The translator's "false friends" mislead us. Internal laws of language development

and the Novgorodians killed them not about three times, but themselvesstory everyone is turning back.

Determine the meaning of the word in bold. Propose a hypothesis that explains your position from a phonetic point of view.

Response model and criteria

This word means healthy (1 point), i.e. “returned healthy.”

In a word Hello(good health) in the process of reduction of reduced sounds (1 point), a vowel dropped out (1 point), as a result of which progressive (1 point) assimilation (1 point) into deafness-voicedness (1 point) became possible. Modern Russian word healthy different from Novgorod story direction of assimilation (1 point): for the Russian language, regressive assimilation (1 point) is much more characteristic, which occurred in the word healthy.

Total 8 points.

Task No. 2 (2 points)

Read the text. Determine the meaning of the highlighted word.

In these skirmishes, the advantage was usually on the side of the villains, well-fed, drunk and benign. The skinny city cavalry could not defeat them.

(A.S. Pushkin)

Response model and criteria

Dobrokonny- having good horses.

Total 2 points.

Task No. 3 (16 points)

Many names among different peoples are included in one etymological nest, going back to a common ancestor name. This is usually an ancient Greek or Hebrew name. Thus, the Italian name “Teodoro”, Romanian “Tudor” and Russian “Fedor” go back to the ancient Greek name “Theodoros”, which means “gift of God”.

Indicate a Russian name that is etymologically related to a foreign name. Specify the name - common ancestor and expand its internal form in the source language.

In Irish Sean, and in Russian...

In Polish Jerzy, and in Russian...

In German Klaus, and in Russian...

In Portuguese it’s Jaimi, and in Russian...

Response model and criteria

In Irish it is Sean, and in Russian it is Ivan. They go back to the Hebrew name “Yohanan”, which means “God has mercy”, “God rewards”.

In Polish Jerzy, and in Russian Georgy (Yuri, Egor). Goes back to the ancient Greek name Georgios, derived from georgos - “farmer” (one of the epithets of Zeus).

In German Klaus, and in Russian Nikolay. Goes back to the ancient Greek name Nikolaos: nik – “victory” + laos – “people, people, army”.

In Portuguese it is Jaimi, and in Russian it is Yakov. They go back to the Hebrew name “Yaakob”, which means “holding the heel” (according to the Old Testament, the patriarch Jacob was born holding his older twin brother Esau by the heel).

For each correct Russian name - 1 point (4 points in total).

For each correct name - common ancestor - 1 point (4 points in total).

For revealing the internal form of each ancestor name – 2 points (total 8 points).

Total 16 points.

Task No. 4 (8 points)

Let's assume that the words slurp , pie , son-in-law - These are verbs in the past tense singular masculine form. What would the possible third person singular present or future tense, past tense feminine singular, and infinitive forms of these verbs look like? Give similar examples from the Russian language.

Response model and criteria

From the word slurp: take a sip - take a sip - take a sip rowing - rowing - rowing(1 point).

From the word pie :

1. pyrognet - pyrogla - pie(1 point for all forms), similar to chilled - chilled - chilled(1 point);
2. pirozhet – pyrogla – piroch(1 point for all forms), similar to can – could – can(1 point).

From the word son-in-law : son-in-law - son-in-law - son-in-law(1 point for all forms), similar to flowing - flowing - flowing(1 point).

Total 8 points.

Task No. 5 (12 points)

Using your knowledge in the field of etymology, as well as in the field of foreign languages, explain the spelling of the highlighted letters in the words listed below (for example: Glasses - eyes; falsetto - false (Italian. falsetto, from falso– false)). Explain the choice of the test word.

thorough

Response model and criteria

brochure - brooch (both words go back to French brocher– “prick”, “fasten”);

thorough – finish (both words are in the same etymological slot with the word end);

cadrille - frame, squadron ( quadrille goes back to Latin quadrum– square (quadrille – dance in the square), and quadrum- to Latin quadro- four).

Frame is (initially) a quadrangular frame, squadron is a quadrangular combat formation.

frog - thigh (both words in the same etymological nest with kick).

For correct verification of each word 1 point.

For a correct explanation of each word, 2 points.

Total 12 points.

Task No. 6 (5 points)

Give one example each of the following cases of the word form functioning in a sentence waves:

1. it is a complement;
2. it is a circumstance of the course of action;
3. it is an integral part of the nominal predicate;
4. she is the definition;
5. it is part of the subject, which has the meaning of a joint agent.

Response model and criteria

• The steamer was covered by large waves (1 point).
• The fog covered the field and the river in waves (1 point).
• In the spring, the ice floes became waves (1 point).
• The actor came out in his famous toga with waves (1 point).
• Wind and waves caused damage to the coast (1 point).

Total 5 points.

Task No. 7 (6 points)

Czech phrases given young man(young gentleman, sir), young lady(young chick)green les(green forest) mladá žena(young woman)mladá kráva(young cow), green tráva(green grass) mladé děvče(young girl) young tele(young calf) green space(green city) and their Russian gender equivalents in the nominative, genitive and accusative case of both numbers.

Describe the similarities and differences in the expression of the category of animate/inanimate nouns in Czech and Russian*.

*This task does not present all cases of differences between Czech and Russian animation/inanimateness, therefore in the answer to the task you must indicate that the conclusion is drawn only on the basis of these examples.

Response model and criteria

Based on these examples, the following similarities can be seen: in the singular, animacy in both languages ​​is expressed by the coincidence of the accusative case form with the genitive case form only for masculine nouns (1 point).

