Andes relief. Geographical position of the Andes mountains

The Andes Mountains are a unique mountain system stretching across almost the entire territory of South America. The Andes Mountains are the longest mountain system, its length is 9 thousand km. and also one of the highest, but still not the highest, but this is for now, because the mountains still continue to grow. We look at the famous Andes mountains. ( 11 photos)

The Andes Mountains completely, from the north and from the west, circled South America, located along the coast of the Atlantic Ocean. The Andes Mountains are relatively young; the history of their origin dates back to the Jurassic period. The Andes Mountains are one of the largest mountain systems formed during the last major era of the Earth's geological history.

As a result of the collision of three lithospheric plates, the Nazca, Antarctic and South American, the first two sank under the larger South American, even in the history of the formation of mountains we see a distinctive feature, usually the origin is the collision of no more than two plates. Surprisingly, seismic activity in the Andean pores continues to be traced to this day, that is, the mountains are actively growing. And their growth is more intense than all other mountain systems, which one way or another are increasing in size.

Thus, in a year the Andes grow by more than 10 cm, who knows, perhaps soon they will become the highest mountains in the world, but for now the leading position is occupied by. A height of the Andes mountains is 6962 meters, the peak of the Andes mountains is a peak called Aconcagua. The average width of the mountains is 400 km, the widest point reaches 750 km. The Andes Mountains are conventionally divided into three zones: Northern, Central and Southern Andes.

Among all the other advantages of such impressive mountains, one more thing can be attributed: the Andes mountains are a line of conventional division; they separate water collections. The Andes are also the source of many large rivers and lakes; it is here that the famous river takes its source, which then spreads over hundreds of kilometers. The Andes Mountains have their own small lakes located right between the slopes, which either dry up or refill, depending on the time of year and precipitation. Andes Mountains coordinates 32°39′10″ S w. 70°00′40″ W. d. (G) (O) (I)32°39′10″ S w. 70°00′40″ W. d.

Due to the different climatic conditions in which the Andes are located, the mountains have unequal and dissimilar structures. So in the northern part of the Andes there are a large number of volcanoes, some of them are considered to be still active, and the central part is characterized by the sources of many rivers, the southern part of the Andes is characterized by low peaks and large glacial massifs, spread over almost most of this mountain system, the ice begins here already from a height of 1,400 meters.

Due to its impressive size, the Andes are located in 5 climatic zones simultaneously: equatorial, subequatorial, tropical, subtropical and temperate. The Andes also penetrate 7 countries of South America; the Andes are located on the territory of: Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina. Moreover, each country is proud of the location of one or another section of mountains on its territory.

Moreover, the Andes Mountains are also a rich reserve of various natural resources; in the Andes there are large deposits of non-ferrous metals: tin, lead, copper, zinc, etc. Active mining of iron and sodium nitrate is also carried out here, but gold deposits are of particular importance , silver, platinum and in some places precious stones (emeralds). The Andes also store oil and gas reserves. In general, the Andes are a real natural treasure trove for.

Today, in times of active tourism, when everyone can visit any corner of the planet if they wish, climbing the Andes is becoming widely popular. In some countries where the Andes are located, there are specialized centers that will prepare and guide you to admire the majestic slopes of the mountains. Of course, you won’t rise to a height of 6 km, but I think you don’t need such an unearthly height. To enjoy all the delights of the picturesque view, 1.5 km will be enough. It cannot be said that the Andes are particularly difficult to climb; some areas can be climbed without special climbing equipment.

Who would have thought that agricultural components could be grown in the mountains? Today at low mountain altitudes, up to 3.8 km. The following crops are actively grown and produced: coffee, tobacco, cotton, corn, wheat, potatoes, etc. Practice shows that on the moist and nutritious lands of the Andes, plants feel no worse than on the dry soil of the plains.

Throughout human history, people have associated mountains with something supernatural and powerful. Many writers have used mountains as inspiration. The Andes Mountains are a unique creation of nature, which is already known throughout the world, and to which thousands of tourists flock. We advise you to look at this miracle of nature. Stay tuned and enjoy your travels.

one of the highest mountain systems on Earth, which is located in the north-west of South America, with a very large number of active volcanoes that make up the Andean volcanic belt, with frequent earthquakes, large glaciers, rich natural resources in the form of gas, oil, non-ferrous metals

Definition of the Andes, geography of the Andes, northern Andes, central Andes, southern Andes, peaks of the Andes, people of the Andes, parks in the Andes, climate of the Andes, vegetation and soils of the Andes, wildlife of the Andes, ecology of the Andes, industry of the Andes, mining of the Andes, agriculture of the Andes , interesting in the Andes

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Andes - this is the definition

The Andes are the longest mountain, as well as one of the highest mountain systems in the whole world, from the system of which the rivers of the Atlantic Ocean basin flow to the east, and the rivers of the Pacific Ocean basin flow to the west, these are mountains where formations have not yet ended and continue, so it is possible here You will find many active volcanoes, and they are also frequent here. The Andes mountain system runs through the territory of 7 countries of America (South America), it should be noted that the Andes sound like “Copper Mountains”.

The Andes are mountains that serve as the most important climatic barrier, isolating the territories to the west of the Main Cordillera from the influence of the Atlantic Ocean, and to the east from the influence of the Pacific Ocean.

The Andes are mountains that lie in 5 climatic zones (equatorial, subequatorial, tropical, subtropical and temperate) and are distinguished (especially in the central part) by sharp contrasts in the moisture content of the eastern (leeward) and western (windward) slopes.

The Andes are revived mountains, erected by recent uplifts on the site of the so-called Andean (Cordilleran) folded geosynclinal belt; The Andes are one of the largest systems of alpine folding on the planet (on the Paleozoic and partly Baikal folded basement).

The Andes are the longest mountain range in the world, it is still growing.

Andes, what is it? the longest and one of the highest mountain systems on Earth.

Andes, what is it? mountains where plates of the earth's crust collide, volcanoes act, and mountains rise.

Andes where it is along South America in a giant chain, there are many rocky peaks and fire-breathing mountains.

Geography of the Andes

The Andes are revived mountains, erected by new uplifts on the site of the so-called Andean (Cordilleran) folded geosynclinal belt; The Andes are one of the largest systems of alpine folding on the planet (on the Paleozoic and partly Baikal folded basement). The beginning of the formation of the Andes dates back to Jurassic time.

The Andean mountain system is characterized by triasetrogs that were formed and subsequently filled with layers of sedimentary and volcanic rocks of considerable thickness. Large massifs of the Main Cordillera and the coast, the Coastal Cordillera, are granitoid intrusions of Cretaceous age.

Intermountain and marginal troughs (Altiplano, Maracaibo, etc.) were formed in Paleogene and Neogene times. Tectonic movements, accompanied by seismic and volcanic activity, continue in our time. This is due to the fact that a subduction zone runs along the Pacific coast of South America: the Nazca and Antarctic plates go under the South American plate, which contributes to the processes of mountain building.

The southernmost part of South America, Tierra del Fuego, is separated by a transform fault from the small Scotia plate. Beyond the Drake Passage, the Andes continue the mountains of the Antarctic Peninsula.

The Andes are rich in ores mainly (vanadium, tungsten, bismuth, molybdenum, arsenic, antimony, etc.); the deposits are confined mainly to the Paleozoic structures of the eastern Andes and the vents of ancient volcanoes; There are large copper deposits on the territory of Chile. In the foredeep and foothill troughs there is oil and gas (in the foothills of the Andes within Argentina), and in the weathering crusts there is bauxite.

The volcano was conquered in 1937 by Polish climbers Justin Wojżnys and Jan Szczepanski. On the way to the summit, which only experienced climbers can reach, researchers discovered traces of Inca sacrificial altars.

Apparently, the Ojos del Salado volcano was revered by the Indians as a sacred mountain. On April 21, 2007, the Chilean athlete Gonzalo Bravo managed to climb the slope of Ojos del Salado to a height of 6,688 meters on a modified Suzuki Samurai (Suzuki SJ), thus setting a world climb record for.

Climbing the highest volcano on the planet, Ojos del Salado

Summit of Monte Pissis (height 6793 m)

Monte Pissis is an extinct volcano in the province of La Rioja, Argentina, located approximately 550 km north of Aconcagua. Due to its location in the Atacama Desert, snow is only available at its peak during the winter. It was named after Pedro José Amadeo Piz in 1885, a French geologist who worked for the Chilean government. The first ascent to the top of the mountain was made by Polish climbers Stefan Ościecki and Jan Szczepanski on February 7, 1937.

Monte Pissis

Mount Huascaran (height 6768 m)

Huascaran is a mountain in the Andes with a height of 6768 m, the highest point in the Peruvian Republic and the fourth highest mountain in South America. Huascaran is located in the national park of the same name and is part of the Cordillera Blanca massif.

In addition to the main peak of Huascaran Sur, the mountain has two more - Chopicalqui and Huascaran Norte. The first ascent was made in 1932 by a group of German and Austrian climbers. American Annie Smith-Peck was the first to climb the Huascaran Norte peak in 1908. Mount Huascaran is known for catastrophic events.

On December 13, 1941, a burst of Lake Palcochocha caused a mudflow that destroyed the city of Huaraz, killing 5,000 people. On January 10, 1962, a glacier that fell from Mount Huascaran generated a mudflow with a volume of 13 million cubic meters, which killed 4,000 people.

On May 31, 1970, due to an earthquake, a large ice collapse occurred on the northern slope, which caused a mudflow that buried a Czechoslovak mountaineering group, the city of Yungay and the surrounding valley, killing 20,000 people. It turned out that on Mount Huascaran the value of the acceleration due to gravity is the lowest on Earth - 9.7639 m/s².

Summit of Cerro Bonete (height 6759 m)

Cerro Bonete is a mountain in the north of the province of La Rioja, Argentina, near the border with the province of Catamarca. The height of its peak is 6759 m above sea level (SRTM data), which makes it the fifth highest mountain in America (after Aconcagua, Ojos del Salado, Monte Pissis and Huascaran).

Cerro Bonete

Summit of Mercedario (height 6720 m)

Mercedario is the highest peak of the Cordillera de la Ramada (English)Russian. and the eighth highest mountain in the Andes. In Chile it is known as La Liga (Spanish: La Ligua). Located 100 km north of Aconcagua, in the Argentine province. The first ascent of the mountain was made in 1934 by Adam Karpinski and Viktor Ostrovski, members of a Polish expedition.

Volcanic massif Nevado Tres Cruces (heights 6749 m and 6629 m)

Nevado Tres Cruces is a volcanic massif in South America, belonging to the Andes mountain range, located on the border of Argentina and Chile. It is eight to twelve kilometers long from north to south and consists of four main peaks. The two highest peaks are Tras Cruces Sur with an altitude of 6749 m and Tras Cruces Central, 6629 m. The Nevado Tres Cruces National Park in Chile is named after the mountain.

