Articulation is a concept that refers to how correctly and clearly you pronounce sounds. Beautiful speech is important for everyone, no matter whether you are an announcer or an ordinary office worker. And for its competent construction it is imperative to master the basics of articulation.

Articulation in Russian, as in all others, consists of several stages.

• The excursion is the beginning, the very first stage, which marks the preparation of parts of the speech apparatus for pronouncing a sound.
• Exposure is how you pronounce a sound. In this case, it is important to take into account the position of the speech apparatus - it must meet the standards.
• Recursion is the final stage. The speech apparatus completes its work, its components go into a state of rest or prepare to pronounce the next sound.

However, such a clear sequence of events is typical only for the pronunciation of one sound. It would look as clear as in the diagram if a person were to pronounce the sounds individually.

In real, everyday speech, the stages “overlap” each other, their clarity is blurred. The excerpt often merges with the recursion of the previous sound. A person does not have time to thoroughly prepare the organs for pronouncing a sound, so the excursion is not expressed as it should. Because of this, speech becomes slurred.

This does not mean that you should clearly pronounce each sound or highlight it with intonation. This would simply be impossible; communication would be difficult. Correct pronunciation requires that you first learn the theory, learn to apply it, and then it becomes an unconditioned reflex.

Let's consider this using the example of pronunciation of the sound “T”. Problems often arise with it because people who are not prepared for correct pronunciation express the sound too indistinctly. It comes out hoarse and compressed.

Here's how to pronounce the "T" sound:

• Watch the air-tongue pair. The air should not be directed at the ligaments, because in this case you will get the hoarse version mentioned above.
• Direct the air stream directly towards your tongue.

Practicing the pronunciation of this sound allows you to improve not only pronunciation, but also increase the elasticity of the tongue and give good training to the speech apparatus.

You are already familiar with the theory of pronunciation of the sound “T”. At first, you will monitor for a long time how it sounds in your everyday speech, but then, when you are sure that you are speaking correctly, this information will be fixed, you will no longer have the need to correct yourself and monitor yourself.

Articulation gymnastics

What is it? This type of gymnastics is designed to warm up the muscles. These exercises do not have to be performed at any specific time of day. You can easily apply them from time to time because they are simple and do not require much attention.

Gymnastics for the cheeks includes the following exercises:

• Imagine that you are a hamster. You need to take in air from one cheek, then smoothly “displace” it under your lower lip, without ever opening your lips. Then move to the other cheek, the outermost one. This cycle needs to be repeated several times.
• The next exercise is similar to the previous one in that you again need to use air. Place it in your mouth and puff out your cheeks. Close your lips tightly. Now you need to try to push the air out, but under no circumstances open your mouth! You will feel a slight pressure that will warm your cheeks well.

In order to warm up the lower jaw, you can use one simple exercise that many people do unconsciously. You can simply move your lower jaw in a circle, back and forth, thereby preparing it for correct diction. You need to be careful here, as you can accidentally dislocate your jaw. Don't overdo it.

Have you ever tried yawning with your mouth closed? If not, be sure to try it. This will help warm up the palate. Another way is to copy the mouth rinse. If it’s hard to imagine, then first actually rinse your mouth, and then imitate these movements yourself. Over time, you will begin to succeed.

After completing these tasks, you can move on to exercises to improve articulation, which depend on the problem sounds that you have. There is a special one, and many others, which you can find on this site. For some people, simply developing the speech apparatus is enough, because for many it is weak and therefore needs training. The exercises above will help correct the situation.

Articulation allows you to learn how to correctly pronounce not only problematic sounds, but also everything that is in the Russian language, because most people do not even suspect that they pronounce certain sounds incorrectly.

Only general anatomical and physiological information regarding the formation of speech sounds is presented here. A detailed description of the articulation of individual sounds is included in the speech therapy course.

The peculiarity of the extension pipe of the human vocal apparatus in comparison with the extension pipe of a reed musical instrument is that it not only amplifies the voice and gives it an individual coloring (timbre), but also serves as a place for the formation of speech sounds.

Some parts of the extension tube (nasal cavity, hard palate, posterior wall of the pharynx) are motionless and are called passive organs of pronunciation. Other parts (lower jaw, lips, tongue, soft palate) are movable and are called active organs of pronunciation. When the lower jaw moves, the mouth opens or closes. Various movements of the tongue and lips change the shape of the oral cavity, forming closures or crevices in different places of the oral cavity. The soft palate, rising and pressing against the back wall of the pharynx, closes the entrance to the nose, falling - opens it.

The activity of the active organs of pronunciation, which is called articulation, and provides education speech sounds, i.e. phonemes. The acoustic features of speech sounds, which make it possible to distinguish them from each other by ear, are determined by the features of their articulation.

The phoneme system of the Russian language consists of 42 sounds, including 6 vowels (a, i, o, u, ы, e) and 36 consonants (b, b", v, v", g, g", d, d" , f, h, 3", j (yot), k, k", l, l", m, m", n, n", p, p", p, r", s, s", t, t", f, f", x, x", c, h, w, sch).

Vowel articulation. A common feature for all vowel sounds, which distinguishes their articulation from the articulation of all consonant sounds, is the absence of obstacles in the path of exhaled air. The sound arising in the larynx in the extension pipe is amplified and perceived as a clear voice without any admixture of noise. The sound of a voice, as has been said, consists of a fundamental tone and a number of additional tones - overtones. In the extension pipe, not only the fundamental tone is amplified, but also the overtones, and not all overtones are amplified equally: depending on the shape of the resonating cavities, mainly the oral cavity and partly the pharynx, some frequency regions are amplified more, others less, and some frequencies are not amplified at all. These enhanced frequency regions, or formants, characterize the acoustic properties of various vowels.

Thus, each vowel sound corresponds to a special location of the active organs of pronunciation - the tongue, lips, soft palate. Thanks to this, the same sound, originating in the larynx, acquires a color characteristic of a particular vowel in the supernatant, mainly in the oral cavity.

