INTRODUCTION

1.1. General provisions

The Law of the Russian Federation “On Veterinary Medicine” defines the main tasks of veterinary medicine “in the field of scientific knowledge and practical activities aimed at preventing animal diseases and their treatment, producing complete and veterinarily safe animal products and protecting the population from diseases common to humans and animals "

A number of these problems are solved using biotechnology methods.

The definition of biotechnology is given quite fully by the European Biotechnology Federation, founded in 1978. According to this definition biotechnology is a science that, based on the application of knowledge in the field of microbiology, biochemistry, genetics, genetic engineering, immunology, chemical technology, instrument and mechanical engineering, uses biological objects (microorganisms, animal and plant tissue cells) or molecules (nucleic acids, proteins, enzymes) , carbohydrates, etc.) for the industrial production of substances and products useful for humans and animals.

Until the all-encompassing term "biotechnology" became generally accepted, names such as applied microbiology, applied biochemistry, enzyme technology, bioengineering, applied genetics, and applied biology were used to refer to the variety of technologies most closely related to biology.

The use of scientific achievements in biotechnology is carried out at the highest level of modern science. Only biotechnology makes it possible to obtain a variety of substances and compounds from relatively cheap, accessible and renewable materials.

Unlike natural substances and compounds, artificially synthesized ones require large investments, are poorly absorbed by animal and human organisms, and have a high cost.

Biotechnology uses microorganisms and viruses, which in the course of their life processes naturally produce the substances we need - vitamins, enzymes, amino acids, organic acids, alcohols, antibiotics and other biologically active compounds.

A living cell is superior to any plant in its organizational structure, coherence of processes, accuracy of results, efficiency and rationality.

Currently, microorganisms are used mainly in three types of biotechnological processes:

For biomass production;

To obtain metabolic products (for example, ethanol, antibiotics, organic acids, etc.);

For processing organic and inorganic compounds of both natural and anthropogenic origin.

The main task of the first type of process, which biotechnological production is called upon to solve today, is the elimination of protein deficiency in the feed of farm animals and birds, because In proteins of plant origin there is a deficiency of amino acids and, above all, especially valuable ones, the so-called essential ones.

The main direction of the second group of biotechnological processes is currently the production of microbial synthesis products using waste from various industries, including the food, oil and wood processing industries, etc.

Biotechnological processing of various chemical compounds is aimed mainly at ensuring ecological balance in nature, processing waste from human activities and maximizing the reduction of negative anthropogenic impact on nature.

On an industrial scale, biotechnology represents an industry in which the following sectors can be distinguished:

Production of polymers and raw materials for the textile industry;

Production of methanol, ethanol, biogas, hydrogen and their use in the energy and chemical industries;

Production of protein, amino acids, vitamins, enzymes, etc. through large-scale cultivation of yeast, algae, bacteria;

Increasing the productivity of agricultural plants and animals;

Obtaining herbicides and bioinsecticides;

Widespread introduction of genetic engineering methods in obtaining new breeds of animals, plant varieties and growing tissue cell cultures of plant and animal origin;

Recycling of industrial and household waste, wastewater, production of composts using microorganisms;

Recycling of harmful emissions of oil, chemicals that pollute soil and water;

Production of therapeutic, preventive and diagnostic drugs (vaccines, serums, antigens, allergens, interferons, antibiotics, etc.).

Almost all biotechnological processes are closely related to the life activity of various groups of microorganisms - bacteria, viruses, yeast, microscopic fungi, etc., and have a number of characteristic features:

1. The process of microbial synthesis, as a rule, is part of a multi-stage production, and the target product of the biosynthesis stage is often not marketable and is subject to further processing.

2. When cultivating microorganisms, it is usually necessary to maintain aseptic conditions, which requires sterilization of equipment, communications, raw materials, etc.

3. Cultivation of microorganisms is carried out in heterogeneous systems, the physicochemical properties of which can change significantly during the process.

4. The technological process is characterized by high variability due to the presence of a biological object in the system, i.e. populations of microorganisms.

5. Complexity and multifactorial mechanisms of regulation of microbial growth and biosynthesis of metabolic products.

6. Complexity and, in most cases, lack of information about the qualitative and quantitative composition of production nutrient media.

7. Relatively low concentrations of target products.

8. The ability of the process to self-regulate.

9. Conditions optimal for the growth of microorganisms and for the biosynthesis of target products do not always coincide.

Microorganisms consume substances from the environment, grow, multiply, release liquid and gaseous metabolic products, thereby realizing those changes in the system (accumulation of biomass or metabolic products, consumption of pollutants) for the sake of which the cultivation process is carried out. Consequently, a microorganism can be considered as a central element of a biotechnological system, determining the efficiency of its functioning.

1.2. History of biotechnology development

Over the past 20 years, biotechnology, thanks to its specific advantages over other sciences, has made a decisive breakthrough to the industrial level, which is also due in no small part to the development of new research methods and intensification of processes that have opened up previously unknown opportunities in the production of biological products, methods of isolation, identification and purification biologically. active substances.

Biotechnology was formed and evolved as human society formed and developed. Its emergence, formation and development can be divided into 4 periods.

1. The empirical period or prehistoric is the longest, covering approximately 8000 years, of which more than 6000 BC. and about 2000 AD. The ancient peoples of that time intuitively used techniques and methods for making bread, beer and some other products that we now classify as biotechnological.

It is known that the Sumerians, the first inhabitants of Mesopotamia (in the territory of modern Iraq), created a civilization that flourished in those days. They baked bread from sour dough and mastered the art of brewing beer. The acquired experience was passed on from generation to generation, spreading among neighboring peoples (Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians and ancient Hindus). Vinegar has been known for several thousand years and has been prepared at home since ancient times. The first distillation in winemaking was carried out in the 12th century; vodka from cereals was first produced in the 16th century; champagne has been known since the 18th century.

The empirical period includes the production of fermented milk products, sauerkraut, honey alcoholic drinks, and silage of feed.

Thus, peoples from ancient times used biotechnological processes in practice without knowing anything about microorganisms. Empiricism was also characteristic of the practice of using useful plants and animals.

In 1796, the most important event in biology occurred - E. Jenner carried out the first cowpox vaccinations in humans in history.

2. The etiological period in the development of biotechnology covers the second half of the 19th century. and the first third of the 20th century. (1856 - 1933). He is associated with the outstanding research of the great French scientist L. Pasteur (1822 - 95) - the founder of scientific microbiology.

Pasteur established the microbial nature of fermentation, proved the possibility of life in oxygen-free conditions, created the scientific basis for vaccine prevention, etc.