The differences are:

1. unlike the Russian language, in the accusative plural the animateness or inanimateness of Czech nouns is not expressed at all (1 point);
2. Animation of masculine nouns (1 point) in the plural is expressed in the Czech language, unlike Russian, in the nominative case (1 point) using not only special endings of nouns (1 point), but also special endings of adjectives that agree with them (1 point) point).

Total 6 points.

Task No. 8 (8 points)

Two groups of sentences are given (examples from the National Corpus of the Russian Language).

First group

Around the cart stood about six young giants, very similar to each other and to Fedya.

[I.S. Turgenev. Khor and Kalinich (1847)]

Akim the Younger asked again five times, wiping away the tears that had appeared from laughter.

[M.A. Sholokhov. Upturned virgin soil. Book 1 (1932)]

For four days I held on, but the papers were six rubles higher.

[I.S. Shmelev. The Restaurant Man (1911)]

Second group

Six people went hunting, but only four returned.

[DI. Kharms. Cases (1935–1939)]

Maybe […] the three fishermen were hiding somewhere in secluded shelters, in thick sedge or under a lucky tree.

[Yu.V. Trifonov. Notes from a neighbor (1972) // “Friendship of Peoples”, 1989]

What do these two groups have in common? On what basis are they divided? Can all sentences from the second group be reduced to the form of the first?

Response model and criteria

In both groups, each sentence contains phrases with numerals (2 points). But there is also a semantic difference (1 point) - in the first group: the numeral is in postposition (2 points), which indicates an approximate quantity (1 point). In the second sentence from the second group, the numeral cannot be placed in postposition (1 point): *there are three fishermen. This is due to the fact that in the construction with postposition there are nouns with a sufficient degree of abstraction (1 point): once, day, person, etc.

Buy something of little value, sell something valuable...
The second sin of merchants is often lying,
You are ready to deceive your neighbor in things.

Task 1. What does the word mean? charm?

Task 2. What does the word mean? hedgehog and what part of speech is it? Give another form of the same word from a well-known Christian prayer.

Task 3. What would a proposal sound like?

I have a strong desire to buy (something) at a low price,

What if the modern Russian language preserved the same combination of words and the same syntactic structures as in this passage?

Response model and criteria

Task 1. Lovely means “to deceive” (1 point).

Task 2. Hedgehog stands for which(1 point), it is a relative (1 point) pronoun (1 point). Another form of this word is others like it(Our Father, who art in heaven...) (1 point).

Task 3. I earnestly wish for something of little value and will buy it (1 point).

The maximum score for all completed tasks is 74.

In French for a long time they said il preuve “he proves”, nous prouvons “we prove”, ils preuvent “they prove”. Now they say il prouve, ils prouvent, that is, they use forms that are phonetically inexplicable; il aime “he loves” goes back to Lat. amat, while nous aimons "we love" is an analogical formation in place of amons; one should also say amable instead of aimable “kind”. In Greek, s disappeared between two vowels: -eso- became -eo- (cf. geneos "kind" instead of *genesos). Meanwhile, this intervocalic s occurs in the future tense and the aorist of all verbs with a vowel: bud. vr. luso, aor. elflsa (from 1yb “to untie”), etc. Analogy with forms like bud. vr. tupso, aor. btupsa (from tijpto "to beat"), where the s was not dropped, retained the s in the future tense and aorist form of the indicated verbs. In German, in such cases as Gast "guest": Gaste "guests", Balg "skin": Balge "skins", etc., we have phonetic phenomena, while cases of Kranz "wreath": Kranze "wreaths" (formerly kranz: kranza), Hals "neck": Halse "necks" (formerly halsa), etc. owe their origin to imitation.
Analogy acts in the direction of greater regularity and seeks to unify methods of word formation and inflection. But it also has its own whims: along with Kranz “wreath”: Kranze “wreaths”, etc. we have Tag “day”: Tage “days”, Salz “salt”: Salze “salt”, etc. , for one reason or another, resisted the action of analogy. Thus, it is impossible to say in advance to what extent the imitation of the model will spread and what are the types by which others will be equal. Thus, the most numerous forms are not always the role models for analogies. In the Greek perfect, along with the active voice pepheuga "I ran away", pepheugas "you ran away", pepheugamen "we ran away", etc., the entire middle voice is conjugated without a:pephugmai "I ran away", pepMgmetha "we ran away", etc. etc., and the Homeric language shows us that this a was originally absent from the plural and dual of the active voice: cf. idmen “we know”, eikton “we (two) are alike”, etc. The starting point for the expansion of the analogy was, therefore, exclusively the first person singular form of the active voice, which subordinated almost the entire paradigm of the perfect indicative mood. This case is also noteworthy in the sense that here, by virtue of analogy, the element -a-, which was originally an inflectional element, is transferred to the base, from where pepheiiga-men; as we will see below (p. 205), the opposite case - the departure of a stem element to a suffix - is much more common.
Sometimes two or three isolated words are sufficient to form a general form, such as an ending; in Old High German, weak verbs like haben “to have”, lobon “to praise”, etc. have -m in the first person singular present tense: habem, lobom. This -m goes back to several verbs similar to the Greek verbs ending in -mi: bim “I am”, stam “stand”, gem “I go”, tuorn “I do”, under the influence of which this ending covered all weak conjugations. Note that in this case the analogy did not eliminate phonetic diversity, but simply generalized the method of formation.