The fact that the peculiarities of the sound of vowels do not depend on the sound originating in the larynx, but only on air vibrations in a correspondingly established oral cavity, can be verified through simple experiments. If you give the oral cavity the shape that it takes when pronouncing a particular vowel, for example ah, oh or y, and at this time, pass a stream of air from the bellows past your mouth or click your finger on your cheek, you can clearly hear a peculiar sound, quite clearly reminiscent of the corresponding vowel sound.

The shape of the oral cavity and pharynx, characteristic of each vowel, depends mainly on the position of the tongue and lips. Movements of the tongue back and forth, raising it more or less to a certain part of the palate change the volume and shape of the resonating cavity. The lips, stretching forward and rounding, form the opening of the resonator and lengthen the resonating cavity.

Articulatory classification of vowels is built taking into account: 1) participation or non-participation of the lips; 2) degree of tongue elevation and 3) location of tongue elevation. These divisions differ in the following characteristics:

1. vowels o and y, when pronounced, the lips protrude forward and are rounded, called labialized(from lat. labium - lip); the lips do not take an active part in the formation of the remaining vowels, and these vowels are called non-labialized;

2. when pronouncing vowels, the tongue can rise to a greater or lesser extent to the sky; There are three degrees of tongue elevation: upper, middle And lower. High vowels include and, y, s; with the average rise of the tongue, the vowels e and o are formed; Only one vowel belongs to the lower rise - A;

3. the location of tongue elevation depends on the movement of the tongue forward and backward; when pronouncing some vowels, the tongue moves forward, so that a large space remains behind the root of the tongue, the tip of the tongue rests on the lower teeth, the middle part of the back of the tongue rises to the hard palate; vowels formed with this position of the tongue are called front vowels; they include And And e.

When forming other vowels, the tongue moves back, so that only a small space remains behind the root of the tongue, the tip of the tongue is moved away from the lower teeth, the back of the back of the tongue rises to the soft palate; vowels formed with this position of the tongue are called back vowels; they include O And u.

Vowels A And s at the place where the tongue rises, they occupy an intermediate position, and they are called middle vowels; when pronouncing a vowel s the entire back of the tongue is raised high to the hard palate; vowel A It is pronounced without raising the tongue, so it can be considered non-localized in relation to the place of rise.

The stated classification of vowels according to the degree and location of tongue elevation can be presented in Table 10.

Table 10

Vowel classification

Articulation of consonants. A distinctive feature of the articulation of consonants is that during their formation, various kinds of obstacles arise in the path of the exhaled stream of air in the extension pipe. Overcoming these obstacles, the air stream produces noises, which determine the acoustic characteristics of most consonants. The nature of the sound of individual consonants depends on the method of noise formation and the place of its origin.

In some cases, the organs of pronunciation form a complete closure, which is violently torn apart by a stream of exhaled air. At the moment of this rupture (or explosion), noise is produced. This is how they are formed stops, or explosive, consonants.

In other cases, the active organ of pronunciation only approaches the passive one, so that a narrow gap is formed between them. In these cases, noise arises as a result of friction of the air stream against the edges of the gap. This is how they are formed slotted, otherwise spacious or fricatives(from Latin fricare - to rub), consonants.

If the organs of pronunciation that have formed a complete stop do not open instantly, by explosion, but by transitioning the closure into a fissure, then complex articulation arises with a stop beginning and a fissure end. This articulation is characteristic of education occlusive-frictional(fused) consonants, or affricate.

An air stream, overcoming the resistance of the organ of pronunciation blocking its path, can lead it to a state of vibration (trembling), resulting in a peculiar intermittent sound. This is how they are formed trembling consonants, or vibrants.

If there is complete closure in one place of the extension tube (for example, between the lips or between the tongue and teeth), in another place (for example, on the sides of the tongue or behind the lowered soft palate), there may be a free passage for the air stream. In these cases, almost no noise occurs, but the sound of the voice acquires a characteristic timbre and is noticeably muffled. The consonants formed with such articulation are called closure-passage. Depending on where the air stream is directed - into the nasal cavity or into the oral cavity, transitive consonants are divided into nasal And oral.

The characteristics of noise characteristic of consonants depend not only on the method of its formation, but also on the place of origin. Both explosion noise and friction noise can occur at different locations in the extension pipe. In some cases, the active organ of pronunciation, forming a stop or cleft, is the lower lip, and the consonants arising in this case are called labial In other cases, the active organ of pronunciation is the tongue, and then the consonants are called lingual.

When most consonants are formed, additional articulation may be added to the main method of articulation (bow, narrowing, vibration) in the form of raising the middle part of the back of the tongue to the hard palate, or the so-called palatalization(from Latin palatum - sky), the acoustic result of palatalization of consonants is their mitigation.

Classification of consonants. The classification of consonants is based on the following features: 1) participation of noise and voice; 2) method of articulation; 3) place of articulation; 4) the absence or presence of palatalization, in other words - hardness or softness.

Sonorant consonants are opposed to all other consonants, which are called noisy. Unlike sonorous ones, they are formed with the participation of fairly strong and clearly distinguishable noises.

Noisy consonants, in turn, are divided into two groups. One group is consonants formed without the participation of the voice, using only noise. They are called deaf; when pronouncing them, the glottis is open, the vocal cords do not vibrate.

Another group is consonants formed with the help of noise and accompanied by a voice. They are called voiced; most noisy consonants are pairs of voiceless and voiced (p-b, f-v, sh-f etc.). Unpaired voiceless consonants are: x, x\ c, h, sch, and unpaired voiced ones have one consonant) (yot).

According to the method of articulation, that is, according to the method of forming a barrier between the active and passive organs of pronunciation, consonants are divided into five groups.

Noisy consonants form three groups:

1. stops, or plosives: p, p", b, b", t, t", d, d", k, k", g, g";

2. slotted (slotted), or fricatives: f, f", v, v", s, s", з, з", х, х",ш, ш, j (yot);

3. octopus-frictional(fused), or affricates: ts, h. Sonorant consonants according to the method of articulation are divided into two groups:

· octopus: m, m", n, n", l, l". Among the stop-passive consonants m, m", n, n" are nasal and consonants l, l" - oral;

· trembling, or vibrant: r, r".