During the same period, his outstanding students, collaborators and colleagues worked: E. Duclos, E. Roux, Sh.E. Chamberlan, I.I. Mechnikov; R. Koch, D. Lister, G. Ricketts, D. Ivanovsky and others.

In 1859, L. Pasteur prepared a liquid nutrient medium, and R. Koch in 1881 proposed a method for cultivating bacteria on sterile potato slices and on agar nutrient media. And, as a consequence of this, it was possible to prove the individuality of microbes and obtain them in pure cultures. Moreover, each species could be propagated on nutrient media and used to reproduce the corresponding processes (fermentation, oxidation, etc.).

Among the achievements of the 2nd period, the following are especially worth noting:

1856 - Czech monk G. Mendel discovered the laws of dominance of traits and introduced the concept of a unit of heredity in the form of a discrete factor that is transmitted from parents to descendants;

1869 - F. Miler isolated “nuclein” (DNA) from leukocytes;

1883 - I. Mechnikov developed the theory of cellular immunity;

1984 - F. Leffler isolated and cultivated the causative agent of diphtheria;

1892 - D. Ivanovsky discovered viruses;

1893 - W. Ostwald established the catalytic function of enzymes;

1902 - G. Haberland showed the possibility of cultivating plant cells in nutrient solutions;

1912 - C. Neuberg discovered the mechanism of fermentation processes;

1913 - L. Michaelis and M. Menten developed the kinetics of enzymatic reactions;

1926 - H. Morgan formulated the chromosomal theory of heredity;

1928 - F. Griffith described the phenomenon of “transformation” in bacteria;

1932 - M. Knoll and E. Ruska invented the electron microscope.
During this period, the production of pressed food products began.

yeast, as well as products of their metabolism - acetone, butanol, citric and lactic acids, France began to create bio-installations for microbiological wastewater treatment.

However, the accumulation of a large mass of cells of the same age remained an extremely labor-intensive process. That is why a fundamentally different approach was required to solve many problems in the field of biotechnology.

3. Biotechnical period - began in 1933 and lasted until 1972.

In 1933 A. Kluyver and A.H. Perkin published the work “Methods for studying metabolism in molds,” in which they outlined the basic technical techniques, as well as approaches to assessing the results obtained during deep cultivation of fungi. The introduction of large-scale sealed equipment into biotechnology has begun, ensuring processes are carried out under sterile conditions.

A particularly powerful impetus in the development of industrial biotechnological equipment was noted during the period of formation and development of the production of antibiotics (during the Second World War, 1939-1945, when there was an urgent need for antimicrobial drugs for the treatment of patients with infected wounds).

Everything progressive in the field of biotechnological and technical disciplines achieved by that time was reflected in biotechnology:

1936 - the main tasks of designing, creating and putting into practice the necessary equipment were solved, including the main one - the bioreactor (fermenter, cultivator);

1942 - M. Delbrück and T. Anderson first saw viruses using an electron microscope;

1943 - penicillin was produced on an industrial scale;

1949 - J. Lederberg discovered the process of conjugation in E.colly;

1950 - J. Monod developed the theoretical foundations of continuous controlled cultivation of microbes, which were developed in their research by M. Stephenson, I. Molek, M. Ierusalimsky,
I. Rabotnova, I. Pomozova, I. Basnakyan, V. Biryukov;

1951 - M. Theiler developed a vaccine against yellow fever;

1952 - W. Hayes described the plasmid as an extrachromosomal factor of heredity;

1953 - F. Crick and J. Watson deciphered the structure of DNA. This has been the impetus for the development of methods for large-scale cultivation of cells of various origins to obtain cellular products and cells themselves;

1959 - Japanese scientists discovered antibiotic resistance plasmids (K-factor) in dysentery bacteria;

1960 - S. Ochoa and A. Kornberg isolated proteins that can “cross-link” or “glue” nucleotides into polymer chains, thereby synthesizing DNA macromolecules. One such enzyme was isolated from Escherichia coli and named DNA polymerase;

1961 - M. Nirenberg read the first three letters of genetic
code for the amino acid phenylalanine;

1962 - X. Korana chemically synthesized a functional gene;

1969 - M. Beckwith and S. Shapiro isolated the 1ac operon gene in E.colly;

- 1970 - restriction enzyme (restriction endonuclease) was isolated.

4. The genetic engineering period began in 1972, when P. Berg created the first recombination of a DNA molecule, thereby demonstrating the possibility of targeted manipulation of the genetic material of bacteria.

Naturally, without the fundamental work of F. Crick and J. Watson to establish the structure of DNA, it would have been impossible to achieve modern results in the field of biotechnology. Elucidation of the mechanisms of functioning and DNA replication, isolation and study of specific enzymes led to the formation of a strictly scientific approach to the development of biotechnical processes based on genetic engineering manipulations.

The creation of new research methods was a necessary prerequisite for the development of biotechnology in the 4th period:

1977 - M. Maxam and W. Gilbert developed a method for analyzing the primary structure of DNA by chemical degradation, and J. Sanger
- by polymerase copying using terminating nucleotide analogues;

1981 - the first diagnostic kit of monoclonal antibodies is approved for use in the USA;

1982 - human insulin produced by Escherichia coli cells went on sale; a vaccine for animals obtained using technology has been approved for use in European countries
recombinant DNA; genetically engineered interferons, tumor necrotizing factor, interleukin-2, human somatotropic hormone, etc. have been developed;

1986 - K. Mullis developed the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method;

1988 - large-scale production of equipment and diagnostic kits for PCR began;

1997 - The first mammal (Dolly the sheep) was cloned from a differentiated somatic cell.

Such outstanding domestic scientists as L.S. Tsenkovsky, S.N. Vyshelessky, M.V. Likhachev, N.N. Ginzburg, S.G. Kolesov, Ya.R. Kolyakov, R.V. Petrov, V.V. Kafarov and others made an invaluable contribution to the development of biotechnology.

The most important achievements of biotechnology in the 4th period:

1. Development of intensive processes (instead of extensive ones) based on targeted, fundamental research (with producers of antibiotics, enzymes, amino acids, vitamins).

2. Obtaining super-producers.

3. Creation of various products necessary for humans based on genetic engineering technologies.

4. Creation of unusual organisms that did not previously exist in nature.

5. Development and implementation of special equipment for biotechnological systems.

6. Automation and computerization of biotechnological production processes with maximum use of raw materials and minimal energy consumption.

The above achievements of biotechnology are currently being implemented in the national economy and will be put into practice in the next 10-15 years. In the foreseeable future, new cornerstones of biotechnology will be defined and new discoveries and advances await us.