More on the topic § 1. Definition of analogy and examples:

1. § 3. Inference by analogy. The Place of Analogy in Forensic Research
2. 5. GAPS IN THE LAW AND WAYS TO OVERCOME THEM IN THE PRACTICE OF APPLICATION. ANALOGY OF LAW AND ANALOGY OF LAW (F. Grigoriev, A.D. Cherkasov)

INTERNAL LAWS OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

T. I. GORBUNOVA
S.V. KHVOROSTOV

In our article we continue to consider the concept of “linguistic law”. This term refers to certain patterns that determine the occurrence of certain linguistic processes and their results. Understanding these laws helps to see the direction of development of a particular language, languages, or language as a phenomenon.

From our point of view, new information will be useful for our listeners and will become the basis for a new level of understanding of linguistic phenomena. We believe that the experience gained in linguistics and the potential of the Runic Language will help us in our work.

Since the article is of a “general scientific”, one might say, “educational” nature, then to explain the theses presented, we will, firstly, mainly turn to the material of natural languages; secondly, we will illustrate the above provisions with examples accessible not only to linguists.

It is known that some changes constantly occur in a living language. Sometimes the impetus for such a change is factors that lie outside the boundaries of the language itself: the living conditions of the people speaking a given language, the characteristics of social relations, the development of the economy and culture. Linguists call them extralinguistic, external or extralinguistic. The patterns of their influence on the linguistic system are formalized in the form of certain “linguistic laws” or “external laws of language development.” To some extent, this topic was discussed in the previous article, which we devoted to external linguistic laws. We illustrated the material of the article with examples from the Russian language, citing facts from the New Runic Language that confirm the presence of similar processes.

However, other changes can occur in a language, which are caused by the interaction between the elements of the language system itself, intralingual processes that are completely independent of the will and consciousness of the speakers. In this case, internal patterns operate, which manifest themselves as internal laws of language development. In this article m We will try to consider the essence of these laws and their connection with general factors. These include, first of all, systematic language.

Systemic nature of language determines the existence of certain relationships between its elements. These relationships are internal in nature and many transformations in language depend on them.

The indicated general factors of language development can also include two oppositely directed tendencies “programmed” within any language - kinematic And static. The kinematic tendency unites the forces that stimulate language transformations. The static tendency, in turn, comes down to the desire maintain the stability of the language system. Without this, language could not perform its main function - providing communication in the broadest sense of the word. Such communication is impossible without maintaining a certain stability of the language system, although many factors inevitably cause changes in the elements of language.

Thus, under the influence of two oppositely directed tendencies, language is, as it were, in a state moving balance. It is believed that this “mobile balance” between these two opposing tendencies is dialectical basis for language development.

At some stage, under the influence of certain processes, the kinematic tendency acquires greater strength, energy, which helps to overcome the desire of the language for stability. As a result, the language undergoes a transition to a new quality. At the same time, the linguistic system regains stability, but exhibits new characteristics.

As we have already noted, along with the internal processes characteristic of language in general, there are tendencies characteristic of one language or a group of related languages ​​at a certain period of their development. For example, in Indo-European languages ​​it is noticed tendency to lose case inflections of nouns, that is, no matter what role a given noun plays in a sentence, the form of the word does not change. Anyone who has studied English is familiar with this feature. Researchers call , and other trends characteristic of its development. This is, for example, movement towards using word position as a grammatical device And movement towards immutability not only of nouns, but also of other words.

Note that in the Runic Language, names of existence and names of manifestation also do not have “case endings”. For example:

[? H.A.J. ABOUTAABOUT L, there has been a tendency to eliminate special “case endings”. For example, currently personal pronouns have only two forms: one for the “nominative case” - for the first form of causative relations, and the second - for all other forms of causative relations.

Z DO;UP. In modern Russian they are lost, and in their place are [a] and [y]. By the way, nasal vowels have been preserved in Polish. Agree, it is difficult to name or simply assume a “non-linguistic” reason for these phenomena. And we can conclude that this is a consequence of intralingual processes.

Typically, such changes occur over decades or even centuries, and traces of these processes may persist in modern languages. For example, the early Proto-Slavic language inherited from the common Indo-European era the presence of closed syllables, that is, syllables that end in a consonant. Over a certain period, these syllables were rearranged in one way or another into open ones, that is, those that end in a vowel sound. This is how it manifested itself tendencies of increasing sonority, which also exists in modern Russian, in which “a syllable begins with the least sonorous element” .

At the same time, the Slavic languages ​​retained the characteristics of the Proto-Slavic language reduced vowels. The concept "reduced" comes from him Etsky wordreduzieren – reduce, reduce . This is the sound “subjected to reduction, resulting from reduction, less extended, less clearly expressed, less clearly articulated”. Or “...super-short, voiceless, vowel of incomplete education", which is also called " irrational". The most famous are the Proto-Slavic vowels, which were denoted by the letters ъ – “er” and ь – “er”. For example, reaper - reaper,door - door, sleep - sleep, book - book.

By the way, the phenomenon of reduction is well known to modern speakers of the Russian language, an example of which is the abbreviated form of words at a fast pace of speech, when, for example, “hello” is pronounced like [ hello].

At a certain stage in the development of Slavic languages, a transformation occurred. In the so-called “weak positions” the vowels “er” and “er” disappeared. In “strong positions,” for example, under stress, these vowels became vowels of full formation (in Russian, “er” was transformed into [o], “er” turned into [e]). In the history of the Russian language, this period is dated to the 12th – 13th centuries, and the phenomenon is called the “fall of the reduced.”

“The fall of the reduced ones caused such a restructuring of the phonetic system of the Russian language as no other historical change, and brought it closer to the modern…» .

Thus, with the loss of reduced ones, the law of the open syllable ended, and a large number of words with difficult-to-pronounce combinations of consonants appeared in the Old Russian language. These combinations have been simplified in different ways: sdѣ sya–Here; cloud–cloud–cloud; mazlo – oil; oslpa - smallpox; dushchan(from D'ska) –dschan – tchan – chan; miner(from gurnts "pot") –potter etc.

