By the beginning of the 19th century, the Qing Empire was increasingly under pressure from European countries. The national internal political problems of the empire began to emerge especially strongly when Aishingyoro Mianning ascended to the imperial throne. At the beginning of his reign, a very strong threat of disintegration of the “Eight Banners” Manchus and their assimilation by the Chinese was revealed. The Manchus, for whom the most important things were horse riding, archery and knowledge native language, began to increasingly move towards a purely Chinese scale of social values - studying wenyan, receiving a classical Confucian education, passing exams for academic degree, transformation into a shenshi and a civilian bureaucratic career. At first, the government did its best to combat this danger. Thus, in 1822, the emperor refused a financial subsidy to a school for Manchus who studied Chinese classics, in 1833 he recommended that the “banners” not be taught anything other than horse riding and archery, and in 1836 he brought down punishments on a number of the highest “banner” commanders for admission of a subordinate to examinations for an academic degree without preliminary tests in these two types military training.
The impoverishment of soldiers and low-ranking officers became a widespread phenomenon, which sharply reduced the combat effectiveness of the army. At the same time, its numbers and, accordingly, military expenditures were constantly growing. The staff of bureaucrats and the funds for their maintenance increased. The number of the imperial court increased even faster. The costs of maintaining the state and military-administrative apparatus fell heavily on the treasury. The situation was complicated by a further reduction in tax revenues from landowners - smaller peasant farms could no longer pay the land-per capita tax in its previous amounts. As a result, both the total debt of the population to the treasury and the annual amount of arrears grew more and more. In search of a way out, the government introduced new taxes, took loans from the largest usurious “transfer houses” and banking houses of Shanxi, and increased the salt tax rates. Increasing arrears and increasing social tension forced Emperor Minning and Muzhang to issue a decree in 1830 to forgive old arrears. Opium Wars. The import of opium constantly increased and became a real disaster for the country, which led to a series of Opium Wars in mid-19th century century. The defeat in these wars led to the gradual transformation of China into a de facto semi-colony of the European powers. The result of the first Opium War was the victory of Great Britain, secured by the Treaty of Nanjing of August 29, 1842, the payment by the Qing Empire of an indemnity in the amount of 15,000,000 silver liang ($21,000,000), the transfer of Hong Kong Island to Great Britain and the opening of Chinese ports to British trade, including including opium. This was the first of the so-called unequal treaties. War with France. The Franco-Chinese war began. Despite the successes of the Qing troops, the emperor invited France to sit down at the negotiating table. The Franco-Chinese Treaty of Tianjin was signed on June 9, 1885. Under this agreement, the Qing Empire recognized France as the ruler of Vietnam, paid indemnity and granted France a number of trade privileges in the provinces of Yannan and Guangxi bordering Vietnam. One Hundred Days of Reform. A short period of reforms began on June 11, 1898, with the issuance by the Manchu Emperor Zaitian (the name of the years of reign - Guangxu) of the decree “On the Establishment of the Basic Line public policy". The period of radical reforms ended on September 21 of the same year, when Empress Dowager Cixi carried out a palace coup and abolished the reforms.
China is the largest country in the world in terms of population (1,300 thousand people). The territory of this country is 9,598 thousand km 2). E.K. Klimova characterizes the PRC as a specific country dominated by rural population(70% versus 30% urban). A significant part of the country's territory is located in mountainous areas and desert areas where agricultural and industrial activities are impossible or extremely difficult.
The income level of a significant part of the population is very low, and therefore the standard of living of the majority of Chinese citizens is also considered low. We also note that there is a significant Chinese diaspora living and working abroad. Including in the USA, as well as in the eastern regions of Russia.
China at the end of the 19th - first half of the 20th century
In the second half of the 19th century, China was a backward country with poorly developed industry. Most The population was engaged in agriculture using hand tools. The bulk of the land was in the hands of wealthy landowners, who rented it out to peasants.
In the last quarter of the 19th century, the country also began to develop capitalist relations. They were mainly built on the basis of foreign capital, foreign companies that took over the Chinese economy. Active construction of railways began, development economic relations, were built major cities. The number of workers has increased significantly. With the advent of industry, a national bourgeoisie began to form, which, however, supported foreign interests, since it was formed as component foreign enterprises in China. At the end of the 19th century, a significant part of the country was colonies of Japan and France. Russia, England, Germany. “The richest area along the Yangtze River came under the influence of England. The Japanese invaders began to dominate Fuqiziyan Prefecture. Any construction or changes in China were controlled by the occupiers... In 1897, Germany captured Sziaozhouwan Bay and included Shandong Prefecture in its circle of influence. France captured Suamchjuwan Bay, and in Yunan Prefecture Russia began to dominate Port Arthur," China in late XIX beginning of the 20th century. Electronic resource. Access mode: http: //vsemirnaya-istoriya.ru/index. php? option=com_content&view=article&id=1153: kitay&catid=44: istorita-drevnego-kitaya&Itemid=17
The suppression of the Ihetuan uprising by interventionists in 1900 led to the deprivation of the country not only of economic but also of political independence. In the early years of the twentieth century, US entrepreneurs began to actively operate in China.