1.3. Biosystems, objects and methods in biotechnology

One of the terms in biotechnology is the concept of “biosystem”. The generalized characteristics of a biological (living) system can be reduced to three main features inherent in them:

1. Living systems are heterogeneous open systems that exchange substances and energy with the environment.

2. These systems are self-governing, self-regulating, interactive, i.e. capable of exchanging information with the environment to maintain their structure and control metabolic processes.

3. Living systems are self-reproducing (cells, organisms).

According to their structure, biosystems are divided into elements (subsystems) interconnected and characterized by a complex organization (atoms, molecules, organelles, cells, organisms, populations, communities).

Control in a cell is a combination of the processes of synthesis of protein-enzyme molecules necessary to carry out a particular function, and continuous processes of changes in activity during the interaction of triplet DNA codes in the nucleus and macromolecules in ribosomes. Strengthening and inhibition of enzymatic activity occurs depending on the amount of initial and final products of the corresponding biochemical reactions. Thanks to this complex organization, biosystems differ from all nonliving objects.

The behavior of a biosystem is the totality of its reactions in response to external influences, i.e. The most common task of the control systems of living organisms is to preserve its energy basis under changing environmental conditions.

N.M. Amosov divides all biosystems into five hierarchical levels of complexity: unicellular organisms, multicellular organisms, populations, biogeocenosis and biosphere.

Single-celled organisms include viruses, bacteria and protozoa. The functions of unicellular organisms are the exchange of matter and energy with the environment, growth and division, reactions to external stimuli in the form of changes in metabolism and form of movement. All functions of unicellular organisms are supported through biochemical processes of an enzymatic nature and through energy metabolism - from the method of obtaining energy to the synthesis of new structures or the breakdown of existing ones. The only mechanism of unicellular organisms that ensures their adaptation to the environment is the mechanism of changes in individual DNA genes and, as a consequence, changes in enzyme proteins and changes in biochemical reactions.

The basis of a systematic approach to the analysis of the structure of biosystems is its representation in the form of two components - energy and control.

In Fig. 1. shows a generalized schematic diagram of energy and information flows in any biosystem. The main element is the energy component, designated through MS (metabolic system), and the control component, designated through P (genetic and physiological control) and transmitting control signals to effectors (E). One of the main functions of the metabolic system is to supply biosystems with energy.

Rice. 1. Flows of energy and information in the biosystem.

The structure of biosystems is maintained by genetic control mechanisms. Receiving energy and information from other systems in the form of metabolic products (matabolites), and during the period of formation - in the form of hormones, the genetic system controls the process of synthesis of necessary substances and supports the vital activity of other body systems, and the processes in this system proceed rather slowly.

Despite the diversity of biosystems, the relationships between their biological properties remain invariant for all organisms. In a complex system, the possibilities for adaptation are much greater than in a simple one. In a simple system, these functions are provided by a small number of mechanisms, and they are more sensitive to changes in the external environment.

Biosystems are characterized by qualitative heterogeneity, which manifests itself in the fact that within the same functional biosystem, subsystems with qualitatively different adequate control signals (chemical, physical, informational) work together and harmoniously.

The hierarchy of biosystems is manifested in the gradual complication of a function at one level of the hierarchy and an abrupt transition to a qualitatively different function at the next level of the hierarchy, as well as in the specific construction of various biosystems, their analysis and control in such a sequence that the final output function of the underlying hierarchy level is included as an element to the higher level.

Constant adaptation to the environment and evolution are impossible without the unity of two opposing properties: structural-functional organization and structural-functional probability, stochasticity and variability.

Structural and functional organization manifests itself at all levels of biosystems and is characterized by high stability of the biological species and its form. At the level of macromolecules, this property is ensured by the replication of macromolecules, at the cell level - by division, at the level of the individual and population - by the reproduction of individuals through reproduction.

As biological objects or systems that biotechnology uses, it is first necessary to name single-celled microorganisms, as well as animal and plant cells. The choice of these objects is determined by the following points:

1. Cells are a kind of “biofactories” that produce various valuable products in the process of life: proteins, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins, nucleic acids, amino acids, antibiotics, hormones, antibodies, antigens, enzymes, alcohols, etc. Many of these products extremely necessary in human life, are not yet available for production by “non-biotechnological” methods due to the scarcity or high cost of raw materials
or the complexity of technological processes;

2. Cells reproduce extremely quickly. Thus, a bacterial cell divides every 20 - 60 minutes, a yeast cell divides every 1.5 - 2 hours, an animal cell divides every 24 hours, which makes it possible to artificially increase huge amounts of biomass on an industrial scale in a relatively short time on relatively cheap and non-deficient nutrient media microbial, animal or plant cells. For example, in a bioreactor with a capacity of 100 m 3, 10" 6 - 10 18 microbial cells can be grown in 2 - 3 days. During the life of the cells, when they are grown, a large amount of valuable products enters the environment, and the cells themselves are storehouses of these products;

3. Biosynthesis of complex substances such as proteins, antibiotics, antigens, antibodies, etc. is much more economical and technologically accessible than chemical synthesis. At the same time, the feedstock for biosynthesis is, as a rule, simpler and more accessible than raw materials for other
types of synthesis. For biosynthesis, waste from agricultural, fishery, food industry, plant raw materials (whey, yeast, wood, molasses, etc.) is used.

4. The possibility of carrying out the biotechnological process on an industrial scale, i.e. availability of appropriate technological equipment, availability of raw materials, processing technologies, etc.

Thus, nature has given researchers a living system that contains and synthesizes unique components, and, first of all, nucleic acids, with the discovery of which biotechnology and world science as a whole began to rapidly develop.

Objects of biotechnology are viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoal organisms, cells (tissues) of plants, animals and humans, substances of biological origin (for example, enzymes, prostaglandins, lectins, nucleic acids), molecules.

In this regard, we can say that biotechnology objects relate either to microorganisms or to plant and animal cells. In turn, the body can be characterized as a system of economical, complex, compact, targeted synthesis, steadily and actively proceeding with optimal maintenance of all necessary parameters.

The methods used in biotechnology are determined at two levels: cellular and molecular. Both are determined by bi-objects.

In the first case, they deal with bacterial cells (for the production of vaccine preparations), actinomycetes (for the production of antibiotics), micromycetes (for the production of citric acid), animal cells (for the production of antiviral vaccines), human cells (for the production of interferon), etc.