According to the place of articulation, consonants are primarily divided into two groups depending on the active organ of pronunciation involved in their formation, namely labial And lingual.

Labial consonants, in turn, are divided into two groups depending on the passive organ relative to which the lower lip articulates:

1. labiolabial, or bilabial: p, p", b, b", m, m"; when pronouncing these sounds, a bow is formed between the lower and upper lips;

2. labiodental: f, f", v, v"; here the lower lip articulates relative to the upper incisors, forming a gap with them.

Lingual consonants, depending on the passive organ in relation to which the tongue articulates, are divided into five groups:

1. lingual-dental: s, s", z, z", c, t, t", d, d", n, n", l, l"; when pronouncing these sounds, the front part of the tongue, together with its tip, articulates relative to the upper incisors, forming a bow or gap with them;

2. lingual-alveolar: p, p"; these consonants are formed as a result of vibration of the anterior edge of the tongue at the alveoli of the upper incisors;

3. lingual-anteropalatal: w, w, h, sch; when pronouncing these consonants, the front edge or front part of the back of the tongue forms a stop or cleft with the front part of the hard palate;

4. lingual-medial palatal: k", g", x", j; this group of consonants is formed by closing or bringing together the middle part of the back of the tongue with the middle part of the palate;

5. lingual-posterior palatal: k, g, x, when these sounds are formed, the back of the back of the tongue articulates relative to the soft palate and the back of the hard palate, forming a stop or cleft here.

Palatalized consonants (i.e., consonants formed using the additional articulation described above, which consists in raising the middle part of the back of the tongue to the hard palate) are called soft as opposed to non-palatalized, or solid consonants. Most consonants are pairs of hard and soft. Unpaired hard consonants are and And ts, unpaired soft - h And j.

The classification of consonants is presented in Table 11.

Table 11. Classification of consonants

ARTICULATION OF VOWEL SOUNDS

Let's assume that you have already learned how to breathe correctly. Now make sure that the exhalation is accompanied by correct articulation of the lips, the correct position of the tongue, and the correct direction of the air flow during exhalation. Do the exercises in front of a mirror. The exhalation should be silent and almost silent - only a hint of sound.

Let's start with the sound [A]. The mouth is open in the shape of a large ring. You can place two fingers stacked on top of each other between your teeth. The upper teeth are slightly open, the lower teeth are closed with the lip. Inhale, hold, exhale to a very quiet sound. [A] - Duration of exhalation according to one of the schemes of the previous exercises.

[U]- The mouth takes the form of a proboscis, a tube extended forward.

[ABOUT] - The mouth is in the shape of a ring, a “half-trunk”. Air should pass freely through this half-proboscis.

[E] - The lips are stretched, the distance between the teeth is a thumb placed between them. Make sure that the air comes out into the GAP between the teeth, and does not rest against the roof of the mouth or the upper teeth.

[s]- The distance between the teeth is the little finger, the lips are open, the lower jaw is slightly pushed forward. The air comes out BETWEEN THE TEETH, without getting lost in the oral cavity.

[AND] - The lower jaw is in normal position. Between the teeth is the tip of the little finger. Exhale only into the gap between the teeth, and nothing else. Otherwise you will whistle.

This stage of the exercises should get you used to proper articulation. The problem of voice development, and this is a special section of classes, lies ahead. In the meantime, move on to the next series of exercises. Practice mastering the correct articulation of consonant sounds.

ARTICULATION OF CONSONANTS

Just like vowels, consonant sounds must be pronounced with the correct exhalation. It should be remembered that each person may have some deviations in the structure of the speech apparatus (bad bite, missing teeth, size of the tongue, etc.). Sometimes it is very important to be able to adapt your apparatus yourself to pronounce a particular sound. But if you do not have noticeable deviations of this kind, then you can try classical methods of pronouncing consonants.

[P]- Lips tightly compressed. When pronouncing the sound [P], an explosion occurs. The lips suddenly part. The lower jaw drops slightly. The distance between the teeth depends on the previous vowel sound. I repeat: sound is formed by the sharp opening of closed lips without the participation of ligaments.

[B]- The same as [P], but with more closed lips (the upper lip slightly hugs the lower), and the exhalation is more active than when producing the sound [P]. If you put your palm on your throat, you can feel the vibration of the ligaments.

[T]- The tip of the tongue rises to the upper incisors from the inside. Under the pressure of exhaled air, the tongue is sharply pushed away from the teeth. BE PARTICULARLY CAREFUL that the air is directed precisely to the tip of the tongue, and does not leak between the tongue and palate (otherwise there will be a lisp [T]) and does not touch the ligaments (which can give a compressed, hoarse sound).

[D]- The tongue is pressed with greater force against the upper incisors than when producing the sound [T], and is torn off by the downward pressure of air. Working the tongue to create the sounds [D] and [T] helps eliminate tongue sluggishness.

[X]- 0 is formed when the back of the tongue approaches the soft palate. The sound must be pronounced with a soft, “warm” exhalation, since a strong exhalation will give the sound a guttural tone.

[TO] - It is formed similar to the sound [X], but the exhalation is stronger. Instant release of air - the sound should be clear and short. The tip of the tongue rests on the roots of the lower teeth, the back of the tongue is strongly curved and touches the border of the hard and soft palate. The sound should be clear, without any admixture [X].

[M]- 0 is formed by opening tightly closed lips. Try “mooing” with your lips closed, and then break them apart with a weak air stream. Do not direct the sound into your nose, otherwise you will sound nasal. Direct the sound to your lips.

[F] And [IN]- The upper lip is raised, the lower lip is slightly pulled towards the upper incisors, the upper teeth are exposed. With the sound [F], a stream of air is pushed into the hole between the lower lip and upper teeth, hitting the upper lip and nose. When sounding [B], the lower lip is lightly pressed against the upper teeth. The exhaled air seems to seep between the lower lip and upper teeth, creating a sound reminiscent of the rattling of a tense cello string. The air stream should not be very strong so that the sound [B] does not lose its sonority and does not resemble the sound [F].

