Evolution is a natural process of development of living nature in which genetic composition populations are gradually changing, resulting in a transformation of the biosphere. Such mechanisms are explained by several theories, the most famous being Darwin's theory of natural selection.
Today it is believed that evolution, as a natural process, is firmly established scientific fact. Still it's pretty broad concept, which allows for quite a lot of interpretations and misconceptions around it. That is why there are myths that need explanation.
The theory of evolution is about the origin of life. In fact, this scientific doctrine talks about how life developed after its origin. There is no denying that evolution is also interested in a clear understanding of how life appeared on the planet. However, this is not the most important thing for this teaching.
In the process of evolution, organisms always acquire better qualities. It is known that as a result of natural selection, the strongest survived. But nature has rewarded us with many examples where these were far from the most perfect organisms. Examples include mosses, crayfish, sharks and fungi. These organisms are quite for a long time remained unchanged. They were able to adapt to the changing environment to continue living without improvement. Other organisms have undergone major changes, but this has not always been a leap forward. With environmental changes, even evolved organisms could not always adapt to new conditions.
During evolution, life changed randomly. Natural review cannot be considered somehow random process. To survive and reproduce, many creatures living in aquatic environment, should have moved faster. As a result, those who coped with this task better survived. The offspring of these creatures have already received these useful characteristics, continuing the cycle. So you should not assume that evolution is a random process; such an opinion has no basis.
Natural selection is the attempt of organisms to adapt to new living conditions. In fact, during natural selection, organisms did not try to adapt at all. This process allowed different creatures to reproduce and survive. The developing organism itself is not able to engage in genetic adaptation to new conditions.
Natural selection gives organisms what they need. This natural process does not have any intelligence, natural selection cannot clearly indicate which species needs what. Simply if there are genetic variations in the population that help to survive in natural environment, then such features will be inherited by future generations. The population itself will increase. And if genetic variation does not exist, then it will either appear over time, or the population itself will continue to live without significant changes.
Evolution is just a theory. Scientific language A theory is an idea well proven by facts that can, using logic, determine some properties of nature. But other definitions of the concept “theory”, in particular, those implying “guess” or “assumption” only bring even more confusion to the non-scientific world. Those who deal with science, but do not understand its fundamentals, confuse two different concepts.
Evolution is a theory of crisis. There is no doubt in science whether evolution actually occurred or not. There are some doubts about how it really happened. Attention is paid to every detail of this complex process. Several nuances lead anti-evolutionists to assume that the theory of evolution is a theory of crisis. In fact, this teaching is the mouthpiece of science, to which scientists all over the world listen.
There are some gaps in the fossil record that disprove evolution. There is much evidence of transitional forms among the fossil record. Some of them indicate the transformation of dinosaurs into modern birds, others indicate the evolution of whales and their ancestors into land mammals. Unfortunately, many transitional forms have been lost. However, they were not preserved only because they existed in conditions that did not allow fossils to survive. Science does suggest that there are quite a few gaps among evolutionary changes. However, this does not refute the theory of evolution itself.
Evolutionary theory actually incomplete. This science is still under development. New research constantly supplements the theory with amendments and new facts, which can even slightly change the idea of evolution. IN in this case this theory is similar to all others in similar attitude. And only evolution is the only possible plausible explanation for all the existing diversity of life on the planet.
The theory of evolution contains many inaccuracies. Science is a fairly competitive field. In the case of evolutionary theory, all identified shortcomings were quickly corrected, and the teaching was adjusted to take them into account. Creationists have made many arguments against evolution. Scientists studied them; such theses simply did not stand up to criticism. In fact, all these “inaccuracies” appeared due to a misunderstanding of the theory itself or a distortion of its concepts.
Evolution is not a science because it cannot be observed. This opinion is erroneous, since evolution can be both tested and observed. The misconception lies in the fact that for many, science is experiments in a laboratory conducted by scientists in white coats. But a large amount of scientific information can be collected from real world. For example, astronomers cannot physically contact the objects of their research - stars and galaxies. But they obtain information through observations and experiments. A similar situation has arisen in the case of evolution.