In the second case, they deal with molecules, for example, nucleic acids. However, in the final stage, the molecular level is transformed into the cellular level. Animal and plant cells, microbial cells in the process of life activity (assimilation and dissimilation) form new products and release metabolites of various physical and chemical composition and biological effects.

As a cell grows, a huge number of enzyme-catalyzed reactions occur in it, resulting in the formation of intermediate compounds, which in turn are converted into cell structures. The intermediate compounds, the building blocks, include 20 amino acids, 4 ribonucleotides, 4 deoxyribonucleotides, 10 vitamins, monosaccharides, fatty acids, and hexosamines. From these “bricks” “blocks” are built: approximately 2000 proteins, DNA, three types of RNA, polysaccharides, lipids, enzymes. The resulting “blocks” are used for the construction of cellular structures: nucleus, ribosomes, membrane, cell wall, mitochondria, flagella, etc., which make up the cell.

At each stage of the “biological synthesis” of a cell, it is possible to identify those products that can be used in biotechnology.

Typically, unicellular products are divided into 4 categories:

a) the cells themselves as a source of the target product. For example, grown bacteria or viruses are used to produce live or killed corpuscular vaccines; yeast, as feed protein or the basis for obtaining hydrolysates of nutrient media, etc.;

b) large molecules that are synthesized by cells during the growing process: enzymes, toxins, antigens, antibodies, peptidoglycans, etc.;

c) primary metabolites - low molecular weight substances (less than 1500 daltons) necessary for cell growth, such as amino acids, vitamins, nucleotides, organic acids;

d) secondary metabolites (idiolites) - low molecular weight compounds that are not required for cell growth: antibiotics, alkaloids, toxins, hormones.

All microobjects used in biotechnology are classified as akaryotes, pro- or eukaryotes. From the group of eukaryotes, for example, it operates as biological objects with the cells of protozoa, algae and fungi, from the group of prokaryotes - with the cells of blue-green algae and bacteria, and akaryotes - with viruses.

Biological objects from the microcosm vary in size from nanometers (viruses, bacteriophages) to millimeters and centimeters (giant algae) and are characterized by a relatively fast reproduction rate. In the modern pharmaceutical industry, a gigantic range of biological objects is used, the grouping of which is very complex and can best be done on the basis of the principle of their proportionality.

A huge set of bio-objects does not exhaust the entire elemental base with which biotechnology operates. Recent advances in biology and genetic engineering have led to the emergence of completely new biological objects - transgenic (genetically modified) bacteria, viruses, fungi, plant, animal, human cells and chimeras.

Although members of all superkingdoms contain genetic material, different akaryotes lack any one type of nucleic acid (RNA or DNA). They are not able to function (including replicate) outside a living cell, and, therefore, it is legitimate to call them nuclear-free. Virus parasitism develops at the genetic level.

With a targeted examination of various ecological niches, new groups of microorganisms producing useful substances are identified that can be used in biotechnology. The number of microorganism species used in biotechnology is constantly growing.

When choosing a biological object, in all cases the principle of manufacturability must be observed. Thus, if during numerous cultivation cycles the properties of a biological object are not preserved or undergo significant changes, then this biological object should be considered low-tech, i.e. unacceptable for technological developments following the stage of laboratory research.

With the development of biotechnology, specialized banks of biological objects become of great importance, in particular collections of microorganisms with studied properties, as well as cryobanks of animal and plant cells, which can already now, using special methods, be successfully used to construct new organisms useful for biotechnology. In fact, such specialized crop banks are responsible for preserving an extremely valuable gene pool.

Culture collections play an important role in the legal protection of new crops and in the standardization of biotechnological processes. The collections carry out the preservation, maintenance and provision of microorganisms with strains, plasmids, phages, cell lines for both scientific and applied research, and for relevant production. Culture collections, in addition to their main task - ensuring the viability and preservation of the genetic properties of strains - contribute to the development of scientific research (in the field of taxonomy, cytology, physiology), and also serve educational purposes. They perform an indispensable function as depositories of patented strains. According to international rules, not only effective producers, but also crops used in genetic engineering can be patented and deposited.

Scientists pay great attention to the purposeful creation of new biological objects that do not exist in nature. First of all, it should be noted the creation of new cells of microorganisms, plants, animals using genetic engineering methods. The creation of new biological objects, of course, is facilitated by the improvement of legal protection of inventions in the field of genetic engineering and biotechnology in general. A direction has been formed that deals with the construction of artificial cells. Currently, there are methods that make it possible to obtain artificial cells using various synthetic and biological materials, for example, an artificial cell membrane with a given permeability and surface properties. Some materials can be contained inside such cells: enzyme systems, cell extracts, biological cells, magnetic materials, isotopes, antibodies, antigens, hormones, etc. The use of artificial cells has yielded positive results in the production of interferons and monoclonal antibodies, in the creation of immunosorbents, etc.

Approaches to the creation of artificial enzymes and enzyme analogues with increased stability and activity are being developed. For example, the synthesis of polypeptides of the desired stereoconfiguration is carried out, and methods of targeted mutagenesis are being searched for in order to replace one amino acid with another in the enzyme molecule. Attempts are being made to construct nonenzymatic catalytic models.

The following groups of biological objects should be identified as the most promising:

Recombinants, i.e. organisms obtained by genetic engineering;

Plant and animal tissue cells;

Thermophilic microorganisms and enzymes;

Anaerobic organisms;

Associations for the transformation of complex substrates;

Immobilized biological objects.

The process of artificially creating a biological object (microorganism, or tissue cell) consists of changing its genetic information in order to eliminate undesirable and enhance the desired properties or give it completely new qualities. The most targeted changes can be made through recombination - redistributing genes or parts of genes and combining genetic information from two or more organisms in one organism. The production of recombinant organisms, in particular, can be achieved by protoplast fusion, by transfer of natural plasmids and by genetic engineering methods.

At this stage of biotechnology development, non-traditional biological agents include plant and animal tissue cells, including hybridomas and transplants. Mammalian cell cultures are already producing interferon and viral vaccines; in the near future, large-scale production of monoclonal antibodies, surface antigens of human cells, and angiogenic factors will be realized.

With the development of biotechnology methods, increasing attention will be paid to the use of thermophilic microorganisms and their enzymes.

Enzymes produced by thermophilic microorganisms are characterized by thermal stability and higher resistance to denaturation compared to enzymes from mesophiles. Carrying out biotechnological processes at elevated temperatures using enzymes from thermophilic microorganisms has a number of advantages:

1) the reaction speed increases;

2) the solubility of reagents increases and, due to this, the productivity of the process;

3) the possibility of microbial contamination of the reaction medium is reduced.