A new type of positional exchange also appeared, which remains in modern Russian. There is deafening of voiced consonants at the end of a word and at the end of a syllable before a voiceless one: garden[sat] – garden, boat[tray] – boat. In turn, before a voiced consonant, voiceless voices occur: threshing[small yeah ba], mowing[ka s ba]. (We do not use here the transcription of the given words accepted in phonetics, so as not to “confuse” the reader with special signs and the appearance of the designation reduced in modern Russian).

It is interesting that, as a result of the deafening of the voiced “v”, the original Russian sound [f] appeared in the language: rav –[ro f] – ditch, shop– [la f ka] – shop. Previously, [f] was found only in borrowed words, such as philosopher, Theodore etc.

A peculiar trace of the law of the open syllable remained in the Russian language until the beginning of the twentieth century. This was manifested, for example, in the use of the letters “er” and “er” at the end of the word, which denoted the hardness/softness of the final consonant. The soft sign is still used in the language today. The hard sign at the end of a word was abolished during the spelling reform after the 1917 revolution.

Changes in syllabic organization in Slavic languages ​​also influenced stress development. Thus, the free verbal stress of the “Common Slavic era” in modern Czech and Slovak languages ​​was replaced by a fixed stress on the initial syllable of the word. In Polish, the stress began to be fixed on the penultimate syllable. The Russian language still has free stress placement in words.

Let us remind you that we are studying internal processes, which are not related or implicitly related to communicative, social functions and the development of society, but occur as a result of the improvement of the linguistic system “as if in itself.”

In the previous article we mentioned the internal laws of language development and gave a list of them. However, this is not the only possible option for listing these laws. There are other approaches. For example, Professor N.S. Valgina identifies the following internal laws of language development.

— The law of consistency. This is a global law that is “at the same time as a property, quality of language”.

— The law of tradition, which holds back innovation processes.

— The law of analogy, a stimulator of subversion of tradition.

— The law of economy or the law of least effort.

— Laws of contradiction (antinomy).

So, let's look at the listed linguistic laws that are not included in the classification already familiar to you.

Law of consistency is found at different language levels - morphological, lexical, syntactic. It can manifest itself both within each level and in their interaction with each other. For example, in modern Russian there are 6 cases. Different studies on the Old Russian language name different numbers of cases that existed in it (from seven to nine, eleven or more). According to the researcher, the reduction in the number of cases in the Russian language led to an increase in analytical features in the syntactic structure of the language - the function of the case form began to be determined not only by the corresponding ending, but also by the position of the word in the sentence and its relationship with other members of the sentence.

However, in modern Russian it is possible to identify cases that are echoes of the “old case system”. For example, there are “traces” of the locative case, which in most cases coincides with the prepositional case - At work And about work. But there are words that have two variant forms in the prepositional case.

Into the forest at – o l e se

In the snow at - about sleep e ge

In ra yu – o r A e

On the door And – about dv e ri

The stressed ending also refers to the signs of the local case. It can be assumed that over time this difference will disappear and we will be dealing with one form.

The quality of consistency can manifest itself in other respects. For example, a change in the semantics of a word is often reflected in its syntactic connections and even in its form. And, conversely, a new syntactic compatibility can lead to a change in the meaning of the word (its expansion or narrowing). Often these processes are interdependent processes.

An example is the expansion of the meaning of the word “ecology,” which was first interpreted as “ the science of the relationships between plant and animal organisms and the communities they form betweenyourself and the environment"(see TSB). Since the middle of the 20th century, human impact on nature has intensified. As a result, ecology acquired the meaning of “the scientific basis for rational environmental management and protection of living organisms.” At the end of the 20th century. the ecology section is being formed - human ecology(social ecology); aspects appear accordingly city ​​ecology, environmental ethics etc. We are observing an expansion of the semantic field of the word, which is manifested in its word-formation capabilities and combinability qualities.

Law of linguistic tradition generally understandable to people. Language objectively strives for stability, that is, the system strives to preserve the developed options for expressing meanings. At the same time, the action of the law reveals a complex interweaving of external and internal stimuli that delay transformations in language. However, the potentialities of language just as objectively act in the direction of shaking this stability. As a result, at a certain stage a “weak link” appears in the system, and quite naturally a “breakthrough” occurs in it.

However, this process may be influenced by factors that are not directly related to the language itself. Moreover, the “peculiar taboo” on changing the form in some cases acts selectively.

For example, most Russian speakers know the proverb “ shoemaker without boots ", which reflects the literary norm. However, it sounded right before two pairs of felt boots, boots. The language norm has long changed, and they don’t speak two pairs of felt boots (felt boots), boots (boots), boots (bot), stockings (stockings). But for some reason the same form remains pair socks as literary, but the form pair of socks traditionally labeled as vernacular.

Tradition often manifests itself in the area of ​​emphasis.

call - called - call A whether, But called A

sleep - slept–joint venture A whether, But slept A

understand - n O nyal - n O hired, But Understood A

Law of contradictions . Controversies antinomies characteristic of any language as a phenomenon. When researching, several main provisions are usually identified; for example, we will consider some of them.

Stands out antinomy of speaker and listener. This contradiction arises when interlocutors (or reader and author) come into contact. The two sides have different interests and goals. The speaker is interested in simplifying and shortening the utterance, and the listener is interested in simplifying and facilitating the perception and understanding of the utterance.

In a certain sense, we can talk about a clash of interests, resulting in a “conflict situation”. It must be removed by searching for forms of expression that satisfy both sides, that is, as a result of some hidden compromise.

