains the experience of autonomy. On the contrary, too strict or too inconsistent external control leads to the development of shame or doubt in the child, mainly associated with the fear of losing control over his own body.

The third crisis corresponds to the second childhood. At this age, the child’s self-affirmation occurs. The plans that he constantly makes and which he is allowed to implement contribute to the development of his sense of initiative. On the contrary, experiencing repeated failures and irresponsibility can lead him to resignation and feelings of guilt.

The fourth crisis occurs at school age. At school, a child learns to work in preparation for future tasks. Depending on the atmosphere prevailing in the school and the adopted methods of education, the child develops a taste for work or, on the contrary, a feeling of inferiority both in terms of the use of means and opportunities, and in terms of his own status among his comrades.

The fifth crisis is experienced by adolescents of both sexes in search of identification (assimilation of behavior patterns of other people significant to the adolescent). This process involves integrating the adolescent's past experiences, his potential capabilities, and the choices he must make. The adolescent's inability to identify or the difficulties associated with it can lead to its "dispersion" or to confusion of the roles that the adolescent plays or will play in the affective, social and professional spheres.

The sixth crisis is characteristic of young adults. It is associated with the search for intimacy with a loved one, with whom he will have to go through the cycle of “work-having children-leisure” in order to ensure proper development for his children.

The lack of such experience leads to isolation of a person and his closure on himself.

The seventh crisis is experienced by a person at the age of forty. It is characterized by the development of a sense of preserving the race (generativity), expressed mainly in “interest in the next generation and its upbringing.” This period of life is characterized by high productivity and creativity in a variety of areas. If, on the contrary, the evolution of married life follows a different path, it can freeze in a state of pseudo-intimacy (stagnation), which dooms the spouses to exist only for themselves with the risk of impoverishment of interpersonal relationships.

The eighth crisis is experienced during aging. It marks the completion of a previous life path, and the resolution depends on how this path was completed. A person’s achievement of integrity is based on summing up his past life and realizing it as a single whole, in which nothing can be changed. If a person cannot bring his past actions into a single whole, he ends his life in fear of death and in despair from the impossibility of starting life again.