There is a resurgence in biotechnological processes using anaerobic microorganisms, which are often also thermophilic. Anaerobic processes attract the attention of researchers due to the lack of energy and the possibility of producing biogas. Since anaerobic cultivation does not require aeration of the environment and biochemical processes are less intense, the heat removal system is simplified, anaerobic processes can be considered energy-saving.

Anaerobic microorganisms are successfully used to process waste (plant biomass, food industry waste, household waste, etc.) and wastewater (domestic and industrial wastewater, manure) into biogas.

In recent years, the use of mixed cultures of microorganisms and their natural associations has been expanding. In a real biological situation in nature, microorganisms exist in the form of communities of different populations, closely connected with each other and carrying out the circulation of substances in nature.

The main advantages of mixed crops compared to monocultures are as follows:

The ability to utilize complex, heterogeneous substrates, often unsuitable for monocultures;

Ability to mineralize complex organic compounds;

Increased ability for biotransformation of organic substances;

Increased resistance to toxic substances, including heavy metals;

Increased resistance to environmental influences;

Increased productivity;

Possible exchange of genetic information between individual species of the community.

Particular attention should be paid to such a group of biological objects as enzyme-catalysts of biological origin, the study of which in the applied aspect is carried out by engineering enzymology. Its main task is the development of biotechnological processes that use the catalytic action of enzymes, usually isolated from biological systems or located inside cells artificially deprived of the ability to grow. Thanks to enzymes, the rate of reactions compared to reactions occurring in the absence of these catalysts increases by 10 b - 10 12 times.

Immobilized biological objects should be distinguished as a separate branch of the creation and use of biological objects. An immobilized object is a harmonious system, the action of which is generally determined by the correct selection of three main components: a biological object, a carrier, and a method of binding the object to the carrier.

The following groups of methods for mobilizing biological objects are mainly used:

Inclusion in gels, microcapsules;

Adsorption on insoluble carriers;

Covalent binding to a carrier;

Crosslinking with bifunctional reagents without the use of a carrier;

- “self-aggregation” in the case of intact cells.

The main advantages of using immobilized biological objects are:

High activity;

Ability to control the agent’s microenvironment;

the possibility of complete and rapid separation of target products;

Possibility of organizing continuous processes with repeated use of an object.

As follows from the above, in biotechnological processes it is possible to use a number of biological objects characterized by different levels of complexity of biological regulation, for example, cellular, subcellular, molecular. The approach to creating the entire biotechnological system as a whole directly depends on the characteristics of a particular biological object.

As a result of fundamental biological research, knowledge about nature and, thereby, about the possibilities of applied use of a particular biological system as an active principle of a biotechnological process is deepened and expanded. The set of biological objects is constantly updated.

1.4. Main directions of development of methodsbiotechnology in veterinary medicine

Over the past 40 - 50 years, most sciences have developed in leaps and bounds, which has led to a complete revolution in the production of veterinary and medical biological products, the creation of transgenic plants and animals with specified unique properties. Such research is a priority area of ​​scientific and technological progress in the 21st century. will take a leading place among all sciences.

Even a simple listing of the commercial forms of biological products indicates the unlimited possibilities of biotechnology. However, this important issue deserves some detail.

In our view, the capabilities of biotechnology are particularly impressive in three main areas.

The first is large-scale production of microbial protein for feed purposes (initially based on wood hydrolysates, and then based on petroleum hydrocarbons).

An important role is played by the production of essential amino acids necessary for a balanced amino acid composition of feed additives.

In addition to feed protein, amino acids, vitamins and other feed additives that increase the nutritional value of feed, the possibilities of mass production and use of viral and bacterial preparations for the prevention of diseases of birds and farm animals, for the effective control of pests of agricultural plants, are rapidly expanding. Microbiological preparations, unlike many chemical ones, have a highly specific effect on harmful insects and phytopathogenic microorganisms; they are harmless to humans and animals, birds and beneficial insects. Along with the direct destruction of pests during the treatment period, they act on the offspring, reducing their fertility, and do not cause the formation of resistant forms of harmful organisms.

The potential of biotechnology in the production of enzyme preparations for the processing of agricultural raw materials and the creation of new feed for livestock is enormous.

The second direction is developments in the interests of the development of biological science, healthcare and veterinary medicine. Based on the achievements of genetic engineering and molecular biology, biotechnology can provide healthcare with highly effective vaccines and antibiotics, monoclonal antibodies, interferon, vitamins, amino acids, as well as enzymes and other biological products for research and therapeutic purposes. Some of these drugs are already successfully used not only in scientific experiments, but also in practical medicine and veterinary medicine.

Finally, the third direction is developments for industry. Already today, the products of biotechnological production are consumed or used by the food and light industry (enzymes), metallurgy (the use of certain substances in the processes of flotation, precision casting, precision rolling), the oil and gas industry (the use of a number of preparations for the complex processing of plant and microbial biomass when drilling wells, during selective cleaning, etc.), rubber and paint and varnish industry (improving the quality of synthetic rubber through certain protein additives), as well as a number of other industries.

Actively developing areas of biotechnology include bioelectronics and bioelectrochemistry, bionics, and nanotechnology, which use either biological systems or the operating principles of such systems.

Enzyme-containing sensors are widely used in scientific research. Based on them, a number of devices have been developed, for example, cheap, accurate and reliable instruments for analysis. Bioelectronic immunosensors are also appearing, some of which use the field effect of transistors. Based on them, it is planned to create relatively cheap devices capable of determining and maintaining at a given level the concentration of a wide range of substances in body fluids, which could cause a revolution in biological diagnostics.

Achievements of veterinary biotechnology. In Russia, biotechnology as a science began to develop in 1896. The impetus was the need to create preventive and therapeutic agents against diseases such as anthrax, rinderpest, rabies, foot-and-mouth disease, and trichinosis. At the end of the 19th century. Every year more than 50 thousand animals and 20 thousand people died from anthrax. For 1881 - 1906 3.5 million cows died from the plague. Significant damage was caused by glanders, which killed horses and people.

The successes of domestic veterinary science and practice in carrying out specific prevention of infectious diseases are associated with major scientific discoveries made in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This concerned the development and introduction into veterinary practice of preventive and diagnostic drugs for quarantine and especially dangerous animal diseases (vaccines against anthrax, plague, rabies, allergens for the diagnosis of tuberculosis, glanders, etc.). The possibility of preparing therapeutic and diagnostic hyperimmune serums has been scientifically proven.

This period marks the actual organization of an independent biological industry in Russia.