Almost all biologists reject Darwinism. Scientists do not refute Darwin's teachings, this theory is simply constantly changing due to the acquisition of new data and knowledge. The great scientist believed that evolution occurs slowly and measuredly. But today there is evidence that, under some circumstances, this process may accelerate. But some serious ones scientific challenges the principles of Darwin's theory were never challenged. But scientists were able to deepen his doctrine of natural selection and even improve it. Thus, biologists do not reject Darwinism, but simply modify it.
Evolution entails immoral behavior. All animals have some kind of behavior that is shared with other representatives of the same species. Dogs behave like dogs, worms have their own lives, people have theirs. How can a child behave like another creature? This is why it makes no sense to associate evolution with any unnatural or immoral behavior.
Evolution supports the concept of proper justice. About a hundred years ago, such a direction appeared in the philosophy of society as social Darwinism. The doctrine became so popular that even attempts were made to apply the theory biological evolution on social norms. It was believed that society should help the weak die. Moreover, this will not only be a perfect confirmation of the theory of selection, but also correct from a moral point of view. This idea was even scientifically confirmed in some way, with reference to biological evolution, which made this approach very rational. But that was the time of attempts to use science in other matters. It is good that humanity rejected social Darwinism in time.
Scientists should pay attention not only to the theory of evolution, but also to other options for the creation of life. There are quite a few theories about the creation of our world, mostly of a religious nature. It is simply impossible to imagine them all. But none of them is fundamentally scientific research. Therefore, there is no need to teach schoolchildren such anti-scientific theories. After all, schoolchildren and students study science, and attempts to replace it religious beliefs may steer young people in a different direction.
There are two views on how it arose material world. Religions attribute to God a leading role in the world order. In particular, the Bible speaks of several days during which God created first light, then water, then the firmament, then living beings - right up to man. Now the Churches claim that “six days” is a metaphorical term, where a day is not equal to a day, but lasts much longer. Different, radically opposite view on the origin of the visible, material world - scientific. The evolution of the Universe, according to scientists' research, began with Big Bang(also called the Big Bang), which occurred 10-15 billion years ago.
What happened before everything that exists came into being? Modern astronomy believes that it was a sphere compressed to a minimum size, inside which, under the influence highest temperatures and pressures moved freely. Everything material, which now fills the boundless space, was compressed within a point tending to zero in magnitude, from which the origin and evolution of the Universe began. It is still unclear what caused the Big Bang. However, this explosion itself led to the expansion of the Universe, and this process continues today. What does it mean? That the same number of material particles occupies more and more volume over time.
Will the material world expand forever, or will someday its expansion in volume slow down and stop altogether, like what we see when a grenade explodes? Perhaps, after this, the evolution of the Universe will stop and be replaced by a stage of “collapse”, narrowing to the initial point. We are not yet ready to answer this question with certainty. But the picture of the world created by scientists can already describe the successive phases in the growth and transformation of matter. The first era - the hadronic one - lasted only one millionth of a second, but during this time the process of annihilation of antibaryons and baryons occurred, protons and neurons were formed.
The second and third stages of the evolution of the Universe - leptonic and photonic - also lasted only a few seconds. At the end of the second era, a neutrino sea was formed, and the era of photons ended with the separation of matter from antimatter (which occurred due to the annihilation of positrons and electrons). The Universe continued to expand, which led to a decrease in the energy density of particles and photons. The photon stage gave way to the stellar stage, which continues to this day. However, the formation of stars, galaxies and groups of galaxies occurred (and is still occurring) unevenly.
Millions of years passed after the Big Bang, until the simplest particles turned into atoms - mainly hydrogen and helium (these atoms are the main component of the Universe), the atoms united into molecules, which entered into compounds and formed crystals, substances, and mineral rocks. During the stellar era, which at this stage ends the evolution of the Universe, galaxies and planets were formed, and life arose on our Earth. Can we say that the “epic fireworks display” is over and we are standing on cooling coals amid dissipating smoke?
Scientists have concluded that the evolution of the Universe continues. The vortices of a giant accumulation of hydrogen flatten the matter and transform these accumulations into whirlpools. This is how spherical, elliptical and oblate galaxies are born (depending on the speed of rotation of the colossal - one hundred thousand light years - cycle). Ours belongs to the latter type of galaxies - Milky Way. Stars form inside galaxies under the pressure of hydrogen clumps. They also go through long stages of evolution: from white-hot supernovae to “red giants”, “white dwarfs” and The same processes occur with our Sun, while the Cosmos continues to expand.