Although the country experienced very rapid industrial development (about 50 new enterprises were opened a year), China remained not only poor. But also a big debtor. By 1914, its debt was $835 million.
"In 1911, the Wuchang uprising began in China, which resulted in the Xinghai Revolution, which lasted from 1911 to 1913. The Qing Dynasty was overthrown, China was proclaimed Republic of China. Tibet came under British influence. On February 12, 1912, the first president of China, Yuan Shikai, was proclaimed" Vasilyeva S., History of China. Electronic resource. Access mode: http: //www.historicus.ru/istoriya_kitaya.
In 1912, the Kuomintang party was created. In 1921 - Chinese communist party. The 20s of the twentieth century are the time. When these two political forces first performed together. And then - one against the other.
In 1931, China was occupied by Japan. An active struggle for liberation from this occupation has been going on since 1937, but liberation itself came after the Allied victory in the Second World War in 1945.
Already from the above historical facts it is clear that by the middle of the twentieth century, China was an economically backward, ruined, torn country internal confrontations. "On April 24, 1949, the Chinese People's Liberation Army won the civil war, destroying the Kuomintang. On October 1, 1949, China was proclaimed people's republic, which was already recognized by the USSR on October 2, 1949." Ibid. Chiang Kai-shek founded his own on the island of Taiwan independent state, which based its economic and political priorities on close cooperation with the United States.
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TO end of the XVIII century there was again a rise in trade between China and European and Asian countries. The Chinese sold tea, porcelain, and silk to Europe, but did not purchase any European goods, preferring to receive silver for their goods. The British began to import opium from India to China, gradually introducing the local population to opium smoking. The coastal regions of China became especially dependent on opium supplies. In the 19th century, the Opium Wars broke out in China.
The first Opium War in China took place in 1840-1842 between Great Britain and China. Great Britain defended its interests in trade, including the opium trade. The reason for the outbreak of war was the arrest of opium smugglers in China and the destruction of their cargo. Great Britain won the war, mainly thanks to the actions of its fleet. On August 29, 1842, the Treaty of Nanjing was signed, which secured Britain's victory in the war and also established China's obligation to pay an indemnity of $21 million and transfer Hong Kong Island to Great Britain. The war marked the beginning of a long weakening of China, oppression by foreign powers and depopulation local population.
The Second Opium War took place from 1856 to 1860 between China on one side and Great Britain and France on the other. Great Britain and France demanded the possibility of unrestricted trade and the admission of their ambassadors to Beijing. The reason for the outbreak of war was again the arrest of opium smugglers on a British ship assigned to Hong Kong. The war again ended in the defeat of China; on October 25, 1860, the Treaty of Beijing was signed, according to which China pledged to pay Great Britain and France 8 million liang, as well as expand their trade zone. According to the treaty, Great Britain withdrew southern part Kowloon Peninsula.
In 1894, China went to war with Japan. The Sino-Japanese War lasted until 1895. The main reason for the war was Japan's claims to control Korea and Manchuria, which at that time were in vassalage from China. China lost this war, and the Treaty of Shimonoseki was signed on April 17, 1895. According to this agreement, Korea gained independence from China, Taiwan, the Penghuledao Islands and the Liaodong Peninsula were ceded to Japan. Japan also got the opportunity to build industrial enterprises on the territory of China and import industrial equipment into the country.
The consequence of the Sino-Japanese War and the signed Treaty of Shimonoseki was a triple intervention by France, Russia and Germany. On April 23, 1985, these countries turned to Japan demanding the return of the Liaodong Peninsula to China, fearing Japanese control over Port Arthur. On May 10, 1985, Japan returned the Liaodong Peninsula to China, however, at the same time increasing the amount of indemnity assigned for China's loss of the Sino-Japanese War.
In 1897, German Chancellor Wilhelm II obtained Nicholas II's consent to establish a German naval base at Jiaozhou in Shandong. In November 1897, the Chinese killed German missionaries in Shandong. In response, Germany captured Jiaozhou. The Chinese had to lease Jiaozhou from Germany for 99 years and allow Germany to build two railways in Shandong, as well as a number of mountain concessions.
In 1898, in June, a period called the “hundred days of reform” began in China. The Manchu Emperor Zai Tian recruited a group of young reformers to develop reforms that would allow China to leap forward in its development. The reforms affected the education system, railways, factories, agriculture, armed forces, internal and foreign trade, and also state apparatus. In September 1898 there was palace coup, which was headed by Empress Dowager Cixi. The coup was successful and all reforms were canceled.