Since 1930, the existing veterinary bacteriological laboratories and institutes in Russia began to expand significantly, and on their basis, the construction of large biological factories and bioprocessing plants for the production of vaccines, serums, and diagnostics for veterinary purposes began. During this period, technological processes, scientific and technological documentation, as well as uniform methods (standards) for the production, control and use of drugs in animal husbandry and veterinary medicine are developed.

In the 30s, the first factories were built to produce feed yeast from wood hydrolysates, agricultural waste and sulfite liquors under the leadership of V.N. Shaposhnikov. The technology for microbiological production of acetone and butanol has been successfully introduced (Fig. 2).

His teaching on the two-phase nature of fermentation played a major role in creating the foundations of domestic biotechnology. In 1926, the bioenergetic patterns of hydrocarbon oxidation by microorganisms were studied in the USSR. In subsequent years, biotechnological developments were widely used in our country to expand the “range” of antibiotics for medicine and animal husbandry, enzymes, vitamins, growth substances, and pesticides.

Since the creation of the All-Union Scientific Research Institute for the Biosynthesis of Protein Substances in 1963, large-scale production of protein-rich microbial biomass as feed has been established in our country.

In 1966, the microbiological industry was separated into a separate industry and the Main Directorate of the Microbiological Industry under the Council of Ministers of the USSR - Glavmicrobioprom - was created.

Since 1970, intensive research has been carried out in our country on the selection of microorganism cultures for continuous cultivation for industrial purposes.

Soviet researchers became involved in the development of genetic engineering methods in 1972. It should be noted that the “Revertase” project was successfully implemented in the USSR - the production of the “reverse transcriptase” enzyme on an industrial scale.

The development of methods for studying the structure of proteins, elucidation of the mechanisms of functioning and regulation of enzyme activity opened the way to targeted modification of proteins and led to the birth of engineering enzymology. Highly stable immobilized enzymes are becoming a powerful tool for catalytic reactions in various industries.

All these achievements have brought biotechnology to a new level, qualitatively different from the previous one with the ability to consciously control cellular biosynthesis processes.

During the years of formation of the industrial production of biological drugs in our country, significant qualitative changes have occurred in biotechnological methods for their production:

Research has been carried out to obtain persistent, hereditarily fixed, avirulent strains of microorganisms from which live vaccines are prepared;

New nutrient media have been developed for the cultivation of microorganisms, including those based on hydrolysates and extracts from non-food raw materials;

High-quality whey nutrient media for Leptospira and other difficult-to-cultivate microorganisms have been obtained;

A deep reactor method has been developed for cultivating many types of bacteria, fungi and some viruses;

New strains and cell lines sensitive to many viruses have been obtained, which has enabled the preparation and production of standard and more active antiviral vaccines;

All production processes are mechanized and automated;

Modern methods for concentrating microbial cultures and freeze-drying biological products have been developed and introduced into production;

Energy costs per unit of production have been reduced, the quality of biological products has been standardized and improved;

The culture of production of biological products has been improved.

Paying great attention to the development of veterinary biological products for the prevention, diagnosis of infectious diseases and treatment of sick animals, our country is constantly working to improve industrial technology and master the production of more effective, cheaper and standard drugs. The main requirements are:

Using global experience;

Saving resources;

Preservation of production areas;

Purchase and installation of modern equipment and technological lines;

Conducting scientific research on the development and discovery of new types of bioproducts, new and cheap recipes for the preparation of nutrient media;

Finding more active strains of microorganisms in relation to their antigenic, immunogenic and productive properties.

Federal State Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education “Moscow State Academy of Veterinary Medicine and Biotechnology named after. K.I. Skryabian"

Abstract on biotechnology

"Lecture No. 1"

Completed the work

FVM student

4 courses, 11 groups

Gordon Maria

Main achievements and prospects for the development of agricultural biotechnology

Biotechnological approaches allow modern plant breeders to isolate individual genes responsible for desired traits and move them from the genome of one plant to the genome of another - transgenesis.

Thanks to biotechnology, plants have been produced with improved nutritional properties, herbicide resistance and with built-in protection against viruses and pests (soybeans, tomatoes, cotton, papaya). GM crops used in livestock production - corn, soybeans, canola and cotton

Using genetic methods, strains of microorganisms (Ashbya gossypii, Pseudomonas denitrificans, etc.) were also obtained that produce tens of thousands of times more vitamins (C, B 3, B 13, etc.) than the original forms.

Prospects:

1. Biotechnology specialists are developing ways to increase the amount of protein in plants, which will make it possible to give up meat in the future.

2. For the agricultural complex, developments are underway in the direction of improving the self-defense functions of plants from insect pests, through the release of poison.

3. One of the rapidly developing branches of biotechnology is the technology of microbial synthesis of substances valuable to humans. Further development of this industry will entail a redistribution of the roles of crop production and animal husbandry on the one hand, and microbial synthesis on the other, in the formation of the food base of mankind.

4. The industrial use of biotechnology achievements is based on the technique of creating recombinant DNA molecules. Designing the necessary genes makes it possible to control the heredity and vital activity of animals, plants and microorganisms and create organisms with new properties.

5. As sources of raw materials for biotechnology, renewable resources of non-edible plant materials and agricultural waste, which serve as an additional source of both feed substances and secondary fuel (biogas) and organic fertilizers, are becoming increasingly important.

6. Biodegradation (recycling) of cellulose. The complete breakdown of cellulose into glucose can solve many problems - obtaining large amounts of carbohydrates and cleaning the environment from forest waste and agricultural production. Currently, genes for cellulolytic enzymes have already been isolated from some microorganisms. Methods are being developed to transfer them to yeast, which could first hydrolyze cellulose to glucose and then convert it to alcohol.

Latest advances in medical biotechnology

In the field of medical biotechnology, interferons—proteins that can suppress the reproduction of viruses—have been developed.

Production of human insulin using genetically modified bacteria, production of erythropoietin (a hormone that stimulates the formation of red blood cells in the bone marrow.

It has become possible to produce polymers that replace human organs and tissues (kidneys, blood vessels, valves, heart-lung apparatus, etc.).

Mass immunization (vaccination) has become the most accessible and cost-effective way to prevent infectious diseases. Thus, over 30 years of vaccinating Russian children against measles, the incidence of measles has decreased by 620 times.

Methods for producing antibiotics have been developed. The discovery of antibiotics revolutionized the treatment of infectious diseases. Gone are the ideas about the incurability of many bacterial infections (plague, tuberculosis, sepsis, syphilis, etc.).