Volcano Llullaillaco (height 6739 m)

Llullaillaco is an active volcano in the Western Cordillera range of the Peruvian Andes, on the border of Chile and Argentina. Located in an area of ​​very high volcanoes on the high plateau of Puna de Atacama in the Atacama Desert, one of the driest places in the world. It has an absolute height of 6739 m, a relative height of almost 2.5 km. At the top there is eternal glaciation. The last explosive eruption dates back to 1877, and the volcano is currently in the solfataric stage. Llullaillaco is the tallest active volcano on the planet, the second highest volcano in the world and the seventh highest peak in the Western Hemisphere. The snow line on the western slope exceeds 6.5 thousand meters (the highest position of the snow line on earth).

Mount Incahuasi (height 6621 m)

Incahuasi is a volcano in the province of Catamarca, in the north-west of the country of Argentina. It is located in the east of the Atacama Desert. This volcano has two large peaks. The volcano has a 3.5 km wide caldera. Four pyroclastic cones are located 7 km to the northeast.

Population of the Andes

The modern population of the interior plateaus of the Andes consists mainly of Quechua Indians, whose ancestors formed the basis of the Inca state. The Quechua practice irrigated agriculture and domesticate and breed llamas.

On the shores of Lake Titicaca live the Aymara people, who fish and make various products from the reeds that grow along the low shores of the lake.

Parks in the Andes

They found traces of the cultivation of peanuts, pumpkins, and other crops in the Andes. These plants do not grow wild near their location, and therefore were domesticated elsewhere. The development of agriculture indicates the settled life of ancient people, their transition from primitive communal methods of food production, less dependence on nature, as well as the creation of the foundations for the development of inequality and the state.

Peruvian Republic

Accidents in the Andes

Accident - destruction of structures and (or) technical devices used at a hazardous production facility, uncontrolled explosion and (or) release of hazardous substances.

Passenger bus accident in the Andes

The bus went off the road and fell into the abyss; only eight people were saved. On Thursday morning, a passenger bus for unknown reasons went off the road in the Peruvian Andes and fell into a gorge. Only eight people, who were seriously injured, were saved. Rescuers found the rest already dead.

42 people were killed in a terrible accident in the south of the Republic of Peru

“The bus is completely destroyed at the bottom of the plain, and the worst thing is that we are isolated here, there is no connection, like many cities in Peru,” RIA Novosti quotes the words of Mayor Velil, who, together with local residents, helped the victims.

A bus fell off a cliff in Peru

"Miracle in the Andes" involving cannibalism

On October 13, 1972, a plane carrying a junior rugby team from Montevideo crashed in the Andes. On the eleventh day, they heard that rescuers from three countries had stopped searching for them. To survive, the survivors were forced to eat their dead comrades.

What happened to the Uruguayan rugby team was later called the “miracle in the Andes.” In fact, the plane with five crew members and forty passengers on board took off on October 12. It was a charter flight carrying Uruguayan junior rugby players, as well as their relatives and coaches, from Carrasco to Santiago.

Due to bad weather conditions, the plane was forced to land at the airport in the Argentine city of Mendoza. On October 13, bad weather did not allow us to fly directly to Santiago, so we were taken to another Chilean city - Curico. Having passed it, the pilots received the air traffic controller's command to descend to Santiago, but because of the cyclone they had to do it blindly, which was the fatal mistake of the crew.

Coming out of the cyclone, the plane found itself directly in front of the mountainside. Despite all the efforts of the pilots, they were unable to avoid the collision. The car, having struck the mountain, lost its tail and wings, and then the fuselage rushed at breakneck speed down the slope and crashed into a huge snowdrift. During the crash, 12 people out of 45 flying died, five more were missing.

The next day they will be found dead. A day later, another plane crash victim dies. Two weeks later, the survivors will be covered by an avalanche, and eight more passengers will be lost. Three would die from wounds and frostbite in the following days. Of the 45 passengers, only 16 will survive.

Chile and Argentina searched for the plane for eight days. But since the fuselage was white, it blended in with the snow, which made the search difficult. On the ninth day the search was stopped. When the first shock passed, the surviving passengers began to inspect the things scattered during the disaster. So we managed to find several bottles of wine, crackers and chocolate bars. Water was obtained by melting snow in the sun. To do this, they threw it over the metal parts of the collapsed plane. No one had warm clothes. That's why they slept leaning against each other.

When the food ran out, the question arose of what to do next. Considering that there was nowhere to wait for salvation, the living decided to eat the dead. It didn't come easy for everyone. After all, many of the dead were someone’s relatives or close friends. And yet, hunger forced the rugby players to become cannibals.

Moreover, one of the survivors will say after a while that if it had not been for the avalanche, everyone would have died. The snow not only sheltered the broken fuselage from the winds, but, horribly, it also gave the survivors eight more bodies. Even then it was obvious that they would have to save themselves, that is, the transition through the Andes was inevitable. The surviving pilot claimed that the green valleys from the crash site were not that far away. But winter was in full swing, so even determined rugby players were afraid to hit the road.

Stay alive

Finally, when waiting any longer would have been tantamount to death, the passengers of the crashed charter took the plunge. The four of us were going to go, but one of the athletes died from blood poisoning. Three set off - Nando Parrado, Roberto Canessa and Antonio Visintin. Almost immediately they came across the back of the plane, where they found some food, clothing and cigarettes. And also batteries.

On the very first night the weather worsened sharply, and the trio almost froze to death. We had to go back to the fuselage and together sew a sleeping bag from pieces of material obtained from the tail. The batteries were of no use. At first they wanted to use them to transmit a distress signal, but nothing worked out. The batteries provided direct current, but alternating current was needed.

Trapped in the Andes

And again the three brave ones set out in search of saving valleys. But on the third day they realized that it would take a long time to walk, so Parrado and Canessa sent Vizintin back to the camp, and they themselves, taking his supplies of human meat, moved on. Only on the ninth day of the journey did they meet a Chilean farmer to whom they explained the situation. He fed them and called the rescuers.

Parrado himself, being stronger, became the guide. The next day, helicopters arrive at the crash site. The rescuers couldn't believe their eyes. 72 days after the disappearance of Flight 571, they saw living passengers. Unfortunately, not all of them. Those rescued were provided with medical assistance. They were treated for altitude sickness and dehydration, scurvy and malnutrition.

Married, has two children. He is interested in racing.

No one survived the plane crash in the Andes

Rescuers carefully examined the crash site of the Venezuelan ATR42 aircraft and the command issued a final report on the search operation. The conclusions drawn are very disappointing.

All 46 people on board the plane were killed. “The circumstances of the crash do not allow us to hope that any of the passengers or crew members could survive,” said the head of civil aviation of Venezuela, General Ramon Vinas. It was previously reported that the plane crashed into a mountain and broke into small pieces upon impact.

The general added that a search operation is ongoing at the site of the plane crash. Rescuers are transported to the scene of an emergency by helicopter, and then they have to descend along mountain terraces to the place where the airliner crashed into the mountain. Fragments of the plane are scattered over a large area, which also complicates the operation, FOX News reports.

Let us recall that the twin-engine ATR42 aircraft, owned by the Venezuelan airline, was flying from Merida to Caracas. Shortly after takeoff, the plane disappeared from radar screens. It was later discovered that he crashed into a mountain.

Plane carrying football team that disappeared in 1961 found in the Andes

Santiago, February 12. In the Andes, at an altitude of more than three thousand meters, climbers discovered the wreckage of a plane that crashed in 1961, reports MIR 24. Eight Green Cross football teams were on board, all of them died.

The site of the plane crash is about three hundred kilometers south of the capital of Chile, Santiago.

Three people died in a helicopter crash in the Andes

Three people were killed in a helicopter crash in the Chilean Andes, including the former Chilean ambassador to . The accident occurred on Saturday morning 570 kilometers south of the Chilean capital Santiago. As reported by RIA Novosti with reference to the France-Presse agency, there were four people on board, one of them managed to escape by jumping from the helicopter before it fell. He was taken to hospital after a rescue team arrived at the crash site. The bodies of the victims were recovered from the scene of the accident several hours later.

If there are uninteresting mountains in the world, then these are definitely not the Andean Cordillera. Standard tourist routes can be on foot or on horseback, one-day or long, but they all make you feel the differences between the two cultures colliding in the mountains. Small colonial towns, built by Europeans arriving on the mainland, and old forts contrast themselves with stone palaces and temples, remembering the times when there was no trace of Amerigo and Christopher.

Since the mountain range passes through seven countries, the diversity of cultures is truly impressive. The distant descendants of the indigenous population of the mainland mixed in the most bizarre way with European conquerors and brought slaves, and therefore the traditional beliefs of the local residents are very different from the Catholicism that exists in everything else civilized world. For tourists, perhaps the most interesting cities in the region are La Paz and Cusco.

Moreover, everyone who comes will be happy - the local flavor is unique, so lovers of souvenirs and national cuisine will have a special pleasure wandering around very cheap, in a European opinion, local establishments. The only danger facing visitors is to initially experience a certain discomfort due to the fact that La Paz is located at an altitude of more than 3.5 thousand km above sea level.

All lovers of active recreation should pay attention to the walking routes that run through all the places that are more or less of interest to modern spoiled tourists. One of the most remarkable areas of the mountain range where the Andes Mountains pass is the territory of the modern Republic of Peru.

The next must-see place is Lake Titicaca, which is the highest and most navigable body of water. In order to see it, you don’t need to travel far, the address is the border of Bolivia and the Peruvian Republic, Central Highlands.

Many people are probably familiar with the Grand Canyon, which native and non-native Americans are so proud of, but the Colca Canyon (Peru) surpasses it by an order of magnitude, having a depth of more than 4 thousand km.

Equatorial evergreen forests with an abundance of exotic plants - bamboo, myrtle and tree ferns - give the impression of absolute primitiveness, and on your first walk n It leaves you with the feeling of traveling back to prehistoric times, when huge lizards still roamed the earth.

Crossing the 3 thousand km mark above sea level, the traveler sees a radically changed landscape, in which the main place is now occupied by lichens, cacti and dwarf shrubs.

When planning a trip to South America, it is worth considering that it is impossible to see all the places where the Andes are located, because even on the map the mountains are too large, and the variety of architectural and historical monuments, natural areas and landscapes, tourist routes and cultural events makes them completely immense.

Horseback crossing of the Andes

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I have always been in awe of the sight of mountain peaks reaching up to the sky, bathed in sunlight. Powerful, monumental, unshakable Atlanteans, breathing calm. And if I am faced with a choice between the sea, the forest and the huge rock masses, I will choose the latter without hesitation. The only things better than mountains are mountains!