Evolution is a process historical development organic world. The essence of this process is the continuous adaptation of living things to diverse and constantly changing environmental conditions, and the increasing complexity of the organization of living beings over time. In the course of evolution, the transformation of some species into others occurs.
The main ones in evolutionary theory– the idea of historical development from comparatively simple shapes life to a more highly organized one. The foundations of the scientific materialist theory of evolution were laid by the great English naturalist Charles Darwin. Before Darwin, biology was mainly dominated by the incorrect concept of the historical immutability of species, that there are as many of them as were created by God. However, even before Darwin, the most insightful biologists understood the inconsistency of religious views on nature, and some of them speculatively arrived at evolutionary ideas.
The most prominent natural scientist and predecessor of Charles Darwin was the famous French scientist Jean Baptiste Lamarck. In his famous book “Philosophy of Zoology” he proved the variability of species. Lamarck emphasized that the constancy of species is only an apparent phenomenon; it is associated with the short duration of observations of species. Higher forms life, according to Lamarck, originated from lower ones in the process of evolution. Evolutionary doctrine Lamarck was not sufficiently demonstrative and did not receive wide recognition among his contemporaries. Only after the outstanding works of Charles Darwin evolutionary idea has become generally accepted.
Modern science has many facts that prove the existence of the evolutionary process. This is data from biochemistry, embryology, anatomy, systematics, biography, paleontology and many other disciplines.
Embryological evidence– similarity of the initial stages of embryonic development of animals. Studying the embryonic period of development in various groups, K. M. Baer discovered the similarity of these processes in various groups of organisms, especially in the early stages of development. Later, based on these conclusions, E. Haeckel expresses the idea that this similarity has evolutionary significance and on its basis it is formulated “ biogenetic law» – ontogeny is a brief reflection of phylogeny. Each individual in its own individual development(ontogenesis) passes through the embryonic stages of ancestral forms. Studying only the early stages of development of the embryo of any vertebrate does not allow us to determine with accuracy which group they belong to. Differences are formed at later stages of development. How closer group, to which the studied organisms belong, the longer common features will be preserved in embryogenesis.?
Morphological– many forms combine the characteristics of several large systematic units. When studying different groups of organisms, it becomes obvious that in a number of features they are fundamentally similar. For example, the structure of the limb in all four-legged animals is based on a five-fingered limb. This basic structure is various types transformed due to different conditions existence: this is the limb of an equid animal, which when walking rests on just one finger, and the flipper of a marine mammal, and the burrowing limb of a mole, and the wing of a bat.
Organs built by unified plan and developing from single primordia are called homologous. Homologous organs cannot in themselves serve as evidence of evolution, but their presence indicates the origin of similar groups of organisms from common ancestor. A striking example evolution is served by the presence vestigial organs and atavisms. Organs that have lost their original function but remain in the body are called vestigial. Examples of rudiments include: in humans, which in ruminant mammals performs digestive function; the pelvic bones of snakes and whales, which do not perform any function for them; coccygeal vertebrae in humans, which are considered to be the rudiments of the tail that our distant ancestors had. call the manifestation in organisms of structures and organs characteristic of ancestral forms. Classic examples Atavisms are multi-nipple and tailedness in humans.
Paleontological– the fossil remains of many animals can be compared with each other and similarities can be detected. Based on the study of fossil remains of organisms and comparison with living forms. They have their advantages and disadvantages. The advantages include the opportunity to see firsthand how a given group of organisms changed in different periods. Disadvantages include that paleontological data are very incomplete due to many reasons. These include such as the rapid reproduction of dead organisms by animals that feed on carrion; soft-bodied organisms are extremely poorly preserved; and finally, that only a small fraction of the fossil remains are being discovered. In view of this, there are many gaps in paleontological data, which are the main object of criticism by opponents of the theory of evolution.
In the article we will consider in detail the types of evolution, and also talk about this process in general, trying to comprehensively understand the topic. We will learn about how the doctrine of evolution originated, what ideas it is represented by, and what role the species plays in it.