[L]- The tip of the tongue is raised towards the upper incisors. With a hard [L], the tip of the tongue is not tense, the root part of the tongue is raised. With a soft [L] the tip of the tongue is very tense, the root part of the tongue is lowered. A strong stream of air hits the front of the tongue, pressing it against the upper teeth. First try to form a sound without lifting your tongue, and then with lifting it off.

[R]- With a hard sound, the tip of the tongue is raised and vibrates at the roots of the teeth; with a soft [Pb], vibration occurs directly at the upper incisors.

[H]- Lips softly parted. The space between the teeth is very narrow, the front of the tongue is pressed against the roots of the lower teeth. A quick and strong exhalation releases sound along with a stream of air. The sound should be short, without an admixture of vowels.

[Ts]- The tongue is raised towards the upper teeth. Teeth exposed. A strong and short exhalation is directed into the gap between the teeth, onto the lower lip and chin.

[WITH]- The lips are open, the distance between the teeth is 1 mm, the tongue is raised to the upper teeth, concave, there is a longitudinal groove in the middle of the tongue. The exhalation is very strong and prolonged, a stream of air falls on the chin. If the sound is lisping or lisping, it means that the tongue either appears between the teeth, or is lowered and flaccid, or the upper lip is very “hard”. If the sound is whistling, then the tongue should be lowered slightly or pay attention to defects in the structure of the teeth (one tooth is shorter than the other, or there is a large gap between the front teeth, or the bite is incorrect).

Articulation (from the Latin articulatio - I pronounce articulately) is the work of the speech organs aimed at producing sounds. Each pronounced sound has three articulatory phases: attack (excursion), endurance and retreat (recursion). All phases are interconnected as components of sound pronunciation.

An attack of articulation consists in the transition of the speech organs from a calm state or articulation of the previous sound to the position required by the pronounced sound. Exposure is the preservation of the position of the articulating organs necessary to pronounce a given sound. The retreat of articulation consists in the exit of the speech organs from the holding position or in the beginning of the articulation of the next sound. During the speech process, there is no clear boundary between the phases, since during the transition from one phase to another, they seem to be layered on top of each other in the speech flow.

When pronouncing some sounds, the shutter speed practically approaches zero - these are the so-called instant sounds. These are, for example, Russian and Belarusian stop consonants [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g]. When pronouncing Russian and Belarusian vowels, sonorants, and some other consonants, the endurance is perceived acoustically quite clearly - these are long sounds. Their duration may not always be evident, but if desired, these sounds can be extended.

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The entire set of articulations necessary for the free formation of sounds of any language is called articulatory base of this language. The articulatory bases of languages ​​differ from each other. For example, deep pronunciation organs - the uvula and pharynx - practically do not participate in the formation of sounds of the Russian language. Therefore, in the Russian language there are no lingual (uvular), pharyngeal (pharyngeal) and laryngeal (laryngeal) consonants. And, on the contrary, in the articulatory base of the Georgian language, deep pronunciation organs play a significant role in the formation of consonant sounds. In the Russian language, the work of the vocal cords is also combined with oral articulations, which leads to the formation of voiced consonants. In Finno-Ugric languages, the work of the vocal cords is rarely accompanied by oral articulations, which explains the absence of voiced consonants in these languages.

The articulatory base of language is a historical phenomenon. The articulatory skills that make up it can gradually change. This turns out to be one of the reasons for the development of a sound system in a particular language. For example, the loss of nasal vowels in a certain historical period in the Russian language or the acquisition of the consonant sound [f]. However, the process of development of the articulatory base is very long-term: the sound system of a language, as a rule, remains unchanged over a number of eras. Much remains unclear about the causes of sound changes, as well as the associated changes in the articulatory base of the language.

4.4. Classification of speech sounds

Vowels and consonants. The number of speech sounds found in different languages ​​of the world is quite large. The number of typical sounds (phonemes) ranges from 12 to 80. Despite the different set of sounds in different languages, in all languages ​​of the world there are two types of speech sounds - vowels and consonants. The combination of vowel sounds forms vocalism(from Latin vocalis - vowel) the phonetic system of a language, and the set of consonants is its consonantism(from lat. con-

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sonāns, born p.cōnsonantis - consonant). The classification of sounds can be based on both acoustic and articulatory features. When dividing sounds into vowels and consonants and their internal classification, both of these characteristics are most often taken into account.

Vowels- these are sounds, during the formation of which in the supraglottic cavities there are no obstacles in the path of the air stream: the stream of exhaled air passes freely through the speech canal. For vowel sounds, the so-called diffuse tension of the muscles of the entire pronunciation apparatus is typical, when all speech organs taking part in sound formation are tense. The degree of tension can change: with greater tension, the pronounced vowel has a clearer character (for example, a stressed vowel in Russian). When characterizing vowels, other features are usually noted: vowels are tonal sounds. They are characterized by the presence of musical tones (voices), which are formed by the work of the vocal cords.

Consonants- these are sounds, the formation of which in the supraglottic cavities or in the larynx necessarily creates one or another obstacle to the path of the air stream (in the form of close or even closed speech organs). Consonants are characterized by concentrated muscular tension at the point of formation of the obstruction and a stronger air stream than vowels. In addition, consonant sounds are characterized by the presence of noise that occurs when overcoming an obstacle. The admixture of musical tones (voices) may be greater or lesser.

Acoustic classification of speech sounds. The peculiarities of acoustic classification are that it describes vowels and consonants with the same set of terms. In this case, acoustic classification is based, as a rule, on a binary principle, that is, two-term oppositions. In other words, the application of the binary principle in acoustic classification at each division gives two classes of speech sounds. For example, sign vocality - non-vocality, based on the presence or absence of a clearly defined formant structure of sound, it divides speech sounds into sonorant (from the Latin sonorus - sonorous) and noisy. Sonorant (vocal) include -

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All vowels and sonorant consonants [m], [n], [l], [p], [j]. Nonvocal consonants include noisy consonants [b], [p], [d], [t], [g], [k], [v], [f], [z], [s], [zh], [ w], [x], [ts], [h]. Sonorant sounds are characterized by the presence of resonator tones; noise in them is either absent (vowels) or minimally involved (for example, in p different types). In noisy consonants, the timbre is determined by the noise characteristic of this sound.