An example is a situation that arises in a classroom where a new teacher is giving a lecture. He must find out the level of knowledge of the students in the audience and, based on this, determine the volume of material and the depth of the topic, the pace of the lecture and the possibility of dialogue at a level accessible to students. The teacher’s ability to communicate with the audience is formed during the accumulation of relevant experience, and his tactics are adjusted in each specific lesson.

The solution to this contradiction in ordinary everyday – “real” communication occurs through increasing the level of education and culture of native speakers. In theoretical and practical terms, this is facilitated by the development of special courses and programs on rhetoric, oratory, and speech culture. As a result of familiarization with these materials, a person develops literary literacy of speech, its logic, expressiveness and persuasiveness, which provides the opportunity for harmonious communication based on understanding the situation, choosing appropriate dialogue tactics and resolving emerging issues.

Exists antinomy of usage and possibilities language system.

The concept of usus can be explained as follows. "Uzus (from Latin usus - use, use, custom) in linguistics, generally accepted use of a linguistic unit (word, phraseological unit, etc.) …» (see TSB).

This contradiction lies in the fact that the capabilities of the language (system) are much wider than the use of linguistic units accepted in a literary language. Thus, in the Russian language, the insufficiency of some grammatical forms is recorded. For example, the verb win There is no 1st person singular form. You will win. And in colloquial speech you can hear the use of humorous options - I will win. I'll run.

Another example can be given. In the Russian language there are verbs that do not have an aspectual pair. These are the so-called “two-type verbs” - attack, organize etc. Their specific meaning in terms of species is determined by the context. But in the language itself there are possibilities for creating a pair, and words are formed by analogy.

attack–attack

organize–organize

That is, the traditional norm acts in the direction of restriction and prohibition, while the system is capable of satisfying large demands for communication. And if the word attack is not yet perceived as inherent in literary speech, then the form organize has already become the norm.

Antinomy of two forms of language – written and oral.

Currently, the role of spontaneous communication in society is increasing and the boundaries of official public communication, which previously prevailed and was actually the voicing of book speech patterns, are blurring. That is, previously isolated forms of language implementation begin in some cases to come closer, intensifying their natural interaction. Oral speech perceives elements of bookishness, written speech widely uses the principles of colloquialism.

One might say that the very relationship between bookishness and conversationality is beginning to collapse. Thus, lexical and grammatical features of bookish speech appear in spoken speech - center of gravity, chain reaction, roll down an inclined plane, and sometimes purely written symbols, for example: Humancapitalized, kindnessin quotes. And in a bookish, even scientific style, vocabulary from a conversational style can be used – particles scatter, indicators jumped, shares soared.

Let us note that the provisions presented by the author are interesting in themselves. However, our task is not to study the proposed system in detail. Only a general familiarity with it is assumed, because the presented classification is not very suitable for solving our task - to identify similar processes in the Runic Language.

The already familiar version of identifying internal linguistic laws is more consistent with this. Among them:

« — the law of eliminating “tension areas” (processes of dissimilarity and assimilation of consonants to each other, simplification of groups of consonants);

- the law of positional variation of sounds (the behavior of noisy consonants in the position of the end of a word or at the junction of its morphemes);

- the law of analogy...;

— the law of compensatory development (the loss of some forms or relationships in the language is compensated by the development of others);

- the law of abstraction of elements of language structure (the development of abstract elements of language occurs on the basis of concrete ones);

- the law of economy of linguistic means (there is a tendency in language to realize optimal sufficiency: for each linguistic meaning there is an adequate form of expression) leads to a decrease in linguistic elements;

- the law of differentiation and separation of elements of the linguistic structure (the development of language follows the path of isolation and specialization of its elements to express their own linguistic meanings, which leads to an increase in the number of linguistic meanings)".

We will dwell on the analysis of the laws listed here in more detail. . And when explaining, we will try to illustrate the main internal patterns with specific linguistic material of the Russian language (which has already been partially done using historical examples), as well as cite some facts that were noted in Runalzhi.

The law of eliminating “tension areas”»

In modern Russian, this law can be illustrated by phonetic patterns. Thus, in oral speech, the loss of consonant sounds is clearly manifested when pronouncing words like Sun, ladder. There are also combinations that are consistently replaced in speech by one sound. For example, pronouncing the sound [ts] in verbs with a reflexive particle -sya: opening ts I -[opener], open ts I -[opener].

Often such phenomena are recorded in the conversational sphere of communication, especially when pronouncing “formulas of speech etiquette.” This has already been shown with the example of the word “ Hello", which can be pronounced How[hello, hello] or even [ grow].

The tendency to eliminate difficult-to-pronounce combinations of sounds can be illustrated by the example of processes occurring in the Old Russian language. We have already said that the “fall of the reduced” provoked further changes in phonetics and grammar. Thus, groups of consonants that are difficult to pronounce have formed, which is why they are simplified - one of the consonants drops out. Some transformations were also adopted in writing. For example, this is how a word existing in the Old Russian language changed: warm room/ heated room isba - isba - isba - hut.

The simplification of consonant groups in the forms of masculine singular past tense verbs is consistently fixed in writing. Thus, the forms of the Old Russian language - nesl, sokhl, mokl - passed into modern ones - carried, dry, mock. But a trace of this phenomenon is found in the modern Russian language in the forms of past tense verbs of the feminine and neuter singular and plural forms.

dry - dry - dry - dry

In the Runic Language you can also see examples of this kind – eliminating areas of stress. From our point of view, we can use as an example the fact of “elimination of length” in the spelling of certain words. It is very interesting that this process was not spontaneous - it was deliberately “calculated” by the author and included in the grammar as a rule. For example, there are grammatical rules that regulate the formation of aspect pairs of verbs. It is known that the form of the prefix – BF- (ha-) varies when forming perfective verbs.