One of the latest achievements in biotechnological diagnostics is the method of biosensors, which “catch” molecules associated with diseases and send signals to sensors. Biosensor diagnostics are used to determine glucose in the blood of diabetic patients. It is hoped that over time it will be possible to implant biosensors into the blood vessels of patients to more accurately monitor their insulin needs.

It has become possible not only to create “biological reactors”, transgenic animals, genetically modified plants, but also to carry out genetic certification (a complete study and analysis of a person’s genotype, usually carried out immediately after birth, to determine predisposition to various diseases, possibly inadequate ( allergic) reaction to certain medications, as well as a tendency to certain types of activities). Genetic certification makes it possible to predict and reduce the risks of cardiovascular diseases and cancer, study and prevent neurodegenerative diseases and aging processes, etc.

Scientists have been able to identify genes responsible for the manifestation of various pathologies and contributing to an increase in life expectancy.

Opportunities have emerged for early diagnosis of hereditary diseases and timely prevention of hereditary pathology.

The most important area for medical biotechnology has become cell engineering, in particular the technology for producing monoclonal antibodies, which are produced in culture or in the animal’s body by hybrid lymphoid cells - hybridomas. Monoclonal antibody technology has had a major impact on basic and applied medical research and medical practice. Based on them, new immunological analysis systems have been developed and used - radioimmunoassay and enzyme immunoassay. They make it possible to determine vanishingly small concentrations of specific antigens and antibodies in the body.

Microchips are now considered the most advanced technology in diagnosing diseases. They are used for early diagnosis of infectious, oncological and genetic diseases, allergens, as well as in the study of new drugs.

Related information.

Lecture on biotechnology No. 1

Introduction to biotechnology. Environmental, agricultural, industrial biotechnology.

Biotechnological production of proteins, enzymes, antibiotics, vitamins, interferon.

Question No. 1

Since ancient times, humans have used biotechnology in winemaking, brewing or baking. But the processes underlying these industries remained mysterious for a long time. Their nature became clear only at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries, when methods for cultivating microorganisms and pasteurization were developed, and pure lines of bacteria and enzymes were isolated. To designate the various technologies most closely related to biology, such names as “applied microbiology”, “applied biochemistry”, “enzyme technology”, “bioengineering”, “applied genetics”, “applied biology” were previously used. This led to the emergence of a new industry - biotechnology.

French chemist Louis Pasteur proved in 1867 that fermentation is the result of the activity of microorganisms. German biochemist Eduard Buchner clarified that it is also caused by a cell-free extract containing enzymes that catalyze chemical reactions. The use of pure enzymes for processing raw materials gave impetus to the development of zymology. For example, alpha-amylase is required to break down starch.

At the same time, important discoveries were made in the field of nascent genetics, without which modern biotechnology would be unthinkable. In 1865, the Austrian monk Gregor Mendel introduced the Brunn Society of Naturalists to his “Experiments on Plant Hybrids,” in which he described the laws of heredity. In 1902, biologists Walter Sutton and Theodore Boveri suggested that the transmission of heredity is associated with material carriers - chromosomes. Even then it was known that a living organism consists of cells. The German pathologist Rudolf Virchow complements the cell theory with the principle “every cell is from a cell.” And the experiments of the botanist Gottlieb Haberlandt demonstrated that a cell can exist in an artificial environment and separately from the body. The latter's experiments led to the discovery of the role of vitamins, mineral supplements and hormones.

Then there was a word

The year of birth of the term “biotechnology” is considered to be 1919, when the manifesto “Biotechnology of processing meat, fats and milk on large agricultural farms” was published. Its author is the Hungarian agricultural economist, then Minister of Food Karl Ereky. The manifesto described the processing of agricultural raw materials into other food products using biological organisms. Ereki predicted a new era in human history, comparing the discovery of this method with the greatest technological revolutions of the past: the emergence of the productive economy in the Neolithic era and metallurgy in the Bronze Age. But until the late 1920s, biotechnology simply meant the use of microorganisms for fermentation. In the 1930s, medical biotechnology developed. Discovered in 1928 by Alexander Fleming, penicillin, produced from the fungus Penicillium notatum, began to be produced on an industrial scale already in the 1940s. And in the late 1960s and early 1970s, an attempt was made to combine the food industry with the oil refining industry. British Petroleum has developed a technology for bacterial synthesis of feed protein from oil industry waste.

In 1953, a discovery was made that subsequently caused a revolution in biotechnology: James Watson and Francis Crick deciphered the structure of DNA. And in the 1970s, manipulation of hereditary material was added to biotechnological techniques. In just two decades, all the necessary tools for this were discovered: reverse transcriptase was isolated - an enzyme that allows you to “rewrite” the genetic code from RNA back into DNA, enzymes were discovered for cutting DNA, as well as a polymerase chain reaction for repeated reproduction of individual DNA fragments.

In 1973, the first genetically recombinant organism was created: a genetic element from a frog was transferred to a bacterium. The era of genetic engineering began, which almost immediately ended: in 1975 in the city of Asilomar (USA), at the International Congress dedicated to the study of recombinant DNA molecules, concerns about the use of new technologies were first expressed.

“It was not politicians, religious groups or journalists who sounded the alarm, as one might expect. It was the scientists themselves,” recalled Paul Berg, one of the organizers of the conference and a pioneer in the creation of recombinant DNA molecules. “Many scientists feared that public debate would lead to undue restrictions on molecular biology, but they encouraged responsible debate that led to consensus.” Congress participants called for a moratorium on a number of potentially dangerous studies.

Meanwhile, synthetic biology has evolved from biotechnology and genetic engineering, which deals with the design of new biological components and systems and the redesign of existing ones. The first sign of synthetic biology was the artificial synthesis of transfer RNA in 1970, and today it is already possible to synthesize entire genomes from elementary structures. In 1978, Genentech constructed in the laboratory the E. coli bacterium that synthesizes human insulin. From this moment on, genetic recombination finally entered the arsenal of biotechnology and is considered almost synonymous with it. At the same time, the first transfer of new genes into the genomes of animal and plant cells was carried out. 1980 Nobel laureate Walter Gilbert stated: “We can obtain for medical purposes or for commercial use virtually any human protein capable of influencing important functions of the human body.”

In 1985, the first field trials of transgenic plants resistant to herbicides, insects, viruses and bacteria took place. Plant patents appear. Molecular genetics is beginning to flourish, and analytical methods such as sequencing, that is, determining the primary sequence of proteins and nucleic acids, are rapidly developing.

In 1995, the first transgenic plant (the Flavr Savr tomato) was released onto the market, and by 2010 transgenic crops were grown in 29 countries on 148 million hectares (10% of total cultivated land). In 1996, the first cloned animal was born - Dolly the sheep. By 2010, more than 20 species of animals had been cloned: cats, dogs, wolves, horses, pigs, mouflons.