And there are few places on the planet where I felt such inspiration as next to the majestic Andes. As part of the Cordillera mountain system that bisects the planet from the northernmost tips of Canada almost to Antarctica, the Andes proudly bear the responsibility of keeping the waters of the Pacific and Atlantic oceans in the southern hemisphere from mixing. The highest, longest, youngest mountains in the world. Rising to a height of almost 7,000 meters, strewn with dormant and waking volcanoes, this huge prehistoric creature stretches for 9,000 kilometers and plunges its southern edge into stormy waters, forming a complex pattern of straits and glaciers where ships have been lost for many centuries. The Andes keep many secrets, mysteries and dangers: somewhere the Incan gold is hidden, somewhere planes crashed.

This is where I come back every time an airline like Iberia, Lufthansa or Turkish Airways announces a sale.

Northern Andes

In the north, the Andes rise above the tropical rainforests of Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador; their character is difficult: the height of 4500-6000 meters and changeable weather require special skills from tourists. But you can choose a simpler option: rent a car and drive around the foothills of volcanoes and lakes, or take a ride on the longest cable car in the world (almost 2 kilometers) Teleferico de Merida in Venezuela.

Central Andes

In Peru and Bolivia, the Andes contain in their depths vast and fertile plateaus on which the Incas once built cities. But for me the main treasures of these places are the high-mountain lakes, deep like Titicaca and turned into salt marshes like. You can spend a stunning few days exploring the customs of the people of Taquile Island on Titicaca, where men knit from colored wool. Or spending the night on the reed-woven islands of Uros under the huge and bright stars at an altitude of 3800 meters. Or sweeping with the breeze across a huge pit of salt. Or coming up with the most incredible compositions for photography in a place where there is no perspective. And, of course, enjoying the most memorable sunsets of your life.

Southern Andes, Carretera Austral

The long and narrow strip of land called Chile and the endless Argentine pampas stretch along the Andean ridges, to the tops of which clouds cling. And they cling in the literal sense: rain clouds driven by Pacific winds cannot overcome the mountain barrier and shed precious moisture on the southern Chilean side (northern Chile, with the world's driest Atacama Desert, is not so lucky). The famous road built in the mid-1970s under Pinochet, the Carretera Austral, or “southern road,” winds here. This is one of the most picturesque and interesting routes I have ever traveled; it provides an opportunity to fully enjoy the beauty of mountain peaks, wild rivers, azure lakes and proud pine trees over 1,240 kilometers.

It is better to travel in the summer months (December to February), since at other times of the year the ferry crossings do not operate and you will not be able to enjoy all the delights of the trip. Therefore, feel free to plan a big vacation for the January holidays and then, in addition to the famous South Road, you will be able to see the huge Perito Moreno glacier, breathe in the famous Patagonian winds and find out why Tierra del Fuego is called so. By the way, the Northern and Central Andes are friendly to travelers all year round.

Where to start

The starting point of Carretera Austral is the Chilean city of Puerto Montt. This is a cute little village, imbued with a European spirit, from where tourists, after admiring the ancient mahogany cathedral, go to the Lake District, to the Villarrica volcano or to the island of Chiloe. Here you have to decide how you will conquer the Southern Road: the bravest ones hitchhike or ride bicycles, while the rest rent a car.

From Chiloe Island you can take a ferry to the town of Chaiten and head either north or south.

Another option is to start in the south, from the village of Villa O'Higgins, which can be reached by ferry from Argentina, which runs several times a week from November to March and takes only pedestrians or cyclists on board (costs about $60, or 40,000 pesos) , or by entrusting yourself to the care of a travel company. She will not only organize transportation to the ferry by bus, but will also offer to explore the glaciers on the lake “on the way” (the tour will cost from $130).

What to take with you

1. Regardless of which method of travel you choose, you need to have a supply of provisions with you; you will find supermarkets only in relatively large settlements; in other settlements there are only village shops with a minimum set of products.
2. Don't forget a set of medications and essential supplies you need (from bandages to toothpaste and repellents). Carretera Austral is not a place where you can take just a passport and a credit card.
3. Comfortable clothing and shoes are a must as there are so many stunning, inviting places to explore!
4. There is enough cash in local currency (Chilean pesos), you won't find ATMs until Coyahique, and cards are not accepted anywhere.

If you choose to travel on foot or by bike

Since the distances between populated areas and campsites are large, you will need:

• tent,
• sleeping bag (in the mountains, even in summer the nights are cold),
• gas burner,
• pot and dishes,
• and other camping equipment.

You can rent everything you need, including a bicycle, in Puerto Montt (the choice is very limited and the prices are very high) or in Santiago, where there are a huge number of rentals with good bicycles. To do this, you will need to present a passport and a bank card to hold the deposit (depending on the rental period from $250). Rental prices start from $30 per day or $120 per week.

If you decide to travel by car

You can rent a car in Puerto Montt or, as I did, in Santiago (in this case, you will need to set aside a few days to drive almost 1000 kilometers along the magnificent highway, stopping at wineries and visiting national parks).

1. Prepare, in addition to your usual license, an international license (some rental agencies will not issue a car without them) and, of course, a bank card with a sufficient amount in the account to block the deposit.
2. Explore the websites of rental companies to choose the most suitable option. Under no circumstances should you look at small cars, only four-wheel drive! If possible, refuse the options of cars that look like they just came out of the showroom; choose a car that has undergone a baptism of fire, because small stones will inevitably fly on gravel roads.
3. To the south of Carretera Austral the Andes are filled with many magnificent landscapes, such as the famous Fitzroy Peak and the beauty of the Torres del Paine National Park. But, since some areas of the country are occupied by impassable mountains, part of the journey will have to be done through the territory of Argentina. To do this, you will need special documents for the car. Be sure to contact the rental agency in advance - documents for crossing the border take several days to prepare. And be prepared for the fact that you will be charged a fee of $200 for registration.
4. You will rarely see gas stations along the way, so take advantage of every opportunity to replenish your gasoline supplies.

So, you've saddled up a four-wheeled beast (I, for example, got a red pickup truck, on the hood of which someone was playing tic-tac-toe with a nail) and are ready for adventure.

By sea

At the very beginning of the journey, three ferries will be waiting for you, which will circle the inaccessible mountain slopes covered with dense forest by the sea (see map below). The first ferry leaves from La Arena every hour and costs about $15 (10,000 pesos) per car. In half an hour you will reach the peninsula, which can only be reached by sea. The second ferry departs from the village of Ornopien (which has several shops and overnight stops), located at the southern end of the peninsula, twice a day - in the morning and in the afternoon. It is better to check the schedule in Puerto Montt. This ferry takes 5 hours, the ticket costs $54 (35,000 pesos), and this price includes the third ferry, which departs when all passengers on the second ferry have safely covered 10 kilometers of gravel road.

By land

As a result of all the sea voyages, during which majestic mountains, forests and waterfalls will float past, you will find yourself in the village of Caleto Gonzalo. From here, boldly head south, stopping at picturesque places and climbing deep into the mountains. You will travel at an average speed of 50 km/h, so you will not miss signs for recommended hiking trails to particularly beautiful and amazing natural treasures and numerous national parks.

Carretera Austral ends in a dead end in the village of Villa O'Higgins, from where you can cross to Argentina (only those traveling on foot or by bicycle are taken on the ferry), or return back if you are traveling by car.

Where next?

Along the entire Southern Road you will find several opportunities to cross the border with Argentina: near the village of Santa Lucia, near Lago las Torres park, the town of Coyaqui and before reaching Cochrane. I would highly recommend the latter option, as not only will you be able to see almost all of Carretera Austral, but you will also drive past a magnificent lake called Lago General Carrera in the Chilean part and Lago Buenos Aires in the Argentine part.

Tourist infrastructure

You can spend the night in campsites that are scattered throughout Carretera Austral, or in populated areas. Almost all locals rent rooms from $10 to $55 (8,000-35,000 pesos) per night for two and will be happy to feed you breakfast (not always for an additional fee). Free campsites are simply cleared sites. Those equipped with a toilet, hot shower and awnings will cost from $5 to $10 per night.

For example, on January 2, I stopped in the picturesque village of Via Cerro Castillo, where in the evening the entire large family of the hosts gathered for dinner. Despite my limited knowledge of Spanish, I was invited to share a meal with everyone and enjoy a wonderful evening. The men prepared a traditional dish - roasting a young lamb on a cross - a la cruz, and the women cut fresh vegetables and herbs. It was the most delicious lamb I've ever tasted in my life. And the glare of the fire on their open and friendly faces, songs accompanied by an accordion and majestic mountains under the shadow of the starry sky are forever etched in my memory.

Catering establishments are found only in the largest settlements: Ornopirene, Koyaki, Cochrane. In other places, the best you can hope for are small grocery stores. I usually tried to have a hearty breakfast and dinner where I spent the night (if the hosts didn’t cook, I asked permission to use the kitchen), and during the day, pre-prepared sandwiches helped me out.

Southern Andes, Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego

On the western edge of the Patagonian steppes rise the Southern Andes. They are no longer as high as in the north, but no less beautiful. Along the entire foothills of the mountains lie delightful natural reserves, the main pearls of which are the giant Perito Moreno glacier, one of only two on planet Earth that is not decreasing, but growing, and Torres del Paine Park, the harsh beauty of which attracts travelers from all over the world. What wonders Patagonia has in store and how to get to them is well written.

And further south, the red grass of Tierra del Fuego rustles in the wind, where, according to legend, giants lived, and the Andes descend their peak-studded tail into the ocean, from which glaciers slide down like caps. Here, as the last stronghold of the mountains, Cape Horn rises from the water, and landing on it is a stroke of luck. Few ships and fierce cold currents travel between this outpost with a lonely lighthouse and Argentina.

The Andes are multifaceted and unpredictable, they fascinate and make you fall in love; once you see them, you will come back again and again. After all, the only thing better than the mountains is the Andes!

AND .

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Description and characteristics

The total length of the mountain range is more than 18 thousand km, the maximum width in North America is 1600 km, in South America - 900 km. Almost along its entire length, it plays the role of a watershed between the basins of two outstanding oceans - the Atlantic and the Pacific, as well as a pronounced climatic natural boundary. In terms of height, the Cordillera is second only to the Himalayas (the highest mountains in the world, located between the Tibetan Plateau and the Gangetic Plain) and the mountain ranges of Central Asia. The highest peaks of the Cordillera are McKinley Peak (English: Mount McKinley; Alaska, North America, 6193 m) and (Spanish: Aconcagua; Argentina, South America, 6962 m).

The Cordillera crosses almost all geographical zones (except the Antarctic and subantarctic). The mountain system is characterized by a wide variety of landscapes and clearly defined altitudinal zones. The snow line runs at altitudes: in Alaska - 600 m, in Tierra del Fuego - from 600 to 700 m, in Bolivia and Peru it rises to 6500 m. In the north-west of North America and the south-east of the Andes, glaciers descend almost to ocean level , then in the tropical zone they crown only the highest peaks.