Based on consonance - non-consonance, Based on the low or high overall energy level of a sound, all sounds are divided into consonant (all consonants) and non-consonant (all vowels). In terms of energy level, non-consonant sounds are strong sounds, consonant sounds are weak sounds. This sign does not duplicate the previous one, since in the first case some consonants have the sign of “publicity”. This is clearly visible on the following plate, where + indicates the presence of the attribute, and - (minus) its absence:

Another binary sign sonority - deafness, based on the presence or absence of harmonic vibrations in low frequencies, allows you to divide all sounds into voiced and unvoiced. Voiced sounds include all vocal sounds - and these are vowels, sonorant consonants and voiced noisy sounds; - non-vocal, that is, deaf noisy. As already noted, vowel sounds are characterized by the presence of only voice; in sonorants, or sonants, the voice predominates over noise. Voiced noisy [b], [v], [g], [d], [z], [z] are formed with a predominance of noise over the voice, and voiceless noisy [k], [p], [s], [t] , [f], [x], [ts], [h], [w] - without voice participation.

The acoustic characteristics of sounds are based on experimental data from electroacoustics. It is based both on the actual frequency characteristics of the formants and on the location of the formants in the sound spectrum. To describe the phonetic systems of the world's languages, 12 pairs of features are usually used. In addition to the marked pairs, these are features such as compactness - differential

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fusity, discontinuity - continuity, tension - non-tension, sharpness - blurredness, nasality - non-nasality, aruptiveness - non-abruptiveness, flatness - non-flatness, sharpness - non-sharpness, high tone - low tone.

Formants compact sounds on the spectrogram occupy the central part of the spectrum, formants diffuse- located at the ends of the spectrum. For example, Russian consonants [zh], [k], [r] are compact, and [b], [s], [f] are diffuse sounds. Intermittent sounds on spectrograms are characterized by a sharply broken edge of the wave, while in continuous there are transitional tones. An example is the contrast between Russian stop consonants (discontinuous) and fricative consonants (continuous). U tense sounds, the total amount of energy is higher, and the duration of sound is longer than that of relaxed, for example, in German consonants [ä-a, ö-o, ü-u]. Acoustically sharp and unsharp sounds differ in noise intensity. When sharp sounds are formed in the oral cavity, turbulent air flows arise - jet turbulence, when part of the air flows across the general flow, disturbing it. In Russian, sharp sounds include affricates [ts, ch"] and tremulous [rr"]. Nasality due to the participation of the nasal resonator in the formation of sound. Nasal sounds include nasal vowels and consonants. Under abortiveness This refers to the formation of consonants accompanied by a glottal stop. Abruptive, or glottalized, consonants are found in many languages ​​of America, the Caucasus, and the Far East. Acoustically, aruptive ones are characterized by a higher rate of energy consumption than non-abruptive ones. U flat sounds at least one of the formants is lowered compared to non-flat. So, in the Russian language, the vowels [a-e-y-i] are non-flat, and the vowels [o], [u] are flat, which is due to the roundness of these sounds. U sharp sounds, unlike flat ones, have at least one formant higher than that of unsharp. An example of sharp sounds is the soft consonants of Slavic languages. Opposition low tone-high tone is based on the concentration of energy in the lower or higher frequencies of the sound spectrum. In the Russian language, for example, vowels [у, о], hard consonants have a low tonality, and vowels [i, e], soft consonants have a high tonality.

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To describe the phonetic system of the Russian language, 9 pairs of features are considered sufficient. Moreover, some of them for individual sounds turn out to be insignificant and duplicative in some cases, since their presence or absence follows from other signs and is predicted by them. For example, the vocality of [a] predicts its nonconsonantity; from the absence of vocality [s] follows its consonance.

Articulatory classification of speech sounds. The peculiarities of the articulatory classification are that vowels and consonants are described separately and, as a rule, in different terms, which is due to the specific articulation of these speech sounds.

Classification of vowels. In different languages, the number of vowels does not coincide: for example, in modern Russian and Belarusian there are six of them, in modern German there are thirteen, and in modern English twenty-one. The International Phonetic Association (IPA) chart of vowel sounds is represented by 25 vowel sounds. The vocalism of the Russian language is considered quite simple, in contrast, for example, to the vocalism of English and French, which have tense and labial front vowels, long vowels and diphthongs.

Articulatory classifications of vowels are based on the degree of elevation of the tongue vertically (rise), the degree of its advancement forward or backward horizontally (row), on the participation or non-participation of the lips (the presence or absence of labialization; from the Latin labium - lip), on the position of the soft palate .

According to the degree of tongue elevation vowels are divided into: sounds of the upper rise (Russian [и], [ы], [у]), during the formation of which the tongue occupies the highest position in the oral cavity; sounds of the lower rise (Russian [a]), when articulating them, the tongue occupies the lowest possible position in the oral cavity; sounds of medium rise (Russian [e], [o]), when they are formed, the tongue occupies a middle position in the oral cavity; There can be quite a lot of average rises.

During education front vowels(Russian [i], [e]) the tongue moves forward in the oral cavity, back row (Russian [u],

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[o]) - back, middle row (Russian [ы], [а]) - the tongue is extended along the oral cavity.

By participation or non-participation of lips vowels are divided into labialized (rounded) and non-labialized (unrounded). Rounded sounds are formed by rounding and stretching the lips. In Russian it is [u], [o]. When pronouncing unrounded sounds, the lips are passive.

In the speech stream, vowel sounds, in addition to their basic form, exist in a variety of shades, which depend on various phonetic conditions: on the place in relation to stress, on proximity to hard or soft consonants, on the place in the word.