We know that when forming a new form from verbs starting with a vowel sound, a short version of the prefix is ​​used - B- (x-).

LОAUC – BFLОAUC do – do
delface – hadelface

N> close - close
tubebase - hatubase

ОNBUC – BОNBUC open – open
eltheis – heltheis

U? » , "codes – co[T]» etc. There are no exceptions.

In the Russian language, consonants are also likened to each other in terms of voicedness/voicelessness in the position of the beginning of a word: Tuesday – [ fluoride], hand over – [ ask], at the junction of morphemes – confirm – [ believe] or uttering a preposition and a word together - in blood - [f krof] etc. .

Is it possible to talk about similar features in the Runic Language? We cannot talk about systemic deafening or voicing of consonants in rune words. But we can give some examples that provide material for observation.

Thus, in most cases, when in the Russian language there is deafening of voiced consonants or voicing of voiceless consonants in certain positions, in Runalji, according to our observations, “exemplary articulation” is included - the most clear pronunciation of sounds when pronouncing a separate word or syntactic units. This is especially true for words that have a conceptual meaning or are “concepts” - basic categories of being, if we use the terms of linguoculturology.

Probably, this also reveals the features of the New Language. Those who study Runalji already know from their own experience that even with exemplary pronunciation of words, difficulties may arise in the perception of lexical units by the interlocutor. Already at the beginning of language learning, an understanding of the peculiarities of the perception of runic speech by the interlocutor, the internal translation of lexical and syntactic units is formed, which, from our point of view, is largely connected not with the phonetic shell of the word, but with issues of understanding its essence.

So, in Russian the final consonant -and regularly stunned in [w], -d in [t], however, in the New Language these sounds are usually pronounced clearly, especially in “original rune” words.

LО; – delzh – implementation.

N’’L – tered – another creator

But sometimes at the end of a word there is still deafening of voiced consonants. The process is especially noticeable at a fairly high speaking speed, which occurs most often in the educational and everyday sphere of communication and usually when pronouncing words that do not carry additional internal meanings.

G-k

AU;UBR – feizhey G(k) – drawing

B-p

E< – forelock(p) – forelock

D-t

LOBJTL – delkhord(t) – fool

NFL tad(t) – dirt

We can assume that this is the influence of the articulatory skills of a Russian-speaking person, but, note, they appear quite regularly.

Law of analogy

From our point of view, in the history of Runalzhi there are some facts that can be explained by the law of analogy. By analogy we mean “similarity caused by the influence that one way or another interconnected elements of language have on each other, the desire to spread the productive model...”. Moreover , these processes can be of different nature.

For example, the action of the law of analogy can cause the transition of verbs from one class to another. So, in Russian verbs like read, throw form shapes - I read and quit. By analogy with these words, forms appeared I rinse(instead of I'm rinsing), waving(instead of I wave), meow(instead of meowing), etc.

Often this pattern can be illustrated with examples from colloquial speech and dialects. For example, two forms used in the same function influence each other. Thus, the words “table” and “place” have many of the same endings - no table, no space; approached table, place etc. They strive to assimilate other functions; therefore, the “common people” from the genitive plural of “tables” formed the form “places”.

The influence of case forms of possessive pronouns is the formation of colloquial variants of pronouns her, their. As is known, in the Russian language, in the third person singular and plural, the genitive case forms of personal pronouns are used to indicate ownership. – his, her, their. They do not change by gender, number and case .

Their home

Their family

Their village

Their villages

We approached their house.

But you can often hear

We've come to to them home.

It can be assumed that this form is formed by analogy with existing normative phrases.

We've arrived to my (yours, ours, yours) home.

You've probably heard such variants of the plural form of the word "coat O – n O lta", probably under the influence "rings O - To O faces".

Well, you can often hear non-literary "no socks" instead of "no socks" presumably influenced by the form "no boots, stockings". As we mentioned above, it is the form "socks, a pair of stockings, a pair of boots" was the norm at one time. (Note that we do not try to give all the facts that can be cited, but only the most famous and capable of becoming a good illustration).

This means that a gradual leveling is constantly taking place in the language, when rarer forms become similar to more frequent ones. We think that similar processes are also taking place in the New Language.

The following fact can be cited. Previously, in the Runic Language there were three words corresponding to the Russian word “what”, first – SU – Vosey, SX – fiddle with, then the word SH was introduced - cart as a question to the names of the manifestation of ROO.

Now the SX option ( fiddle with), used in this position has become an “archaism”, leaving two words SU ( Vosey) and SH ( cart). And if we take into account that the names of the manifestation of ROO are leaving the language, then in the future one word will remain.

This change can be interpreted not only from the point of view of the law of analogy, but also within the framework law of differentiation and specialization of language elements. Question “which” – SX ( fiddle with) is now applied only to ordinal numbers. This process can also be explained by the trend saving language resources.

Law of Economy

This law assumes: that there is a tendency in language to realize optimal sufficiency, that is, each linguistic meaning must have an adequate form of expression. This is exactly how word-formation mechanisms of language work, based on the collapsing of descriptive structures into one motivated linguistic unit. For example, from the combination “ black berry" the word " was formed blueberry"; phrase " higher education institution"became an abbreviation and now functions as the word " university", forming derivative words - "University programs"

As already noted, in the Runic Language there is a tendency to form new words replacing phrases. So the phrase “space-time continuum” was translated as AF;ETОA-X;ОAJ NJNX;[, and then it was replaced by one short word - AXN;[.