The mountain system is divided into 2 parts, consisting of many parallel ranges: the Cordillera of North America and the Cordillera of South America, called. One mountain branch passes through the Antilles, the other passes into the territory of the South American continent.

The main processes of mountain building, as a result of which the Cordillera was formed, occurred in North America from the end of the Jurassic period to the beginning of the Paleogene, in South America - from the middle of the Cretaceous period, actively continuing in the Cenozoic era. To date, the formation of the mountain system has not been completed, which is confirmed by frequent earthquakes and highly intense volcanic processes. There are more than 80 active volcanoes, of which the most active are the following: Katmai (South Alaska), Lassen Peak (North America), Colima (Spanish Volcan de Colima; Western Region) Mexico), (Spanish Volcan de Antisana; 50 km southeast of Quito, Ecuador), (Spanish Sangay; Ecuador), (Spanish Volcan San Pedro; northern Chile), Orizaba (Spanish Pico de Orizaba ) and Popocatepetl (Spanish: Popocatepetl) in Mexico, etc.

Relief structure

The relief of the Cordillera is quite complex; the system is divided into folded-block ridges, volcanic mountains and developing young platform depressions (accumulative plains). Mountain folds were formed at the junction of 2 lithospheric plates, in the area of ​​​​compression of the earth's crust, which is crossed by many faults starting at the ocean floor.

The largest relief structures of the Cordillera include: Alaska Range (Alaska), Coast Ranges, Rocky Mountains (western USA and Canada), Colorado Plateau (western USA), Cascade Mountains (English: Cascade Range; western North America), Sierra Nevada (Spanish: Sierra Nevada; North America). The ranges are cut by deep river valleys called canyons.

Cordillera

The Andean Cordillera, or (Spanish: Cordillera de los Andes) is the southern part of the Cordillera with a length of about 9 thousand km, they border the entire South American continent from the northwest. The average width of the Andes is 500 km (maximum width: 750 km), the average height is about 4 thousand m.

The Andean ranges are a giant interoceanic divide. The rivers of the Atlantic Ocean basin (and many of its tributaries, tributaries of Paraguay, rivers of Patagonia) originate in the mountains and flow to the east, and small rivers of the Pacific Ocean basin flow to the west.

The Andean ridges serve as the most important climatic barrier, protecting the territories lying to the west of the Main Cordillera chain from the influence of the Atlantic Ocean, and the eastern territories from the Pacific influence. The mountains stretch across 5 climatic zones: equatorial, subequatorial, tropical, subtropical and temperate.

Due to their impressive length, individual landscape parts of the Andes are strikingly different from each other. Based on the nature of the relief and climatic differences, there are 3 main regions: Northern, Central and Southern Andes.

The Andes stretch from north to south through the territories of 7 South American countries: Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina and Chile. Behind (Spanish Drake) is the Antarctic Peninsula, which is a continuation of the South American Andes.

Minerals

The Cordillera is characterized by a variety of mineral resources, in particular, huge reserves of ferrous and non-ferrous ores. The Andes are predominantly rich in non-ferrous metal ores; there are significant deposits of tungsten, vanadium, bismuth, tin, molybdenum, lead, arsenic, zinc, antimony, etc.

The territory of Chile has large deposits of copper. In the foothills of Argentina, Bolivia, Peru, and Venezuela there are oil and gas fields, as well as brown coal deposits. In the Bolivian Andes there are deposits of iron, in the Chilean Andes - sodium nitrate, in the Colombian - underground storehouses of platinum, gold, silver and emeralds.

Cordillera: Climate

Northern Andes. The northern part of the Andes belongs to the subequatorial zone of the northern hemisphere with alternating dry and wet seasons. The rainy season is from May to November. The Caribbean Andes are located at the junction of the tropical and subequatorial zones; a tropical climate with low rainfall prevails here all year round.

The equatorial belt is characterized by an abundance of precipitation and an almost complete absence of seasonal temperature fluctuations, for example, in (Spanish Quito - the capital of Ecuador) fluctuations in average monthly temperatures over the year are about 0.4°C. The altitudinal zone is clearly defined here: in the lower part of the mountains the climate is hot and humid with almost daily precipitation; in the lowlands there are many swamps. With increasing altitude, the amount of precipitation decreases, but the massiveness of the snow cover increases. From an altitude of 2.5 – 3 thousand m, daily temperature fluctuations increase (up to 20°C). At altitudes of 3.5 - 3.8 thousand m, average daily temperatures are about + 10 °C. Even higher - the climate is dry, harsh, with frequent snowfalls; With above-zero daytime temperatures, severe frosts occur at night. Above 4.5 thousand m there is a zone of eternal snow.

Central Andes. One can note an obvious asymmetry in the distribution of precipitation: the eastern Andean slopes are moistened much more intensely than the western ones. To the west of the Cordillera Main chain, the climate is desert, there are very few rivers, in this part of the Andes extends (Spanish: Desierto de Atacama), the driest place on the planet. In some places the desert rises to 3 thousand meters above sea level. The few oases are mainly located in the valleys of small rivers, fed by water from the melting of mountain glaciers. The average January temperature of coastal zones ranges from +24°C (in the north) to +19°C (in the south); mid-July - from +19°C (in the north) to +13°C (in the south). Above 3 thousand m there is also little precipitation, invasions of cold winds are noted, then the temperature at times drops to −20 °C. The average July temperature is not higher than +15°C.

Fogs are frequent at low altitudes. The climate is very harsh, average annual temperatures do not rise above +10°C. It has a great softening effect on the climate of the surrounding area.

Southern Andes. The Chilean-Argentine Andes are characterized by a subtropical climate, with dry summers and wet winters. As you move away from the ocean, the climate becomes more continental and seasonal temperature fluctuations increase.

Moving south, the subtropical climate of the western slopes gradually turns into a temperate oceanic climate. Powerful western cyclones bring enormous amounts of precipitation to the coast - it rains more than two hundred days a year, there is frequent dense fog, and the sea is constantly stormy. The eastern slopes are drier than the western ones; the average summer temperature on the western slopes of the mountains ranges from +10°C to +15°C.

At the southernmost tip of the Andes (Terra del Fuego), the climate is very humid, shaped by powerful southwesterly winds. Precipitation occurs most of the year, often in the form of drizzle; Low temperatures prevail throughout the year with very slight seasonal variations.

Vegetation

Impressive heights, a pronounced difference in moisture between the western and eastern slopes of the mountains - all this determines the wide variety of vegetation cover of the Andes; 3 altitudinal zones are usually distinguished here:

• Tierra caliente (Spanish: Tierra caliente - “Hot land”), lower forest belt in the mountains of Central (up to 800 m) and South America (up to 1500 m);
• Tierra fria (Spanish: Tierra fria - “Cold Land”), the upper forest belt in Central and South America, from 1700-2000 m (at low latitudes) to 3500 m (below the equator);
• Tierra Helado (Spanish: Tierra helado - “Frosty Land”), a high-mountain belt (between 3500-3800 and 4500-4800 m) with a harsh climate.

IN Venezuelan Andes Shrubs and deciduous forests grow. The lower slopes (“tierra caliente”) from the Northwestern to the Central Andes are covered with tropical (equatorial) and mixed forests, which are characterized by various palm trees, banana and cocoa trees, ficus, etc.

In the Tierra Fria belt, the nature of the vegetation changes noticeably: tree ferns, bamboos, cinchona, and coca bushes are typical for this zone. Between 3000 and 3800 m, shrubs and low-growing trees grow: lianas and epiphytes, tree ferns, myrtle, heather and evergreen oaks are common. Even higher, predominantly xerophytic vegetation grows, with moss swamps and lifeless rocky cliffs. Above 4500 m there is a belt of ice and eternal snow.

Further south, in the subtropics Chilean Andes Evergreen shrubs predominate. The high mountain plateaus in the north are covered with wet equatorial meadows - (Spanish: Paramo), in Peruvian Andes and in the east of Tierra helado - dry mountain-tropical grass steppes of hulk (Spanish: Hulka), on the Pacific west coast - desert vegetation, in the Atacama Desert - numerous succulent epiphytes and cacti. Between 3000 m and 4500 m, semi-desert vegetation (dry puna) predominates: dwarf shrubs, lichens, cereals and cacti. To the east of the Main Cordillera there is a large amount of precipitation, and here there is steppe vegetation with cushion-shaped shrubs and various grasses: feather grass, fescue, reed grass.

Tropical forests (cinchona, palm trees) rise along the wet slopes of the Eastern Cordillera up to 1500 m, turning into low-growing evergreen forests (bamboos, ferns, lianas); and above 3000 m - into high mountain steppes. A typical representative of the flora of the Andean highlands (found up to 4500 m) is polylepis (Polylepis, family Rosaceae) - this plant is common in Bolivia, Peru, Colombia, Chile and Ecuador.

In the middle part of the Chilean Andes today, the mountain slopes are practically bare, with only isolated groves consisting of pines, araucarias, beeches, eucalyptus and plane trees.

The slopes of the Patagonian Andes are covered with subarctic multi-tiered forests of tall trees and evergreen shrubs; There are many lianas, mosses and lichens in the forests. To the south there are mixed forests in which magnolias, beeches, tree ferns, conifers and bamboos grow. Eastern Patagonian Andes covered mainly with beech forests. The extreme south of the Patagonian slopes is characterized by tundra vegetation.

Mixed forests of tall deciduous and evergreen trees (canelo and southern beech) occupy a narrow coastal strip in the western Andean ranges of Tierra del Fuego; almost immediately above the forest border there is a snow belt. In the east, subantarctic alpine meadows and peatlands are common.

Animal world

The Andean fauna is characterized by a large number of endemic species. The mountains are inhabited by alpacas and llamas (the local population uses representatives of these species for meat and wool, and also as pack animals), various species of monkeys, pudu deer, relict spectacled bear and gaemal (endemics) guanaco, vicuña, sloth, Azar's fox, marsupial opossum, chinchilla, anteater and degu rodents. In the south live: Magellanic dog, blue fox, tuco-tuco (endemic rodent), etc.

A variety of birds are found in abundance in the “fog forests” (tropical rain forests of Colombia, Ecuador, Bolivia, Peru and northwestern Argentina), among them hummingbirds, which can be found even at altitudes of more than 4 thousand m. The endemic condor lives at altitudes up to 7 thousand m. Some species of animals, such as chinchillas (which in the 19th - early 20th centuries were uncontrollably exterminated for the sake of valuable skins), as well as the Titicaca whistler and wingless grebes, living only in the vicinity of Lake Titicaca (Spanish: Titicaca), today they are on the verge of extinction.