According to the position of the soft palate Vowels are divided into oral, or oral, and nasal. When the oral cavity is formed, the soft palate is raised and closes the passage into the nasal cavity. When nasal vowels are formed, the soft palate is lowered and the air stream passes freely into the nasal cavity. In modern Russian there are no nasal vowels. In ancient times, the Slavs had nasal vowels; they are still preserved in the Polish language.

Vowels are also distinguished degree of mouth opening. For example, the Russian vowel [and] belongs to the “narrow” sounds, since when pronouncing it the mouth almost does not open. And, on the contrary, the sound [a] is one of the “widest” sounds, since when it is pronounced, the widest mouth opening is formed. The simplest table of Russian vowels looks like this:

In the languages ​​of the world, there are also complex vowels, consisting of two elements pronounced in one syllable and acting as one phoneme. These are the so-called diphthongs. They are divided into descending, or falling, and ascending. In a downward direction

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In a phthong, the first element of sound is strong. For example, in the English diphthong [оu] in words go - go, home - home, By - - no, this is the initial [o]-shaped sound, while the second element is pronounced less clearly. In an ascending diphthong, the second element of the sound is strong, or syllabic. For example, in Spanish diffthongs, in words biep- Fine, biepo - A good one is the final [e]-shaped overtone.

Classification of consonants. The articulatory classification of consonant sounds is more complex, since there are more consonant sounds in the languages ​​of the world than vowels. In some languages, the number of consonants ranges from 50% to 90% of the total number of sounds. For example, in English there are 24 consonants and 21 vowels, in French there are 21 consonants and 13 vowels, in Lithuanian - 45 consonants and 12 vowels, in Armenian - 30 and 6, respectively, in Georgian - 28 and 5, in Uzbek - 24 and 6 , in Estonian there are 16 consonants and 9 vowels (data from V.I. Kodukhov). In the Russian language there are 36 consonants and 6 vowels (sometimes other numbers are given).

The basis for the classification of consonants are the following articulatory features: 1) an active organ that forms a barrier; 2) place of formation of the barrier; 3) method of formation of the barrier; 4) work of the vocal cords; 5) position of the soft palate.

According to the active organ, consonants are divided into labial, lingual, uvular, pharyngeal and laryngeal.

During education labial sounds the barrier is created by the closure of the lower lip with the upper or the bringing together of the lower lip with; upper teeth. In the first case, labial-labial (bilabial) sounds are obtained [p-p", b-b", mm"], in the second - labial-dental (labiodental - from Latin labium - lip, dens (dentis) - tooth ) [v-v", f-f"].

lingual consonants are divided into front-lingual, middle-lingual and back-lingual. Forelingual Consonants according to the place of formation are divided into dental and anteropalatal. In the formation of dental sounds, an obstruction is created by the approach of the front and tip of the tongue to the teeth, teeth and alveoli or alveoli. The vast majority of anterior lingual sounds

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belongs to the dental category: [d-d", t-t", z-z", s-s", n-n", l-l", c]. Anteropalatines are formed by raising the anterior part of the back of the tongue or its tip towards the alveoli and the anterior part of the hard palate. In Russian these include [zh, sh, ch", r-r"].

The articulations of front-lingual consonants vary across languages. Depending on the position of the tip of the tongue, they are also divided into dorsal(from lat.dorsum - back), apical (from lat.apex - top) and kakuminal (from lat.cacumen - sharp end, top). Dorsal ones are formed by bringing the front part of the back of the tongue closer to the upper teeth and alveoli (for example, Russian [t, n, s]), while the tip of the tongue is lowered to the lower teeth. During education apical sounds, together with the front part of the back of the tongue, the tip of the tongue rises towards the upper teeth and alveoli (for example, English). During education cuminal sounds, the tip of the tongue is raised, and the front part of the back of the tongue is somewhat concave inward (for example, Russian [r]).

Middle language consonants are formed by bringing the middle part of the back of the tongue closer to the hard palate - palatum, which is why they are sometimes called palatal(for example, Russian [j]).

During education posterior lingual the barrier of sounds is created by the convergence of the back of the tongue with the soft palate, which is why they are also called velar(from Latin velaris), or posterior palatal. The back-lingual sounds include [g-r", k-k", x-x"].

Education uvular sounds are characterized by the convergence of the soft palate and uvula (uvula) with the back of the tongue (for example, German [x] in the words ach, Buch).

During education pharyngeal, or pharyngeal, The barrier to sounds is created by a narrowing of the pharynx associated with the backward movement of the root of the tongue and contraction of the muscles of the pharynx. Pharyngeal sounds are found in German ([h] in words Held - hero, ha-ep- have), Arabic and some other languages.

Laryngeal, or laryngeal, sounds are formed when the vocal cords are bowed or brought together. Laryngeal sounds are very close to pharyngeal sounds and are often not distinguished between them (both are called laryngeal).

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Thus, the division of consonants according to the active organ is layered on their division according to the place of formation, which is natural, since during the formation of a sound all its articulatory features appear, acting in a complex, in interconnection. This applies to the way the speech organs form an obstruction, to the functioning of the vocal cords, and to the position of the soft palate.

The method of formation refers to the nature of the barrier and passage for a stream of air (free, narrowed, closed) during the formation of a speech sound. According to this articulatory feature, all consonants in one of the classification options are divided into stops, fricatives, stop-frictions, stop-passages and tremors.

During education stops a complete closure of the organs of speech occurs, which then ends with an “explosion” under the pressure of an air stream, which explains another term for these consonants - “explosive”. The articulation of stops has three elements - stop (implosion), sustain and explosion (explosion). The bow, hold and explosion occur very quickly, so these sounds are also called instantaneous, emphasizing the speed of their pronunciation: Russian. [b-b", p-p", d-d", t-t", g-g", k-k"], English. etc.