Introduction to the topic
The evolution of the organic world is quite complex and long process, which simultaneously takes place at different levels of organization of living matter. At the same time, it always touches on many areas. It so happened that the development of living nature occurs from lower to higher forms. Everything simple becomes more complicated over time and takes on a more interesting form. IN separate groups organisms develop adaptive skills that allow living beings to better exist in their specific conditions. For example, some aquatic animals evolved membranes between their toes.
Three directions
Before talking about the types of evolution, let's consider the three main directions highlighted by the influential Russian scientists I. Shmalhausen and A. Severtsov. In their opinion, there is aromorphosis, idioadaptation, and degeneration.
Aromorphosis
Aromorphosis, or arogenesis, is a serious evolutionary changes, which generally lead to a complication of the structure and functions of some organisms. This process allows you to fundamentally change some aspects of life, for example, habitats. Aromorphosis also helps to increase the competitiveness of specific organisms to survive in the environment. The main point aromorphoses consists in the conquest of new adaptation zones. That is why such processes occur quite rarely, but if they do happen, they are of a fundamental nature and influence all further development.
In this case, it is necessary to understand such a concept as the adaptation level. This is a specific habitat area with characteristic climate And environmental conditions, which are characteristic of a certain group of organisms. For example, for birds, the adaptive zone is the air space, which protects them from predators and allows them to learn new ways of hunting. In addition, movement in the air makes it possible to overcome large obstacles and carry out long-distance migrations. That is why flight is rightfully considered an important evolutionary aromorphosis.
The most striking aromorphoses in nature are multicellularity and the sexual method of reproduction. Thanks to multicellularity, the process of complicating the anatomy and morphology of almost all organisms began. Thanks to sexual reproduction, adaptive abilities have significantly expanded.
In animals, such processes contributed to the creation of more effective ways nutrition and improvement of metabolism. At the same time, the most significant aromorphosis in the animal world is considered warm-blooded, thanks to which survival has greatly increased in different conditions.
In plants, similar processes are manifested in the emergence of a general and conductive system that connects all their parts into a single whole. This increases pollination efficiency.
For bacteria, aromorphosis is an autotrophic mode of nutrition, thanks to which they were able to conquer a new adaptation zone, which may be deprived of organic food sources, but the bacteria will still survive there.
Idiomatic adaptation
Without this process it is impossible to imagine the evolution of biological species. It involves specific adaptations to specific environmental conditions. In order to better understand what this process is, let's think a little. Idioadaptation is minor changes, which significantly improve the life of organisms, but do not bring them to new level organizations. Let's consider this information using the example of birds. The wing is a consequence of the process of aromorphosis, but the shape of the wings and methods of flight are already idioadaptations that do not change anatomical structure birds, but are also responsible for their survival in a certain environment. Such processes also include the coloring of animals. Because they significantly affect only a group of organisms, they are considered characteristics of species and subspecies.
Degeneration, or catagenesis
Macro- and microevolution
Now let's move directly to the topic of our article. What types of this process are there? This is micro and macro evolution. Let's talk about them in more detail. Macroevolution is the process of formation of the largest systematic units: species, new families, and so on. Basic driving forces macroevolution lies in microevolution.
Firstly, there is heredity, natural selection, variability and reproductive isolation. The divergent nature is characteristic of micro- and macroevolution. At the same time, these concepts that we are talking about now have received a lot of different interpretations, but a final understanding has not yet been achieved. One of the most popular is that macroevolution is change systemic nature, which does not require large quantity time.
However, when it comes to learning this process, it takes a lot of time. Moreover, macroevolution is global in nature, so it is very difficult to master all its diversity. An important method studying this direction is computer modeling, which began to develop especially actively in the 1980s.
Types of Evidence for Evolution
Now let's talk about what evidence there is for macroevolution. Firstly, this is a comparative anatomical system of inferences, which is based on the fact that all animals have a single type of structure. This is what indicates that we all have common origin. Here great attention is given to homologous organs, also to atavisms. Human atavisms are the appearance of a tail, multiple nipples and continuous hairline. An important proof of macroevolution is the presence of vestigial organs that are no longer needed by humans and gradually disappear. The rudiments are the appendix, hairline and the remains of the third eyelid.