As a case of implementing the law of economy, we can consider optimizing the number of lexical units to express certain meanings. In the Runic Language there is a verb “to be”. It has two forms in the past tense – A-CUG, which is used with non-ROO existence names, and – C’G, the word is used with ROO existence names.

F>ОJ A-CUG NH[ ODT .

The man was in heaven.

;XRF A-CUG BONОAF.

The woman was beautiful.

R'NIF A-C'G NH[ DFKO.

The cat was in the garden.

And there were cases when the forms A-CUGH, A-C'GH were used in sentences.

A-CUGH EECOAJY.

It was light.

A-C'GH BFG'O.

It was bad.

These are mostly impersonal sentences, and the form of the word “to be” in most cases was determined by the semantics of the predicate, predicate, and possibly also the form of the Russian verb.

By new rule in all such cases, only one form is used - A-CUGH.

A-CUGH BABOUTHABOUTA.J.Y.,

It was beautiful.

A-CUGH C'<’IG’O.

It was terrible.

That is, we can say that in this way the principle of optimal sufficiency of means of expressing certain meanings is implemented.

In addition, the effect of homonymy, the overlap of meanings of two words that have a similar phonetic shell, is overcome. So in the Runic Language there is a word “unrealistic” - A-C’G’, which in some cases could become a homophone of this verb.

Law of Compensatory Development

How does this law manifest itself? When some forms are lost in a language, other forms or constructions that can replace the lost ones become more developed. They compensate for gaps in the expression of certain grammatical and semantic meanings.

The history of Runalzhi, from our point of view, contains enough examples that could illustrate this law. So , At the beginning of its development, the language had prepositions in - NH (those), na - DF (va), for - PF (za), s - BH (he), which had meanings similar to Russian prepositions. They had a universal character, that is, they were used to denote different meanings, as in the Russian language. For example, the preposition V expressed meaning – direction of movement – to school and location meaning - at school. But, as we know, in the Russian language, not only a preposition is used to express a specific meaning, but also inflection, and the specific meaning is derived analytically - taking into account the preposition and the ending of the name.

In the Runic Language, when declension of names of existence and manifestation, the words do not change, there are no inflections, therefore, as compensation, it became necessary to introduce new variants of prepositions or new prepositions denoting a specific meaning.

To school – NH BETF – te hura

At school – NH[ BETF – teri hura

This happened with almost all runic prepositions.

One can also cite the fact that there are no participles in the Runic Language. This was laid down in the author's grammar. But in the New Language there is a need to express the corresponding meanings. As a result, synonymous syntactic constructions are introduced - according to the rule, complex sentences with a subordinate attributive are used. In accordance with the author's vision, crying boy - a boy who cries– D.F.<[??ОJ, NF GXI’CH .

Some of these words - participles in the Russian language - have passed into the category of names of manifestation - open– BONBAJ, closed– BFN> Darling– R, despite the fact that the word ten is [t] soft?

As you know, numerals from five are combined with gendered nouns. pad. pl. hours (cf. five tables, six calves, etc.). In ancient times, the numeral ten was declined according to a special type of stem to a consonant, in this case - to -yat-, and to gender. pad. pl. h. had the shape of ten; hence: five + ten = fifty.

17. What type of features do the verbs have: marry, go out, execute, wound, bring, influence, be? Is it possible to divide these words into groups in terms of species characteristics? If possible, then on what basis?

All these verbs have features of both perfective and imperfective forms (in the same forms and meanings or in different ones). Taking this into account, according to their species characteristics, they can be divided into groups as follows.
1. The verbs marry, execute, wound, influence are two-species.
They can answer both the question “what to do?” and the question “what to do?”. The reporters photographed how (what he was doing?) the film actor was getting married. He (what did he do?) got married yesterday. In the Middle Ages, people suspected of witchcraft were often (what did they do?) executed. Emelyan Pugachev (what did they do?) was executed in 1775 in Moscow on Bolotnaya Square. Your words (what are they doing?) hurt me to the very heart. Your words (what did they do?) offended and hurt me. The compass needle (what does it do?) is affected by the Earth’s magnetic field. After unsuccessful persuasion, they took the scissors away from the child, that is, (what did they do?) they used force on him.
Forms of two-aspect verbs simultaneously possess characteristics of both types, but in some contexts (for example, in the examples given above) they appear in one of the specific uses - they answer only one of two possible specific questions. However, there are ambiguous contexts in which both questions can be posed to two-aspect verbs. These contexts do not allow us to determine the specific aspectual use of the verb. Today he (what is he doing? What will he do?) is getting married. Onlookers saw how (what did they do? what did they do?) Pugachev was executed. Your words (what did they do? what did they do?) wounded me to the very heart then. The child (what did they do? what did they do?) was influenced by persuasion.
2. The verb to be in different forms is characterized by different aspect characteristics. Some of its forms answer the question of the imperfect form (She (what did?) was at home), others answer the question of the perfect form (He (what will he do?) be there Tomorrow). This verb cannot be considered bivariate, since there is not a single form of it that would answer both questions at the same time.
3. The word bring with the meaning “to bring somewhere” has signs of an imperfect form (The piano must (what should be done?) be brought into the room very carefully). The homonymous word "to pollute, to wear out with long wear" is perfect (He (what did he do?) wear his shirt to the holes). So, in this case we are talking about incomplete lexical homonyms, differing in specific characteristics.
4. The verb to go out, “to leave the limits of something, to leave,” refers to the imperfect form (I (what am I doing?) leaving the house). The verb to go out “with care, care to return to a healthy state” - to the perfect (He was seriously ill, but his mother (what did she do?) went out). These words are homographs. They are written the same, but pronounced differently, and also have different type characteristics.