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Cordilleras or Andes (Cordilleros de Los Andes) is the Spanish name for a huge mountain system (from the Peruvian word Anti, copper); The ridges near Cuzco were previously called by this name, but later the mountain range of South America began to be called this. The Spaniards and Spanish-Americans also call part of the ranges of Central America, Mexico and the SW United States Cardillera, but it is completely wrong to call the mountains of these countries the same name as the huge mountain range of South America, which, starting in the extreme south, at Cape Horn, stretches almost parallel to the Pacific Ocean, along the entire southern.

America to the Isthmus of Panama, for almost 12,000 km. The mountain ranges of the western part of the North American continent have no connection with the South American Cordilleras or the Andes; in addition to the different direction of the ridges, they are separated from the Andes by the lowlands of the Isthmus of Panama, Nicaragua and the Isthmus of Teguantenevo.

To prevent misunderstandings, it is therefore better to call the South American Cordilleras the Andes. They mostly consist of a whole series of high ridges, running more or less parallel to one another and covering with their uplands and slopes almost 1/6 of the entire southern part. America.

General description of the Andes mountain system.

Description of the Andes mountain system.

A mountain system of enormous extent, with complex orography and varied geological structure, differs sharply from the eastern part of South America. It is characterized by completely different patterns of formation of relief, climates and a different composition of the organic world.

The nature of the Andes is extremely diverse. This is explained, first of all, by their enormous extent from north to south. The Andes lie in 6 climatic zones (equatorial, northern and southern subequatorial, southern tropical, subtropical and temperate) and are distinguished (especially in the central part) by sharp contrasts in the moisture content of the eastern (leeward) and western (windward) slopes Northern, central and southern parts of the Andes differ from each other no less than, for example, the Amazon from Pampa or Patagonia.

The Andes appeared due to new (Cenozoic-Alpine) folding, the manifestation of which ranged from 60 million years to the present day. This also explains the tectonic activity manifested in the form of earthquakes.

The Andes are revived mountains, erected by new uplifts on the site of the so-called Andean (Cordilleran) folded geosynclinal belt. The Andes are rich in ores, mainly non-ferrous metals, and in the foredeep and foothill troughs - oil and gas. They consist mainly of meridional parallel ridges: the Eastern Cordillera of the Andes, the Central Cordillera of the Andes, the Western Cordillera of the Andes, the Coastal Cordillera of the Andes, between which lie internal plateaus and plateaus (Puna, Altipano - in Bolivia and Peru) or depressions.

An interoceanic divide runs through the Andes, where the Amazon and its tributaries, as well as tributaries of the Orinoco, Paraguay, Paraná, Magdalena River and Patagonian River, originate. The highest of the world's great lakes, Titicaca, lies in the Andes.

The windward wet slopes from the Northwestern Andes to the Central Andes are covered with montane moist equatorial and tropical forests. In the Subtropical Andes there are evergreen dry subtropical forests and shrubs, south of 38° south latitude there are moist evergreen and mixed forests. Vegetation of the high mountain plateaus: in the north - the mountain equatorial meadows of Paramos, in the Peruvian Andes and in the east of Puna - the dry high-mountain tropical steppes of the Halka, in the west of Puna and throughout the Pacific west between 5-28 ° south latitude - desert types of vegetation.

The Andes are the birthplace of cinchona, coca, potatoes and other valuable plants.

Classification of the Andes.

Depending on the position in a particular climatic zone and on differences in orography and structure, the Andes are divided into regions, each of which has its own characteristics of relief, climate and altitudinal zone.

The Andes are distinguished: Caribbean Andes, Northern Andes, lying in the equatorial and subequatorial zones, Central Andes of the tropical zone, subtropical Chilean-Argentine Andes and Southern Andes, lying within the temperate zone. Particular attention is paid to the island region - Tierra del Fuego.

From Cape Horn, the main chain of the Andes runs along the western coast of Tierra del Fuego and consists of rocky peaks from 2000 to 3000 altitudes above sea level; the highest of them is Sacramento, 6910 above sea level. The Patagonian Andes go straight north to 42° S. sh., accompanied by parallel rocky, mountainous islands in the Pacific Ocean. The Chilean Andes stretch from 42° S. w. to 21° south w. and form a continuous chain, dividing in a northern direction into several ridges. The highest point not only of this area, but of the entire Andes is Aconcogua 6960 above sea level).

Between the Chilean Cordillera and the Pacific Ocean, at a distance of 200 - 375 km, there are huge plains lying at an altitude of 1000 - 1500 above sea level. In the south these plains are covered with rich vegetation, but the higher mountain regions are completely devoid of it. The Bolivian Andes form the central part of the entire system and head north from 21° S. to 14° S huge masses of rocks stretching in length over almost seven degrees of latitude, and in width over a distance of 600 - 625 km. About 19°S w. the mountain range is divided into two huge longitudinal parallel ridges to the east - the Real Cordillera and to the west - the Coastal. These ridges enclose the Desaguadero Highlands, which stretches for 1000 km. in length and 75 - 200 km. in width. These parallel ridges of the cordillera stretch over a distance of about 575 km. one from the other and are connected, at some points, by huge transverse groups or single ridges, cutting them like veins. The slope to the Pacific Ocean is very steep, it is also steep to the east, from where spurs diverge to the low-lying plains.

The main peaks of the Coastal Cordillera: Sajama 6520m. 18°7′ (S and 68°52′ W, Illimani 6457 m. 16°38 S and 67°49′ W, Peruvian Cordillera. separated from the Pacific Ocean by a desert of 100 - 250 km wide, extending from 14° to 5°, and is divided into two eastern spurs - one running to the northwest, between the Marañon and Guallaga rivers, the other between Guallaga and Ucayalle lies the Pasco or Guanuco highlands. The Cordillera of Ecuador begins at 5°S and extends north to the Quito Highlands, surrounded by the most magnificent volcanoes in the world in the eastern branch: Sangay, Tunguragua, Cotopaxi, in the western branch - Chimborazo, on the eastern chain. . there is the Paramo mountain node, from which there are three separate chains: Suma Paz - northeast past Lake Maracaibo to Caracas, near the Caribbean Sea to the northeast, between the Cauca and Magdalena rivers.

Choco - along the Pacific coast to the Isthmus of Panama. Here is the Tolimo volcano 4°46′ N. and 75°37′W. The giant Andes mountain range intersects between 35°S. and 10° N many, mostly narrow, steep and dangerous passes and roads at heights equal to the highest peaks of European mountains, such as, for example, the passes between Arequipa and Puna (and the highest pass between Lima and Pasco. The most convenient of them are accessible only to travel by mules and llamas, or carrying travelers on the backs of the natives. Along the Andes for 25,000 km, there is a large trade road from Trujillo to Papayan.

In Peru there is a railway through the main ridge of the Cordillera, from the ocean east to the basin of Lake Titicaca. The geological structure of the Andes of South America is partly granite, gneiss, mica and slate, but mainly diorite, porphyry, basalt mixed with limestone, sandstone and conglomerates. Minerals found here: salt, gypsum and, at high altitudes, veins of coal; The Cordillera is especially rich in gold, silver, platinum, mercury, copper, iron, lead, topazes, amethysts and other precious stones.

Andes.

Caribbean Andes.

The northern latitudinal segment of the Andes from the island of Trinidad to the Maracaibo lowland differs in orographic features and structure, as well as in the nature of climatic conditions and vegetation, from the Andes system proper and forms a special physical-geographical country.

The Caribbean Andes belong to the Antillean-Caribbean folded region, which, in terms of its structure and development, differs both from the Cordillera of North America and from the Andes proper.
There is a point of view according to which the Antilles-Caribbean region is the western sector of Tethys, separated as a result of the “opening” of the Atlantic Ocean.

On the mainland, the Caribbean Andes consist of two anticlinal zones, which correspond to the Cordillera da Costa and Sierra del Interior ranges, separated by a wide valley of an extensive synclinal zone. Near the Bay of Barcelona, ​​the mountains are interrupted, splitting into two parts - western and eastern. On the platform side, the Sierra del Interior is separated by a deep fault from the oil-bearing subandean trough, which merges in relief with the Orinoco lowland. A deep fault also separates the Caribbean Andes system from the Cordillera de Merida. In the north, a synclinal trough submerged by the sea separates the anticlinorium of the Margarita - Tobago islands from the mainland. The continuation of these structures can be traced on the Paraguana and Goajira peninsulas.

All mountain structures of the Caribbean Andes are composed of folded rocks of the Paleozoic and Mesozoic and are penetrated by intrusions of various ages. Their modern relief was formed under the influence of repeated uplifts, the last of which, accompanied by subsidence - synclinal zones and faults, occurred in the Neogene. The entire Caribbean Andean system is seismic but has no active volcanoes. The relief of the mountains is blocky, medium-altitude, the highest peaks exceed 2500 m, the mountain ranges are separated from each other by through erosion and tectonic depressions.

Situated on the border between the subequatorial and tropical zones, the Caribbean Andes, especially the islands and peninsulas of Paraguana and Goajira, have a drier climate than neighboring areas. All year round they are exposed to tropical air brought by the northeast trade wind. Annual precipitation amounts do not exceed 1000 mm, but more often they are even below 500 mm. The bulk of them fall from May to November, but in the driest northern regions the wet period lasts only two to three months. Small short streams flow from the mountains towards the Caribbean Sea, carrying large amounts of debris to the shore; the places where limestones come to the surface are almost completely waterless.

The lagoonal coasts of the mainland and islands are covered with wide strips of mangroves; the dry lowlands are dominated by thickets such as moite, consisting of candelabra-shaped cacti, prickly pears, milkweeds, and mosquitoes. Among this gray-green vegetation, gray soil or yellow sand shines through. The more abundantly irrigated mountain slopes and valleys open to the sea are covered with mixed forests, which combine evergreen and deciduous species, coniferous and deciduous tree species. The upper parts of the mountains are used as pastures. At a low altitude above sea level, groves or single specimens of royal and coconut palms stand out as bright spots. The entire northern coast of Venezuela has been turned into a resort and tourist area, with beaches, hotels and parks.

In a wide valley, separated from the sea by the Cordillera da Costa ridge, and on the slopes of the surrounding mountains, lies the capital of Venezuela - Caracas. The mountain slopes and plains cleared of forest are occupied by plantations of coffee and chocolate trees, cotton, tobacco, and sisal.

Northern Andes

The northern section of the Andes proper from the Caribbean coast to the border between Ecuador and Peru in the south is known by this name. Here, in the region of 4-5° S, there is a fault separating the Northern Andes from the Central.

Off the coast of the Caribbean Sea in Colombia and Venezuela, fan-shaped diverging ridges alternate with foothill depressions and wide intermountain valleys, reaching a total width of 450 km. In the south, within Ecuador, the entire system narrows to 100 km. In the structure of the main part of the Northern Andes (approximately between 2 and 8° N) all the main orotectonic elements of the Andean system are clearly expressed. The narrow, low and highly dissected Coast Range stretches along the Pacific coast. It is separated from the rest of the Andes by the longitudinal tectonic depression of the Atrato River. To the east, the higher and more massive ridges of the Western and Central Cordillera rise parallel to each other, separated by the narrow valley of the Cauqui River. The Cordillera Central is the highest mountain range in Colombia. On its crystalline base rise individual volcanic peaks, among which Tolima rises to a height of 5215 m.