Slotted consonants are created by the passage of air through the gap formed by the speech organs. A gap occurs in the oral cavity - between the lips and teeth or between the tongue and teeth or palate. An air stream passes through it with friction, which is why slot sounds are also called fricatives(from Lat. fricare - to rub): Russian. [v-v", f-f", z-z", s-s", zh, sh, j, x-x"], English, etc. Friction consonants can be unifocal and bifocal. When forming unifocal consonants the air stream passes through one obstacle, that is, one focus, in the oral cavity. When articulating bifocal consonants, an obstacle is formed simultaneously in two places, that is, in two foci, passing through which the air stream creates a complex specific noise. An example of bifocal consonants is the Russian [sh. , and].

Occlusion-slit consonants arise as a result of complete closure of the speech organs and the subsequent transition of the shutter into the gap: rus. [ts, h]. In other words, an attack of affricate-stop-

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ny, and the indentation is slotted. Stop-friction sounds are called differently affricates(from Latin affricata - ground in).

Connectively-passing sounds are formed when an air stream bypasses the resulting closure of the speech organs. Depending on the path of passage of the air stream, the occipital passages are divided into nasal and lateral. When the nasal cavity is formed, the soft palate descends and closes the passage into the oral cavity, air passes through the nose: rus. [mmm", n-n"]. Lateral, or lateral (from Latin lateralis - lateral), occur when air leaks along the sides of the tongue: Russian. [l-l"].

Trembling consonants are formed by rhythmic vibration of the tip of the tongue, that is, vibration, which is why they are also called vibrants. In Russian these are the sounds [р-р"].

As already noted in the acoustic classification of sounds, according to the relationship between voice and noise, all consonants are divided into sonorant and noisy; the latter, in turn, are divided into voiced and voiceless.

Along with the main articulation in the formation of sounds in each language, there is an additional one that creates a specific coloring of timbre. Based on additional coloring, consonants are distinguished between palatalized, or soft, and non-palatalized, or hard.

Palatalization consists of additionally raising the front or middle part of the back of the tongue to the hard palate. The consonant [j] occupies a special place in this system: it is always soft - palatal, since during its formation there is only the main articulation of the middle part of the back of the tongue to the hard palate and there is no additional one. In different languages, the degree of palatalization of consonant sounds varies. There are languages ​​for which palatalization is unknown.

The opposite process of palatalization is called velarization(from Latin velumpalati - curtain of palate). During velarization, the back of the tongue moves toward the soft palate.

The proposed classification very incompletely reflects the real diversity of sound differences in consonants that exist in the phonetic systems of the world's languages. The simplest table of Russian consonants can be presented as follows:

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Thus, the acoustic and articulatory classification of speech sounds shows that each sound has a number of characteristics that are preserved or not preserved when the sound is in proximity to others in the speech stream.

Lecture 2. Articulatory and acoustic characteristics of Russian sounds. Full phonetic analysis.

Plan.

1. Articulatory classification of consonant sounds by:

a) place of education,

b) method of education,

d) hardness/softness,

e) duration / brevity.

Detailed characteristics of the functioning of the speech apparatus in the formation of sounds of each group.

3. Typology of vowels according to:

a) the place where the tongue bends,

b) degree of tongue elevation,

c) participation of the lips.

Detailed articulatory characteristics and grouping of sounds.

4. Graphic interpretations of the articulatory classification of vowels of the Russian language.

5. Acoustic classification of sounds. The doctrine of distinctive features in general and Russian phonetics.

6. The order and methodology of phonetic analysis (transcription, stress location, syllable division, determination of types of syllables, characteristics of sounds)

7. Phonetic analysis in school practice.

1. Articulatory classification of consonant sounds.

The characteristics of consonants are made up of five main features: place of formation, method of formation, noise level, participation or non-participation of the voice, hardness-softness.

a) The place of formation of a consonant depends on which active organ does the main work and with which passive organ it closes or approaches. This is the place in the mouth where the air stream meets an obstacle. If the active organ is the lower lip, then the consonants can be labiolabial: [p, b, m] (passive organ - upper lip) and labiodental: [v, f] (passive organ - upper teeth). If the active organ is the tongue, then the characteristic of the consonant depends on which part of the tongue - anterior, middle or posterior - is involved in creating an obstruction and with which passive organ - the teeth, the anterior, middle or posterior part of the palate - the tongue approaches or closes. Forelingual there are consonants dental: [t, d, s, z, n] when the front of the tongue is directed towards the teeth, and anterior palatal: [r, w, w, h"], when it is directed towards the front of the palate. Middle language at the same time always and midpalatal: [j]. Rear lingual or midpalatal: [k", g", x"] or postopalatine: [k, g, x].

· Labiolabial [b, p, m]

· Labial-dental [v, f]

· Forelingual-dental [t, d, s, z, n, l, c]

· Forelingual-anteropalatal [r, w, g, h]

· Midlingual-mid-palatal [j]

· Posterior-medial palatal [g’, k’, x’, γ’]

Postlingual-posterior palatal [g, k, x, γ]

b) The method of formation of a consonant is a characteristic of an obstacle in the mouth in the path of an air stream. This obstacle is of two types: either a complete closure of the speech organs, or a gap between them. Therefore, all consonants are divided into two groups: occlusive and fricative.

Slotted (fricatives - from the Latin fricatio - “friction”) are formed as a result of friction of an air stream against the edges of the adjacent organs of speech, representing a narrow gap. Slotted median are formed in the middle of adjacent speech organs: [v, f, h, s, g, w, j]. With slotted lateral air flows from the side of the mouth, between the side of the tongue and the teeth: [l, l"].

Stop consonants include the moment of complete cessation of the flow of air through the oral cavity. Depending on the nature of overcoming the stops, stops are divided into plosives, affricates, nasals, quavers. Explosive consonants contain two moments in their formation: first, there is a complete delay in the air stream and an increase in intraoral pressure as a result, and then a sharp opening of the speech organs and the breakthrough of the air stream into the resulting passage with a characteristic noise. These are, for example, [p, b, t, d, k, g]. Africates(or occlusive-frictional, fused) contain, like plosives, the same initial moment - a complete closure of the speech organs. But in the last phase, the closed organs do not suddenly open, but only open slightly, forming a gap for air to escape. These are, for example, [ts, ch"]. Nasals consonants are characterized by complete closure of the oral cavity and simultaneous lowering of the palatine (nasal) curtain; air flows freely through the nasal cavity: [m, n]. Trembling are formed by vibration, trembling of the tip of the tongue and its closing and opening with the alveoli: [p, p "].