Now consider the embryological evidence that all vertebrates have similar embryos in the early stages of development. Of course, over time, this similarity becomes less and less noticeable, as characteristic features for a certain type.
Paleontological evidence of the process of evolution of species lies in the fact that the remains of some organisms can be studied transitional forms other extinct creatures. Thanks to fossil remains, scientists can learn that transitional forms existed. For example, such a form of life existed between reptiles and birds. Also, thanks to paleontology, scientists were able to build phylogenetic series, in which one can clearly trace the sequence of successive species developing in the process of evolution.
Biochemical evidence is based on the fact that all living organisms on earth have a uniform chemical composition and genetic code, which should also be noted. Moreover, we are all similar in energy and plastic metabolism, as well as the enzymatic nature of some processes.
Biogeographical evidence is based on the fact that the process of evolution is perfectly reflected in the nature of the distribution of animals and plants on the surface of the Earth. Thus, scientists conditionally divided the planet’s massif into 6 geographical zones. We will not consider them in detail here, but we will note that very close connection between continents and related species of living organisms.
Through macroevolution, we can understand that all species evolved from previously living organisms. This reveals the essence of the development process itself.
Transformations at the intraspecific level
Microevolution refers to small changes in alleles in a population over generations. We can also say that these transformations occur at the intraspecific level. The reasons lie in mutation processes, artificial and natural drift and gene transfer. All these changes lead to speciation.
We have examined the main types of evolution, but we do not yet know that microevolution is divided into some branches. Firstly, this population genetics, thanks to which they are produced mathematical calculations necessary for studying many processes. Secondly, this is environmental genetics, which allows us to observe development processes in reality. These 2 types of evolution (micro- and macro-) have great importance and make a certain contribution to the development processes as a whole. It is worth noting that they are often contrasted with each other.
Evolution of modern species
To begin with, let us note that this constant process. In other words, it never stops. All living organisms evolve from at different speeds. However, the problem is that some animals live for a very long time, so it is very difficult to notice any changes. Hundreds or even thousands of years must pass before they can be tracked.
IN modern world African elephants are actively evolving. True, with human assistance. Thus, the length of the tusk in these animals quickly decreases. The fact is that hunters have always hunted elephants, which had massive tusks. At the same time, they were much less interested in other individuals. Thus, their chances of survival and also of passing on their genes to other generations increased. That is why, over the course of several decades, a gradual decrease in the length of the tusks was observed.
It is very important to understand that the absence of external signs does not mean the end of the evolutionary process. For example, very often different researchers are mistaken about the lobe-finned fish coelacanth. There is an opinion that it has not evolved for millions of years, but this is not true. Let us add that today the coelacanth is the only living representative of the coelacanth order. If you compare the first representatives of this species and modern individuals, you can find many significant differences. The only similarity is in external signs. That is why it is very important to look at evolution comprehensively and not judge it solely by external signs. Interestingly, modern coelacanth has more similarities with the herring than with its ancestor, the coelacanth.
Factors
As we know, species arose through evolution, but what factors contributed to this? Firstly, hereditary variability. The fact is that various mutations and new combinations of genes create the basis for hereditary diversity. Note: the more active the mutation process, the more effective natural selection will be.
The second factor is the random preservation of features. To understand the essence of this phenomenon, let's understand concepts such as genetic drift and population waves. The latter are fluctuations that occur in periods and affect the population size. For example, every four years there are a lot of hares, and immediately after that their numbers drop sharply. But what is genetic drift? This means the preservation or disappearance of any signs in random order. That is, if as a result of some events the population decreases greatly, then some characteristics will be preserved in whole or in part in a chaotic manner.
The third factor we will consider is the struggle for existence. Its reason lies in the fact that many organisms are born, but only some of them are able to survive. Moreover, there will not be enough food and territory for everyone. In general, the concept of the struggle for existence can be described as a special relationship between an organism and its environment and other individuals. There are several forms of struggle. It can be intraspecific, which occurs between individuals of the same species. The second form is interspecific, when representatives fight for survival different types. The third form is the fight against environmental conditions, when animals need to adapt to them or die. At the same time, the struggle within species is rightfully considered the most brutal.
We now know that the role of species in evolution is enormous. It is from one representative that mutation or degeneration can begin. However, the evolutionary process is regulated by itself, since the law of natural selection operates. So, if new signs are ineffective, then individuals that have them will die sooner or later.