18. It is known that words of different parts of speech can have the same forms, for example: oven (noun) and oven (verb), three (numeral) and three (verb). Which of the following words can continue this series of examples? Give contexts that allow you to distinguish homonymous forms, and indicate the part-speech characteristic for each of them. What parts of speech do the remaining word forms belong to? Which of them have a comparative degree and is it constant or inconstant? In general, deeper, louder, earlier, healthier, more willing, later, before, more densely, earlier, more northwest, more talented.

Hello! At the initial stage of learning English, a beginner faces several basic topics that need to be understood and mastered - these are phonetics, grammar And vocabulary. These groups of topics can be called steps leading to the alluring goal of mastering a language. After mastering the first two, it’s time to study vocabulary - to expand and enrich your vocabulary. And although each topic requires a lot of effort, attention and time to master, learning vocabulary requires inexhaustible energy, since a huge load is placed on memory.

As a rule, wanting to achieve quick results, a student of English begins to watch films, listen to music, read books in English and tries by any means, deductive or associative, to understand a language that is still foreign to him. Such zeal, of course, is commendable, but all these methods of expanding vocabulary are good with properly organized step-by-step study, well-selected material and special diligence. Otherwise, you will find many surprises and mistakes in understanding the English language, one of which is the concept of “false friends of the translator.” A translator's false friends are pairs of words in two different languages, identical in pronunciation or spelling, but different in their semantic meaning.

"False friends" of the translator in English

A translator's false friends are pairs of words in two different languages, identical in pronunciation or spelling, but different in their semantic meaning.

False friends of a translator lead to misunderstandings during translation and misunderstanding of English. It is precisely for the reason that similar words, instead of helping to master the language faster and easier, lead to errors, they were so symbolically called “false friends of the translator” by two linguists M. Kössler and J. Derocquiny in 1928.

Take a look at the examples of the translator’s false friends, different in meaning, and it will immediately become clear what kind of pitfalls are hidden underneath them:

• Aspirant — candidate, but not at all graduate student
• Codex codex, not code
• List - list, not sheet
• Patron - boss, patron, but not cartridge

Similar pairs of words in different languages ​​cannot always be explained by common etymology, that is, by the fact that these words are borrowed. Of course, in many cases the common root of the translator's false friends is taken from some language, but their meanings have become different over time in two independent languages. However, this kind of similarity can also be the result of coincidence.

Video: False friends of translators

False friends of a translator can be found between some pairs of languages: Polish and Ukrainian, English and German, Russian and English, etc. Of course, we will deal with the false friends of a Russian speaker studying the “insidious” English language. Unfortunately, Russian and English are included in the small number of language pairs where there are words that are similar in appearance but have different meanings. In the vast majority of languages, translators do not need to engage in detailed study of “false friends”.

In fact, these words are not so scary, although sometimes they set traps for beginners: you may encounter no more than a few dozen pairs of words that you can actually remember. But a complete and, I must say, very long list of all false friends of the translator should not be taught. The question “maybe it will be necessary?” It will seem absurd when you try to remember thousands of pairs of words that are identical in spelling but different in meaning. “False translators” often set traps for gullible beginners

If this topic seemed difficult to you and you are already thinking about whether you need to learn such an incomprehensible language at all, I hasten to reassure you: in the English language you can also meet “true friends of the translator,” which linguists call “ cognates».

Congnates are pairs of words that have the same root, common origin and the same semantic meanings in two (or more) independent languages

The commonality of such words is not always due to the fact that these languages ​​belong to the same group of languages. Take a look at examples of “true translator friends” between Russian and Romanian:

• citi (chiti) - read
• iubi (yubi) - love
• drag (drag) - Expensive

In English and Russian, you can also come across words that are similar to each other:

• territory — territory
• strategy — strategy
• clan - clan

However, this was a slight deviation from our topic. And now I propose to pay attention to the most commonly used words in the English language, which are similar to Russian, but different in meaning.

Examples of a translator’s “false friends”

Dictionaries of “false friends of the translator”

The similarity between the graphic or phonetic forms of words with different meanings is also found within the same language and is called homonymy

Linguists also discovered the so-called interlingual homonymy (or the already familiar name “false friends of the translator”), after conducting a detailed study and study of this phenomenon, dictionaries were created that include words of this kind, as well as their correct and erroneous translations.

In 1969, a bilingual dictionary (English-Russian and Russian-English) of “false friends of the translator” was published, authored by Ukrainian linguist, Doctor of Philology V.V. Akulenko. Akulenko's dictionary contains 900 English words, each of them is accompanied by a similar-sounding Russian word and their analysis of the discrepancy, complete or partial. In addition, in the dictionary you will find a useful article that has a very good analysis of this category of words. And although many years have passed since its publication, this dictionary of “false friends” has not lost its relevance for everyone who studies English.

In 2004, the English-Russian dictionary of the translator's false friends appeared, which already contains more than 1000 English-Russian translator's false friends, the author of which is K.V. Krasnov. Today, this dictionary is the largest dictionary of interlingual homonyms (false friends of the translator). Recommended for teachers, translators and anyone who seriously works with the English language.

It is important for every “translator” to know

As is already known, in the native and studied languages, two words with different meanings, completely or partially coinciding in pronunciation or spelling, can confuse any person. However, that's not all. There are these kinds of words that can have several meanings, one of which still coincides with the meaning of the word “false friend”, but is not its main meaning. For example:

• the first meaning of the word " officer" is "official"