Fricatives/fricatives

Lateral [l, l’]

Median [v, f, h, s, w, g, j, x, γ]

· Occlusive

Nasals [m, m’, n, n’]

Plosives [p, b, d, t, g, k]

Affricates (fused) [ts, h]

Trembling (vibrants) [r, r’]

c) voice/noise ratio. According to the noise level (degree of its intensity), consonants are divided into sonorous[r, l, m, n, j] and noisy[b, c, d, d, g, h, k, p, s, t, f, x, c, h", w]. The intensity of the noise of noisy consonants is much higher than that of sonorant consonants. This is explained by differences in the tension of the organs speech and in the strength of the air stream when pronouncing sonorant and noisy consonants. Noisy consonants are formed with greater muscle tension than in sonorant ones in the place of the oral cavity where an obstacle to the air stream occurs. Measurements of the intensity of the air stream emerging from the oral or nasal cavity during speech. , show that when pronouncing sonorant consonants, the force of the air stream is much weaker than when pronouncing noisy ones.

Based on the participation of the voice, consonants are divided into two groups: those pronounced with a voice (tone) and those without a voice. The voice occurs as a result of the fact that the vocal cords are brought together and tremble when a stream of air passes. This is how they are formed voiced consonants: [b, c, d, d, g, h]. The difference between sonorants and voiced noisy ones is that in voiced sonorants the voice (tone) usually prevails over the noise, and in voiced noisy ones the noise prevails over the voice. Without a voice, with the help of noise alone, they are formed deaf consonants: [k, p, s, t, f, x, c, ch", w]. When pronouncing them, the glottis is open and the vocal cords are relaxed.

According to the presence and absence of voice, i.e. according to voicedness and deafness, consonant sounds form pairs [b] - [p], [v] - [f], [g] - [k], [d] - [t] , [zh] - [sh], etc. The sound [ts] is dull. But it has a voiced pair - the sound [dz], which is pronounced in place of [ts] before the voiced consonant, for example, in the words bridgehead, special task, Spitsbergen, this was the father, end of the year. The same pair is made up of a voiceless [ch"] and a voiced [j"]. In the words alchba, nachbazy, lie down, the ball rolled, this daughter was pronounced not [h"], but its sonorous substitute [d"zh". It, like [dz], appears before a sonorous noisy consonant.

d) hardness / softness. Hard and soft consonant sounds differ in the articulation characteristic of each of these groups. When soft consonants are formed, the body of the tongue is concentrated in the more anterior part, and when hard consonants are formed, it is concentrated in the more posterior part of the oral cavity. [v"]il- [v]yl, [p"]il- [p]yl, [l"]yog- [l]og, [r"] poison- [r]ad. This basic horizontal movement is accompanied by tension and elevation of different parts of the tongue. When soft consonants are formed, the front part of the tongue tenses and rises towards the hard palate. When forming hard consonants, the back of the tongue tenses and rises towards the soft palate. Consonant sounds form pairs based on hardness and softness: [b] - [b"], [v] - [v"], [d] - [g"], [d] - [d"], [z] - [ z"], etc. [zh] has a pair [zh"], which is almost always double, long: vo[zh"]y are the reins, dro[zh"]y are the yeast. This is how many speakers of a literary language pronounce these words. (It is also acceptable to pronounce a hard [zh] in place of [zh "].)

Only [j] cannot have a hard pair. For the remaining soft consonants, raising the tongue towards the hard palate is an articulation additional to the main method of consonant formation. In [j], the raising of the middle part of the back of the tongue towards the hard palate is the main articulation. Without this articulation, no consonant sound arises at all.

e) duration / brevity

2. Pairing of consonant sounds in the university and school interpretation.

3. Vowel typology

Vowels, as already indicated, are purely tonal sounds. Having arisen in the larynx as a result of vibration of the vocal cords, the musical tone and voice acquires a special timbre in the supraglottic cavities. The mouth and pharynx are the resonators in which differences between vowels are formed. These differences are determined by the volume and shape of the resonating cavities, which can change as a result of movements of the lips, tongue and lower jaw.

The classification of vowels is based on three characteristics: a) the place where the tongue bends, b) the degree of vertical elevation of the tongue relative to the palate, c) the participation of the lips.

a) the place where the tongue bends, (according to the degree to which the tongue is advanced forward or pushed back horizontally), vowels are distinguished front row[i, uh], middle row[s, a] and back row[u, o]. When articulating the front, middle and back vowels, the tongue is concentrated in the front, middle or back of the mouth, respectively. The shape of the tongue can be different. When forming front vowels, the front part of the back of the tongue rises towards the front of the palate. When forming back vowels, the back of the back of the tongue rises towards the back of the palate. And when forming middle vowels, the tongue either rises with the middle part to the middle part of the palate, as sometimes happens when pronouncing [s], or lies flat, as when pronouncing [a]. The simplest table of Russian vowels is as follows (it is called the R.I. Avanesov square):

b) the degree of elevation of the tongue. Vowels are distinguished by the degree of elevation of the tongue in relation to the palate top lift[i, s, y], medium rise[uh, o] and lower rise[A]. When articulating high vowels, the tongue occupies the highest position. In this case, the lower jaw usually moves slightly away from the upper, creating a narrow mouth opening. Therefore, high vowels are also called narrow vowels. When articulating lower vowels, the lower jaw is usually lowered to its lowest position, creating a wide mouth opening. Therefore, lower vowels are also called wide.

c) participation of the lips. Based on the participation of the lips, vowels are divided into rounded vowels ( labialized) and unrounded ( non-labialized). When rounded vowels are formed, the lips come closer, rounded and protrude forward, reducing the exit opening and lengthening the oral resonator. The degree of rounding can be different: less at [o], greater at [y]. The vowels [a, e, i, s] are unrounded.