Let's look at one more thing important concept which is typical for everyone driving species evolution. This is isolation. This term implies the accumulation of certain differences between representatives of the same population, which have been isolated from each other for a long time. As a result, this can lead to the fact that individuals simply cannot interbreed with each other, thus creating two completely different species.
Anthropogenesis
Now let's talk about types of people. Evolution is a process characteristic of all living organisms. The part of biological evolution that led to the emergence of humans is called anthropogenesis. Thanks to this, separation occurred human species from great apes, mammals and hominids. What types of people do we know? Evolutionary theory divides them into Australopithecines, Neanderthals, etc. The characteristics of each of these species are familiar to us from school.
So we got acquainted with the main types of evolution. Biology can sometimes tell a lot about the past and present. That is why it is worth listening to her. Note: some scientists believe that 3 types of evolution should be distinguished: macro-, micro- and human evolution. However, such opinions are isolated and subjective. In this material, we presented to the reader 2 main types of evolution, thanks to which all living things develop.
To summarize the article, let's say that the evolutionary process is a real miracle of nature, which itself regulates and coordinates life. In the article we looked at the main theoretical concepts, but in practice everything is much more interesting. Every biological species represents unique system, capable of self-regulation, adaptation and evolution. This is the beauty of nature, which took care not only of the created species, but also of those into which they can mutate.
PART 3
K A K P R O I S H O D I T
E V O L U C I?
The theory of evolution is based on the assertion that everything is now existing plants and animals billions of years ago had a single ancestor - a living cell.
Development, therefore, consists of moving from simple to complex. In it, this movement, is the essence of theory; and it is also used as evidence of evolution. Without complications, there would be no evolution. And if single-celled animals had arisen at the dawn of life, they would have remained so to this day.
The “working tool” of evolution, according to its supporters, was natural selection. All organisms changed randomly - but only those whose changes turned out to be useful in the struggle for existence survived. We will talk about this later, but now we will only recall what is well known: some truth there is any untruth; otherwise who would believe in it! This is equally true of the theory of evolution.
Natural selection does exist in nature - but by no means as a universal method by which all modern plants and animals were formed. To assert this would mean to assert: dirt is brown, therefore everything brown is dirt.
Diversity existing types plants and animals are best explained in the Bible.
It says that God created different types of animals and plants, which then multiplied. Natural selection had just arrived, bringing with it the emergence of various variations within existing breeds.
But to claim that through him everything in the most complicated way Organized living beings developed from a single cell - illogical, to say the least.
Have you ever thought that natural selection, in principle, can have nothing to do with emergence living beings? After all, for the struggle for existence to begin, there must already be at least two participants in this struggle. A struggle without participants (which flared up before their appearance) is difficult to imagine.
MECHANISMS OF EVOLUTION
If evolution ever really existed, it must have had a variety of biological means at its disposal. Naturally, scientists thought a lot about this and conducted experiments.
Lamarck put forward the idea that an organism adapts to its environment, and then its descendants inherit the acquired properties.
Another idea was that living things develop new organs at the moment when the need arises. The larger it is, the wider the process goes.
Great method!
There is only one problem: the processes in reality go completely wrong.
When science turned to experiments, it turned out that acquired changes are not passed on to descendants. Otherwise, you could, without exercising, have strong muscles - from the father who developed them hard work. And if you still know the art of playing the piano, then your children have a direct path to becoming musicians, even if they don’t spend an hour at the instrument. And so on.
But experience teaches that each generation must acquire all skills, even small ones, on its own...
Although from time to time one or another scientist announces that he has managed to achieve the inheritance of some acquired properties - insignificant, so far...
At the time of Darwin, there was a widespread view that adaptation to the environment with the transmission of acquired properties by inheritance was a powerful driving element of evolution.
Modern science has abandoned this.
Darwin placed the main emphasis in his theory on the struggle for existence, with the survival of the fittest. Favorable changes will help a living creature survive and will be passed on by inheritance. The idea seems to be not bad - but the problem is: the laws of heredity do not allow it to be realized.