Even further east, beyond the deep valley of the Magdalena River, is the lower ridge of the Eastern Cordillera, which is composed of highly folded sedimentary rocks and is divided in the central part by extensive basin-like depressions. In one of them, at an altitude of 2600 m, is the capital of Colombia, Bogota.

About 8° N. w. The Eastern Cordillera is divided into two branches - the submeridial Sierra Perija and the Cordillera de Merida, extending to the northeast and reaching an altitude of 5000 m. On the middle massif located between them, a vast intermontane depression of Maracaibo was formed, occupied in the central part by the lake of the same name - lagoon. To the west of the Sierra Perija ridge lies the swampy lowland of the lower Magdalena - Cauqui, corresponding to a young intermountain trough. Just off the coast of the Caribbean Sea rises the isolated massif of Sierra Neva da Santa Marta (Cristobal Colon - 5775m), which is a continuation of the anticlinorium of the Central Cordillera, separated from its main part by the Magdalena Valley trough. The young sediments that fill the Maracaibo and Magdalena-Cauca depressions contain rich oil and gas deposits.

From the platform side, the entire zone of the Northern Andes is accompanied by a young sub-Andean trough, also different
oil content.

In southern Colombia and Ecuador, the Andes narrow and consist of only two parts. The coastal Cordillera disappears, and in its place appears a hilly coastal plain. The Central and Eastern Cordilleras merge into one ridge.

Between two mountain ranges of Ecuador lies a depression with a strip of faults along which extinct and active volcanoes rise. The highest of them are the active Cotopaxi volcano (5897 m) and the extinct Chimborazo volcano (6310 m). Within this tectonic depression, at an altitude of 2700 m, the capital of Ecuador, Quito, is located.

Active volcanoes also rise above the Eastern Cordillera of Southern Colombia and Ecuador - these are Cayambe (5790 m), Antisana (5705 m), Tunnuragua (5033 m) and Sangay (5230 m). The regular snow-capped cones of these volcanoes represent one of the most striking features of the Ecuadorian Andes.

The Northern Andes are characterized by a clearly defined system of altitudinal zones. The lower mountains and coastal lowlands are humid and hot and have the highest average annual temperature in South America (+ 2°C). However, there are almost no seasonal differences. In the lowlands of Maracaibo, the average August temperature is + 29°C, the average January temperature is +27°C. The air is saturated with moisture, precipitation falls almost all year, the annual amounts reach 2500-3000 mm, and on the Pacific coast - 5000-7000 mm.

The entire lower belt of mountains, called “hot land” by the local population, is unfavorable for human life. High and constant air humidity and sweltering heat have a relaxing effect on the human body. Vast swamps are breeding grounds for various diseases. The entire lower mountain belt is occupied by tropical rainforest, which in appearance does not differ from the forests of the eastern part of the mainland. It consists of palm trees, ficus trees (among them are rubber plants, castilloa cocoa trees, bananas, etc. On the coast, the forest is replaced by mangroves, and in wetlands there are vast and often impenetrable reed swamps.

On the site of cleared tropical rainforests in many areas of the coast, sugar cane and bananas are grown - the main tropical crops of the northern regions of South America. In the oil-rich lowlands along the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean, large areas of tropical forests have been cleared, and in their place have appeared the “forests” of countless oil rigs, numerous workers’ villages, and large cities.

Above the lower hot mountain belt is the temperate zone of the Northern Andes (Pegra Hetriaia), rising to an altitude of 2500-3000 m. This zone, like the lower one, is characterized by an even temperature variation throughout the year, but due to the altitude there are quite significant daily amplitudes temperature. There is no intense heat typical of the hot zone. The average annual temperature ranges from +15 to +20°C, the amount of precipitation and humidity is much less than in the lower zone. The amount of precipitation decreases especially strongly in closed high-mountain basins and valleys (no more than 1000 mm per year). The initial vegetation cover of this belt is very different in composition and appearance from the forests of the lower belt. Palm trees disappear and tree ferns and bamboos predominate, cinchona (Species of StsHop), coca bush, whose leaves contain cocaine, and other species unknown in the forests of the “hot land” appear.

The temperate mountain zone is the most favorable for human life. Due to the uniformity and moderation of temperature, it is called the belt of eternal spring. A significant part of the population of Northern Hades lives within its borders; the largest cities are located there and agriculture is developed. Corn, tobacco and Colombia's most important crop, the coffee tree, are widespread.

The local population calls the next belt of mountains “cold land” (Pegga /g/a). Its upper limit lies at an altitude of about 3800 m. Within this zone, a uniform temperature is maintained, but it is even lower than in the temperate zone (only +10, +11 ° C). This belt is characterized by high-mountain hylea, consisting of low-growing and twisted trees and shrubs. The diversity of species, the abundance of epiphytic plants and lianas bring the high-mountain hylea closer to the lowland tropical forest.

The main representatives of the flora of this forest are evergreen oaks, heathers, myrtles, low-growing bamboos and tree ferns. Despite the high altitude, the cold belt of the Northern Andes is populated. Small settlements along the basins rise to an altitude of 3500 m. The population, mostly Indian, cultivates corn, wheat and potatoes.

The next altitudinal zone of the Northern Andes is alpine. It is known among the local population as “paramos”. It ends at the border of eternal snow at an altitude of about 4500 m. Within this belt the climate is harsh. With positive daytime temperatures in all seasons, there are severe night frosts, snow storms and snowfalls. There is little precipitation, but evaporation is very strong. The vegetation of Paramos is unique and has a pronounced xerophytic appearance. It consists of sparsely growing turf grasses, cushion-shaped, rosette-shaped or tall (up to 5 m), heavily pubescent asteraceous plants with bright inflorescences. On flat areas of the surface, large areas are occupied by moss swamps, while steep slopes are characterized by completely barren rocky spaces.

Above 4500 m in the Northern Andes, a belt of eternal snow and ice begins with a constantly negative temperature. Many Andean massifs have large alpine-type glaciers. They are most developed in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marte, the Central and Western Cordillera of Colombia. The high peaks of the volcanoes Tolima, Chimborazo and Cotopaxi are covered with huge caps of snow and ice. There are also significant glaciers in the middle part of the Cordillera de Mérida range.

Central Andes

The Central Andes stretch for a huge distance from the state border between Ecuador and Peru in the north to 27° S. latitude. in the south. This is the widest part of the mountain system, reaching a width of 700,800 km within Bolivia.

In the south, the middle part of the Andes is occupied by plateaus, which are accompanied on both sides by the ridges of the Eastern and Western Cordilleras.

The Western Cordillera represents a high mountain range with extinct and active volcanoes: Ojos del Salado (6880 m), Coropuna (6425 m), Huallagiri (6060 m), Misti (5821 m), etc. Within Bolivia, the Western Cordillera forms the main watershed of the Andes .

In Northern Chile, from the Pacific Ocean, a chain of the Coastal Cordillera appears, reaching an altitude of 600-1000 m. It is separated from the Western Cordillera by the Atacama tectonic depression. The coastal Cordillera breaks straight into the ocean, forming a straight rocky coast, very inconvenient for ships to anchor. Along the coast of Peru and Chile, rocky islands protrude from the ocean, where, as well as on the coastal cliffs, billions of Birds nest, depositing masses of guano - the most valuable natural fertilizer, widely used in these countries.

The Andean plateaus, called “punami” by the local population of Chile and Argentina, and “altiplano” by Bolivia, located between the Western and Eastern Cordillera, reach an altitude of 3000-4500 m. Their surface is cluttered with coarse clastic material or loose sand, and in the eastern part it is covered with strata of volcanic rocks. products. In some places there are depressions partially occupied by lakes. An example is the basin of Lake Titicaca, located at an altitude of 3800 m. Somewhat southeast of this lake at an altitude of 3700 m above sea level at the bottom of a deep gorge cut into the surface of the plateau, and on its slopes lies the main city of Bolivia - La Paz - the most the highest mountain capital in the world.

The surface of the plateaus is crossed in different directions by high ridges that exceed their average height by 1000-2000 m. Many of the peaks of the ridges are active volcanoes. Since the watershed runs along the Western Cordillera, the plateaus are crossed by rivers flowing to the east and forming deep valleys and wild gorges.

In its origin, the Pun-Altiplano zone corresponds to the middle massif, consisting of leveled folded structures of Paleozoic age, which experienced subsidence at the beginning of the Cenozoic and did not undergo such a strong uplift in the Neogene as the Eastern and Western Cordillera.

The high Cordillera Oriental has a complex structure and forms the eastern edge of the Andes. Its western slope, facing the plateaus, is steep, while the eastern slope is gentle. Since the eastern slope of the Central Andes, in contrast to all other parts of the region, receives a significant amount of precipitation, it is characterized by deep erosional dissection.

Above the crest of the Eastern Cordillera, which reaches an average height of about 4000 m, individual snowy peaks rise. The highest of them are Ilyampu (6485 m) and Illimani (6462 m). There are no volcanoes in the Eastern Cordillera.

Throughout the Central Andes in Peru and Bolivia there are large deposits of non-ferrous, rare and radioactive metal ores. The Coastal and Western Cordilleras within Chile occupy one of the first places in the world in copper mining; in Atacama and on the Pacific coast there is the only deposit of natural nitrate in the world.

The Central Andes are dominated by desert and semi-desert landscapes. In the north, 200-250 mm of precipitation falls per year, with most of it falling in the summer. The highest average monthly temperature is +26°C, the lowest is +18°C. The vegetation has a sharply xerophytic appearance and consists of cacti, prickly pears, acacias and tough grasses.

It becomes much drier further south. Within the Atacama Desert and the adjacent section of the Pacific coast, less than 100 mm of precipitation falls per year, and in some places even less than 25 mm. At some points east of the Coastal Cordillera it never rains. In the coastal zone (up to an altitude of 400-800 m), the lack of rain is somewhat compensated by high relative air humidity (up to 80%), fogs and dew, which usually occur in winter. Some plants are adapted to subsist on this moisture.

The cold Peruvian Current moderates temperatures along the coast. The January average from north to south varies from +24 to + 19°C, and the July average from + 19 to +13°C.