At the very beginning of our century, the work of Gregor Mendel, the father of genetics, was widely recognized. The study of the laws of genetics, widely carried out since then, showed that they do not confirm the theory of inheritance of acquired properties. Why - let's see.
MENDEL'S LAWS
1. The law of splitting.
Hybrids of the first generation, which have inherited dominant characters (properties), split during further reproduction; in their offspring, individuals with recessive traits appear again.
2. Law independent distribution genes.
Splitting for each pair of characteristics occurs independently of other pairs of characteristics.
POLYPLODY
At first glance, this natural phenomenon seems to increase the chances that evolution could occur.
It lies in the fact that a cell receives more chromosomes during fertilization than usual. As a result, when it divides, more cells are formed.
Polyploidy experiments are not difficult to perform. Eat chemical substance- colchicine - which causes it.
As a result of polyploidy, plant sizes become very large. Polyploid flowers and fruits are significantly larger in size than ordinary ones. Which is used in gardening and floriculture. By crossing polyploid plants with each other, you can get what is sometimes called new species. (Because, being capable of reproduction, they do not produce offspring when crossed with the plants from which they originated.) But in animal husbandry, cases of polyploidy are very rare.
And, of course, it adds nothing to the understanding of the mechanism of evolution. It's just doubling, tripling (and so on) the same ones chromosomes that already existed.
MUTATIONS
Only the fact that evolutionists no longer have a choice can explain their turn to mutations as a tool of evolution.
Mutations were taken not because there is logic in it, but because there are no other means. All other options turned out to be untenable, since they do not add anything, but only shuffle existing characteristics programmed in the mechanism of heredity.
The nucleus of every cell - from the simplest to the most complex - contains chromosomes, inside of which there are spiral threads. (They are twisted like a spiral staircase.) The material of the threads is deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA, for short). This is where genes are contained - carriers of hereditary characteristics and controllers chemical reactions in cells.
Genes are passed on unchanged from generation to generation.
But sometimes changes occur in the structure of the gene. Its chemical composition changes. These are mutations.
Transformations gene structure lead, in turn, to physical and physiological changes in the body.
Most mutations are harmful. Many are fatal.
Mutations can go undetected until the body has two damaged paired genes. With one damaged gene, the body survives - but passes it on to inheritance. This is typical for plants, animals, and humans.
Let's compare the DNA with a computer tape, where the program according to which the automatic plant operates is written. Genes are individual sections of the tape. Information in the factory is transmitted to individual machines; in the cell - through another substance - ribonucleic acid (RNA) - into the “machine part”. And then thousands begin to be produced here the most complex substances essential for cell life. In organisms higher order(human, animals) produced substances enter all cells of the body.
Copies of the living “computer tape” (DNA) are transferred from parents to the child. And “new factories” immediately begin to work in the new organism.
Let's imagine that our automatic factory makes toy scooters. There was an error in the computer tape. Cars began to come out of the workshop with broken steering wheels, without headlights - and the like. It's easy to imagine...
But it is much more difficult to imagine that an accidental mistake led to the production of an excellent tire, which was placed in a very convenient place...
Now try to believe that such random errors in the tape will force the plant to switch from producing toy scooters to producing real ones. And then - cars. And then - jet planes.
Is it easy to believe this?
Yes, no more difficult than the fact that random mutations turned a cell into a fish; fish - into reptiles; reptile - into a bird; bird - into mammal...
Here's another comparison.
Typists retype the book: “Design motor boat"The atheist wants us to believe: if they continue their work indefinitely, their mistakes will gradually change the content of the book, make it incomparably more complex. Let's say, turn the book into a manual for building nuclear submarines...
This is where the stumbling block for the materialist is!
After all, everyone knows that an infinite number of errors will simply turn a book into nonsense. But the materialist believes that instead the content of the book will become as if it were written by the smartest people in the world. Transformation is just as possible genetic code sea urchin, after enlargement and complexity, into the human genetic code.
HOW ORGANS ARISED
Darwin said:
“If it could be shown that any of the complex organs now existing were not formed as a result of numerous, favorable small changes, my theory would collapse completely.”
It is absolutely obvious to me that this problem was solved not by any therapsid, but by the Creator. He foresaw the need and provided for all the details. And no matter what organ we undertake to consider, it is impossible to explain its development from the standpoint of the theory of evolution.