Soils and vegetation in the Atacama are almost absent. Individual ephemeral plants that do not form a closed cover appear during the foggy season. Large areas are occupied by saline surfaces on which vegetation does not develop at all. The slopes of the Western Cordillera, facing the Pacific Ocean, are also very dry. Deserts rise here to a height of 1000 m in the north and up to 3000 m in the south. The mountain slopes are covered with sparsely standing cacti and prickly pears. The annual course of temperatures, precipitation within the Pacific desert and the relative humidity of the desert are relatively few oases. In the central part of the Pacific coast, natural oases exist along the valleys of small rivers starting from glaciers. Most of them are located on the coast of Northern Peru, where among the desert landscapes in areas irrigated and fertilized with guano, plantations of sugar cane, cotton and coffee grow green. The largest cities, including the capital of Peru - Lima, are located in oases on the coast.

The deserts of the Pacific coast merge with a belt of mountain semi-deserts known as dry punas. The dry puna extends to the southwestern part of the interior plateaus, to an altitude of 3000 to 4500 m in some. places going down and below.

Precipitation in dry Pune is less than 250 mm, the maximum occurs in summer. The continentality of the climate manifests itself in the course of temperature. The air is very warm during the day, but cold winds in the warmest time of the year can cause severe cooling. In winter there are frosts down to -20°C, but the average monthly temperature is positive. The average temperature of the warmest months is +14, +15°C. At all times of the year there is a large difference in temperature between day and night. Precipitation falls mainly in the form of rain and hail, but in winter there is also snowfall, although snow cover does not form.

The vegetation is very sparse. Dwarf shrubs predominate, among which are representatives called tola, which is why the entire landscape of dry puna is often called tola. Some cereals are mixed in with them, such as reed grass, feather grass and various lichens. There are also cacti. Saline areas are even poorer in plants. They grow mainly wormwood and ephedra.
In the east and north of the Central Andes, annual precipitation gradually increases, although other climate features remain the same. The exception is the area adjacent to Lake Titicaca. The huge water mass of the lake (area over 8300 km2, depth up to 304 m) has a very noticeable impact on the climatic conditions of the surrounding area. In the lakeside region, temperature fluctuations are not so sharp and the amount of precipitation is higher than in other parts of the plateau. Due to the fact that the amount of precipitation increases in the east to 800 mm, and in the north even up to 1000 mm, the vegetation becomes richer and more diverse, the mountain semi-desert turns into a mountain steppe, which the local population calls “puna”.

The vegetation cover of Puna is characterized by a variety of grasses, especially fescue, feather grass and reed grass. A very common type of feather grass, called “ichu” by the local population, forms sparsely planted hard tufts. In addition, various cushion-shaped shrubs grow in pune. In some places there are also isolated low-growing trees.

The Punes occupy vast territories in the Central Andes. In Peru and Bolivia, especially along the shores of Lake Titicaca and in the most humid valleys, before the arrival of the Spaniards they were inhabited by cultural Indian peoples who formed the Inca state. The ruins of ancient Inca buildings, roads paved with stone slabs and the remains of irrigation systems are still preserved. The ancient city of Cusco in Peru at the foot of the Eastern Cordillera was the capital of the Inca state.

The modern population of the interior plateaus of the Andes consists mainly of Quechua Indians, whose ancestors formed the basis of the Inca state. The Quechua practice irrigated agriculture and domesticate and breed llamas.

Agriculture is practiced at high altitudes. Potato plantings and crops of some cereals can be found up to an altitude of 3500-3700 m; quinoa is grown even higher, an annual plant from the goosefoot family, which produces a large harvest of small seeds that constitute the main food of the local population. Around large cities (La Paz, Cusco), the surface of the punas is turned into a “patchwork” landscape, where fields alternate with groves of eucalyptus trees brought by the Spaniards and thickets of gorse and other shrubs.

On the shores of Lake Titicaca live the Aymara people, who fish and make various products from the reeds that grow on the low shores of the lake.
Above 5000 m in the south and 6000 m in the north the temperature is negative throughout the year. Glaciation is insignificant due to the dry climate; only in the Eastern Cordillera, which receives more precipitation, there are large glaciers.

The landscapes of the Eastern Cordillera differ significantly from the landscapes of the rest of the Central Andes. Wet winds bring a significant amount of moisture from the Atlantic Ocean in the summer. Partially through through valleys, it penetrates the western slope of the Eastern Cordillera and adjacent parts of the plateaus, where abundant rainfall occurs. Therefore, the lower parts of the mountain slopes up to an altitude of 1000-1500 m are covered with dense tropical forests with palm trees and cinchona. Within this belt, sugar cane, coffee, cocoa and various tropical fruits are grown in the valleys. Up to an altitude of 3000 m, low-growing evergreen mountain forests grow - dense thickets of bamboo and ferns with vines. Thickets of bushes and high mountain steppes rise higher. Indian villages nestle in through river valleys, surrounded by fields and groves of eucalyptus trees. And in one of the valleys belonging to the Amazon basin, on the eastern slope of the Cordillera, there are the ruins of an ancient Inca fortress, created during the period of fierce struggle with the Spanish conquerors - the famous Machu Picchu. Its territory has been turned into a museum-reserve.

Chilean-Argentine Andes.

In the subtropical zone between 27 and 42° S. within Chile and Argentina, the Andes taper and consist of only one mountain range, but reach their greatest height.

A strip of the low plateau of the Coastal Cordillera stretches along the coast of the Pacific Ocean, serving as a continuation of the Coastal Cordillera of the Central Andes. Its average height is 800 m, individual peaks rise up to 2000 m. Deep river valleys divide it into table plateaus that drop steeply to the Pacific Ocean. Behind. The coastal Cordillera is parallel to the tectonic depression of the Central, or Longitudinal, Valley of Chile. It is an orographic continuation of the Atacama depression, but is separated from it by transverse spurs of the Andes. Similar spurs of the main ridge divide the valley into a number of isolated depressions. The height of the valley floor in the north is about 700 m, in the south it decreases to 100-200 m. Isolated cones of ancient volcanoes rise above its hilly surface, reaching several hundred meters in relative height. The valley is the most populated region of Chile and is home to the country's capital, Santiago.

On the east, the Central Valley is bounded by the high chain of the Main Cordillera, along the ridge of which runs the border of Chile and Argentina. In this part of the Andes, they are composed of highly folded Mesozoic sediments and volcanic rocks and reach enormous heights and integrity of uplift. The highest peaks of the Andes - Aconcagua (6960 m), Mercedario (6770 m), active volcanoes Tupungato (6800 m), Milo (5223 m) - protrude above the wall of the main ridge. Above 4000 m, the mountains are covered with snow and ice, their slopes are almost vertical and inaccessible. The entire mountain range, including the Central Valley, is subject to seismic and volcanic phenomena. Particularly frequent and destructive earthquakes occur in Central Chile. A catastrophic earthquake struck Chile in 1960. Repeated tremors reached magnitude 12. The waves caused by the earthquake crossed the Pacific Ocean and hit the shores of Japan with enormous force.

In the coastal part of the Chilean Andes, the climate is subtropical, with dry summers and wet winters. The distribution area of ​​this climate covers the coast between 29 and 37° south. sh., the Central Valley and the lower parts of the western slopes of the Main Cordillera. In the north, a transition to semi-deserts is planned, and in the south, an increase in precipitation and the gradual disappearance of the summer drought period mark the transition to the conditions of an oceanic climate of temperate latitudes.

As you move away from the coast, the climate becomes more continental and drier than on the shores of the Pacific Ocean. In Valparaiso, the temperature of the coolest month is + 11 ° C, and the warmest is +17, + 18 ° C, seasonal temperature ranges are small. They are more noticeable in the Central Valley. In Santiago, the average temperature of the coldest month is +7, +8°С, and the warmest is +20°С. There is little precipitation, the amount increases from north to south and from east to west. In Santiago, about 350 mm falls, in Valdivia - 750 mm. Farming in these areas requires artificial irrigation. Towards the south, annual precipitation amounts rapidly increase and the differences in their distribution between summer and winter almost disappear. On the western slopes of the Main Cordillera, precipitation increases, but on its eastern slope it again becomes very small.

The soil cover is very variegated. The most common are typical brown soils, characteristic of dry subtropical regions. In the Central Valley, dark-colored soils reminiscent of chernozems are developed.

Natural vegetation has been severely destroyed, since almost the entire population of the country lives in the central part of Chile, engaged mainly in agriculture. Therefore, most of the land suitable for plowing is occupied by crops of various crops. Natural vegetation is characterized by a predominance of thickets of evergreen shrubs, reminiscent of the maquis of Southern Europe or the chapparral of North America.

In the past, forests covered the slopes of the Andes up to an altitude of 2000-2500 m. On the dry eastern slopes, the upper limit of the forest lies 200 m lower than on the wetter western ones. Now the forests have been destroyed and the slopes of the Andes and the Coastal Cordillera are bare. Woody vegetation is found mainly in the form of artificial plantings in populated areas and along fields. On the conical volcanoes rising from the bottom of the valley within Santiago, you can see groves of eucalyptus, pines and araucarias, plane trees, beeches, and in the undergrowth - thickets of brightly flowering geraniums and gorse. These plantings combine local flora with species introduced from Europe.

Above 2500 m in the Andes there is a belt of mountain meadows, within which narrow strips of low-growing forests and shrubs extend along the valleys. The vegetation cover of mountain meadows includes species of those genera of plants that are also found in the alpine meadows of the Old World: buttercup, saxifrage, wood sorrel, primrose, etc. Some shrubs, such as currants and barberries, are also common. There are areas of peat bogs with typical bog flora. Mountain meadows are used as summer pastures.

The cultivated vegetation is similar to the vegetation of the climate-appropriate regions of Europe and North America. Most subtropical crops were introduced to South America from the Mediterranean countries of Europe. These are grapevines, olive trees, citrus fruits and other fruit trees. The largest part of the plowed areas is occupied by wheat, and a much smaller part is occupied by corn. On the mountain slopes, peasants grow potatoes, beans, peas, lentils, onions, artichokes and capsicums in small plots. In the most convenient areas where forests were destroyed, there are artificial tree plantations.

Southern (Patagonian) Andes.

In the extreme south, within the temperate zone, the Andes are lowered and fragmented. Coastal Cordillera south of 42°S. w. turns into thousands of mountainous islands in the Chilean archipelago. The longitudinal valley of Central Chile in the south descends and then disappears under the waters of the ocean. Its continuation is a system of bays and straits that separate the islands of the Chilean archipelago from the mainland. The main Cordillera is also greatly reduced. Within Southern Chile, its height rarely exceeds 3000 m, and in the extreme south it does not even reach 2000 m. Many fjords cut into the coast, cutting the western slope of the mountains into a number of isolated peninsular sections. Fjords are often continued by large glacial lakes, the basins of which cross the low ridge and, emerging on its eastern Argentine slope, make it easier to overcome the mountains. The entire area along the Pacific Ocean is very reminiscent of the Norwegian coast of the Scandinavian Peninsula, although the fjords of the Chilean coast are not as grandiose as those of Norway.

Glacial landforms are widespread in the Southern Andes. In addition to fjords and glacial lakes, you can find large cirques, valleys with a typical trough-shaped profile, hanging valleys, moraine ridges, which often serve as a dam for lakes, etc. Forms of ancient glaciation are combined with powerful modern glaciation and the development of glacial processes.

The climate of Southern Chile is humid, with slight differences in summer and winter temperatures, very unfavorable for people. The coast and western slopes of the mountains are constantly exposed to strong westerly winds, bringing huge amounts of precipitation. With an average amount of up to 2000-3000 mm, in some areas of the west coast up to 6000 mm of precipitation falls per year. On the eastern slope, leeward of the western air currents, the amount of precipitation decreases sharply. Constant strong winds and rains, occurring more than 200 days a year, low clouds, fog and moderate temperatures throughout the year are characteristic features of the climate of Southern Chile. On the coast itself and the islands, constant storms rage, bringing huge waves onto the shore.

With an average winter temperature of +4, +7°C, the average summer temperature does not exceed +15°C, and in the extreme south it drops to +10°C. Only on the eastern slope of the Andes do the amplitudes of fluctuations between the average summer and winter temperatures increase slightly. At high altitudes in the mountains, negative temperatures prevail throughout the year; on the highest peaks of the eastern slope, frosts down to -30°C last for a long time. Due to these climate features, the snow line in the mountains lies very low: in the north of the Patagonian Andes at approximately 1500m, in the south - below 1000m. Modern glaciation occupies a very large area, especially at 48° S, where a thick ice cover covers an area of ​​over 20 thousand km2. This is the so-called Patagonian Ice Sheet. Powerful valley glaciers radiate from it to the west and east, the ends of which lie significantly below the snow line, sometimes right next to the ocean. Some glacial tongues on the eastern slope end in large lakes.

Glaciers and lakes feed a large number of rivers flowing into the Pacific and partially into the Atlantic Ocean. River valleys are deeply cut into the surface. In some cases they cross the Andes, and rivers starting on the eastern slope flow into the Pacific Ocean. The rivers are winding, full-flowing and stormy, their valleys usually consist of lake-like expansions, giving way to narrow rapids.
The slopes of the Patagonian Andes are covered with moisture-loving subantarctic forests, consisting of tall trees and shrubs, among which evergreen species predominate: at 42° S. w. there is an array of araucaria forests, and mixed forests are common to the south. Due to their density, abundance of species, multi-layered nature, diversity of vines, mosses and lichens, they resemble forests of low latitudes. The soils under them are of the brown soil type, in the south - podzolic. There are many swamps in flat areas.

The main representatives of the flora of the forests of the Southern Andes are species of evergreen and deciduous southern beech, magnolias, giant conifers, bamboos and tree ferns. Many plants bloom with beautiful fragrant flowers, especially decorating the forest in spring and summer. The branches and trunks of trees are entangled with vines and covered with a lush moss and lichen cover. Mosses and lichens, along with leaf litter, cover the soil surface.

As you rise into the mountains, forests become thinner and their species composition becomes poorer. In the extreme south, forests are gradually replaced by tundra-type vegetation.
On the eastern slope of the mountains, facing the Patagonian Plateau, precipitation falls significantly less than in the west.

The forests there are less dense and poorer in species composition than on the Pacific coast. The main forest-forming species of these forests are beeches, with some double beeches mixed in. At the foot of the mountains, the forests turn into dry steppes and shrubs of the Patagonian Plateau.

The forests of the Southern Andes contain huge reserves of high-grade timber. However, to date they have been used unevenly. The Araucaria forests were the most heavily deforested. In the southern, least accessible areas, there are still significant tracts of forests, almost untouched by humans.

Tierra del Fuego.

Tierra del Fuego is an archipelago of dozens of large and small islands located off the southern coast of South America between 53 and 55° S. w. and belonging to Chile and Argentina. The islands are separated from the mainland and from one another by narrow winding straits. The easternmost and largest island is called Tierra del Fuego or Big Island.

Geologically and geomorphologically, the archipelago serves as a continuation of the Andes and the Patagonian Plateau. The coasts of the western islands are rocky and deeply indented by fjords, while the eastern ones are flat and weakly dissected.

The entire western part of the archipelago is occupied by mountains up to 2400 m high. In the relief of the mountains, ancient and modern glacial forms in the form of piles of boulders, trough valleys, “ram’s foreheads” and dammed moraine lakes play an important role. Mountain ranges dissected by glaciers rise from the ocean itself, narrow winding fjords cut into their slopes. In the eastern part of the largest island lies a vast plain.

The climate of Tierra del Fuego is very humid, except in the extreme east. The archipelago is constantly exposed to harsh and humid southwesterly winds. Precipitation in the west falls up to 3000 mm per year, with drizzle prevailing, which occurs 300-330 days a year. In the east, precipitation decreases sharply.

The temperature is low throughout the year, and its fluctuations between seasons are insignificant. We can say that the Tierra del Fuego archipelago is close to the tundra in summer temperatures, and subtropical in winter temperatures.
The climatic conditions of Tierra del Fuego are favorable for the development of glaciation. The snow line in the west lies at an altitude of 500 m, and glaciers fall directly into the ocean, forming icebergs. The mountain ranges are covered with ice, and only a few sharp peaks rise above its cover.

In the narrow coastal strip, mainly in the western part of the archipelago, forests of evergreen and deciduous trees are common. Particularly characteristic are southern beeches, canelo, magnolia, blooming with white fragrant flowers, and some conifers. The upper border of forest vegetation and the snow border almost merge with each other. In places above 500 m, and sometimes near the sea (in the east), the forests give way to sparse subantarctic mountain meadows without flowering plants and peat bogs. In areas where constant strong winds blow, sparse and low, twisted trees and shrubs with “flag-shaped” crowns, inclined in the direction of the prevailing winds, grow in groups.

The fauna of the Tierra del Fuego archipelago and the Southern Andes is approximately the same and quite unique. Along with the guanaco, the blue fox, the fox-like or Magellanic dog and many rodents are common there. The endemic rodent tuco-tuco, living underground, is characteristic. There are numerous birds: parrots, hummingbirds.
The most common domestic animal is sheep. Sheep farming is the main occupation of the population.

Environmental problems in the Andes zone.

Careless use of natural resources.

Among the mineral resources mined in the Andes, ores of ferrous and non-ferrous metals (copper, tin, tungsten, molybdenum, silver, antimony, lead and zinc) of magmatic and metamorphic origin are distinguished. Platinum, gold, and precious stones are also mined there. In the eastern highlands, large deposits of zirconium, beryl, bismuth, titanium, uranium, and nickel are associated with the outcrops of igneous rocks; deposits of iron and manganese – with outcrops of metamorphic rocks; deposits of bauxite containing aluminum - with weathering crust. Oil, natural gas and coal deposits are confined to platform troughs, intermountain and foothill depressions. In a desert climate, the biochemical decomposition of seabird droppings resulted in the formation of deposits of Chilean saltpeter.

Also, forest resources are being used at a fairly rapid pace, but at such a pace that they are no longer renewed. The three main problems in the field of forest conservation are: deforestation for pastures and agricultural land; illegal deforestation by local people to sell wood or use it as fuel to heat houses, due to economic reasons.

Countries in the Andean region are faced with a number of environmental problems in coastal and marine areas. First of all, these are large volumes of fish catch, which is actually not controlled in any way, which creates a threat of extinction of many species of fish and marine animals, given that the catch is constantly increasing. The development of ports and transport has led to serious pollution of coastal areas, where landfills and warehouses for equipment and fuel for ships are often located. But the most serious damage comes from the release of sewage waste and industrial waste into the sea, which negatively affects coastal areas, flora and fauna.

It must be said that it is quite difficult to obtain sufficiently reliable information regarding greenhouse gas emissions into the atmosphere, since statistical data on this issue is either absent or does not appear to be entirely justified. However, it is reliably known that the cause of air pollution in 50% of cases is industrial production and electricity generation. In addition, there is a tendency to abandon the promising direction in the field of renewable energy in favor of fuel combustion, both in electricity generation and in the transport sector. The largest share of air pollution in South America and the Andes in particular comes from thermal power plants and steel and iron factories, while pollution from transport accounts for 33% of all emissions.

The most active industrial activity took place in the pampa, an area of ​​vast green steppes. There are mines, oil wells, smelters and oil refining industries here, which significantly pollute the surrounding areas. Petroleum refineries in particular damage water and underground sources, contaminating them with heavy metals such as mercury and lead and other chemicals. Oil refining activities in Salta have led to soil erosion, deterioration of water quality, and negatively impacted the region's agriculture. The southern territories of Patagonia suffered significantly from mining activity in mountainous areas, which negatively affected the flora and fauna of the area, which in turn negatively affected tourism, which is one of the most important sources of income for local budgets.

Since ancient times, the states of South America were largely agricultural countries. Therefore, soil degradation is a serious economic problem. Soil deterioration is caused by erosion, pollution due to improper use of fertilizers, deforestation and poor management of agricultural land. For example, the production of soybeans for export has forced the Argentine Ministry of Agriculture to expand the use of new technologies, which has led to pesticide contamination of a large area in the north of the country. Improper use of pastures has led to desertification of land in the Argentine steppes, where 35% of fertile land has been lost. Poor land distribution and economic instability lead to overuse of land for quick profits, a pattern seen throughout the Andes. Unless appropriate measures are taken to protect land resources, soil degradation will continue and countries will face serious agricultural difficulties.

The Andes region is rich in species, but many animals and birds are under threat due to the spread of agriculture and human activity in coastal areas. Thus, more than 50% of birds and mammals are threatened with extinction. Although many countries use a large number of nature reserves, many natural areas are not sufficiently assessed for risk. Moreover, many protected areas are such only on paper and are practically not protected in any way.

Possible ways out of the problem.

The main environmental problems of the Andes are:

• soil and coastal degradation
• illegal deforestation and desertification of lands
• destruction of biological species
• groundwater and air pollution
• Problems with waste processing and heavy metal pollution

The main task of Latin American governments today is to improve the economic situation in their countries in order to cope with environmental problems. The first priority is to eliminate environmental problems in urban areas, where more than 1/3 of the countries' population lives. Improving the sanitary situation, solving transport problems and problems with poverty and unemployment - these are the areas in which the authorities need to act. Preserving biological diversity is the second most important task.

Gradually, Latin America is beginning to recognize the need to protect its natural resources. But further implementation of the government program on environmental protection is possible only after the economic situation in the countries improves.

However, we must not forget that the forests located in Latin America, especially in the Amazon River basin, are, and have long been recognized, the lungs of our planet, and how forests are cut down and burned are not only the fault of the poor countries of Latin America, but the rich countries, cold-bloodedly pumping out the depths of these countries are natural resources, not caring about the future, living according to the principle: “After us, even a flood.”