Areas of biotechnology and products obtained with its help

Technology and biotechnology

Technology- these are methods and techniques used to obtain a certain product from the source material (raw materials). Very often, to obtain one product, not one, but several sources of raw materials are required, not one method or technique, but a sequence of several. All the variety of technologies can be divided into three main classes:

Physical and mechanical technologies;

Chemical technologies;

Biotechnology.

In physical and mechanical technologies the source material (raw materials) in the process of obtaining a product changes its shape or state of aggregation without changing its chemical composition (for example, wood processing technology for the production of wooden furniture, various methods for producing metal products: nails, machine parts, etc.).

In chemical technologies in the process of obtaining a product, raw materials undergo changes in chemical composition (for example, the production of polyethylene from natural gas, alcohol from natural gas or wood, synthetic rubber from natural gas).

Biotechnology as a science can be considered in two temporal and essential dimensions: modern and traditional, classical.

The latest biotechnology (bioengineering) is the science of genetic engineering and cellular methods and technologies for the creation and use of genetically transformed (modified) plants, animals and microorganisms in order to intensify production and obtain new types of products for various purposes.

In traditional, classic In a sense, biotechnology can be defined as the science of methods and technologies for production, transportation, storage and processing of agricultural and other products using conventional, non-transgenic (natural and breeding) plants, animals and microorganisms, under natural and artificial conditions.

The highest achievement of the latest biotechnology is genetic transformation, transfer of foreign (natural or artificially created) donor genes into recipient cells of plants, animals and microorganisms, production of transgenic organisms with new or enhanced properties and characteristics.

Purpose of biotechnology research- increasing production efficiency and searching for biological systems that can be used to obtain the target product.

Biotechnology makes it possible to reproduce the desired products in unlimited quantities, using new technologies that make it possible to transfer genes into producer cells or into the whole organism (transgenic animals and plants), synthesize peptides, and create artificial vaccines.

Main directions of biotechnology development

The expansion of the areas of application of biotechnology significantly affects the improvement of human living standards (Fig. 1.2). The introduction of biotechnological processes produces results most quickly in medicine, but, according to many experts, the main economic effect will be obtained in agriculture and the chemical industry.

Microarrays, cell cultures, monoclonal antibodies and protein engineering are just a few of the modern biotechnological techniques used at various stages of development of many types of products. Understanding the molecular basis of biological processes makes it possible to significantly reduce the costs of development and preparation of production of a certain product, as well as improve its quality. For example, agricultural biotech companies developing insect-resistant plant varieties can measure the amount of protective protein in a cell culture without wasting resources on growing the plants themselves; Pharmaceutical companies can use cell cultures and microarrays to test the safety and effectiveness of drugs, as well as to identify possible side effects in the early stages of drug development.

Genetically modified animals, in whose bodies processes occur that reflect the physiology of various human diseases, provide scientists with completely adequate models for testing the effect of a particular substance on the body. It also allows companies to identify the safest and most effective drugs earlier in development.

All this indicates the importance of biotechnology and the wide possibilities of its application in various sectors of the national economy. What areas are the highest priority in this area? Let's look at them.

1. Improving the safety of biotechnological production for humans and the environment. It is necessary to create working systems that will function only under strictly controlled conditions. For example, E. coli strains used in biotechnology lack supra-membrane structures (envelopes); such bacteria simply cannot exist outside laboratories or outside special technological installations. Multicomponent systems, each of which is not capable of independent existence, also have increased safety.

2. Reducing the share of human industrial waste. Industrial waste is its by-products that cannot be used by humans or other components of the biosphere and the use of which is unprofitable or involves some kind of risk. Such waste accumulates within production premises (territories) or is released into the environment. One should strive to change the “useful product/waste” ratio in favor of a useful product. This is achieved in various ways. First, waste needs to be put to good use. Secondly, they can be sent for recycling, creating a closed technological cycle. Finally, the work system itself can be modified to reduce waste.

3. Reducing energy costs for product production, i.e. the introduction of energy-saving technologies. A fundamental solution to this problem is possible primarily through the use of renewable energy sources. For example, the annual energy consumption of fossil fuels is comparable to the net gross production of all photosynthetic organisms on Earth. To transform solar energy into forms available for modern power plants, energy plantations of fast-growing plants are created (including using cellular engineering methods). The resulting biomass is used to produce cellulose, biofuel, and vermicompost. The comprehensive benefits of such technologies are obvious. The use of cell engineering methods for constant renewal of planting material ensures the production in the shortest possible time of a large number of plants free from viruses and mycoplasmas; At the same time, there is no need to create mother plantations. The load on natural plantings of woody plants is reduced (they are largely cut down to obtain cellulose and fuel), and the need for fossil fuels is reduced (in general, it is environmentally unfavorable, since its combustion produces under-oxidized substances). When biofuels are used, carbon dioxide and water vapor are produced, which enter the atmosphere and are then recombined by plants on energy plantations.

4. Creation of multicomponent plant systems. The quality of agricultural products significantly deteriorates when mineral fertilizers and pesticides are used, which cause colossal damage to natural ecosystems. There are various ways to overcome the negative consequences of chemicalization of agricultural production. First of all, it is necessary to abandon monocultures, i.e., the use of a limited set of biotypes (varieties, breeds, strains). The disadvantages of monoculture were identified at the end of the 19th century; they are obvious. Firstly, in a monoculture, competitive relations between the cultivated organisms increase; at the same time, monoculture has only a one-sided effect on competing organisms (weeds). Secondly, there is a selective removal of mineral nutrition elements, which leads to soil degradation. Finally, monoculture is not resistant to pathogens and pests. Therefore, during the 20th century. it was maintained through exceptionally high production intensity. Of course, the use of monocultures of intensive varieties (breeds, strains) simplifies the development of production technology. For example, with the help of high technologies, plant varieties have been created that are resistant to a certain pesticide, which can be used in high doses when cultivating these particular varieties. However, in this case, the question arises of the safety of such a working system for humans and the environment. In addition, sooner or later races of pathogens (pests) resistant to this pesticide will appear.

Therefore, a systematic transition from monoculture to multicomponent (polyclonal) compositions, including different biotypes of cultivated organisms, is necessary. Multicomponent compositions should include organisms with different developmental rhythms, with different attitudes to the dynamics of physicochemical environmental factors, competitors, pathogens and pests. In genetically heterogeneous systems, compensatory interactions of individuals with different genotypes arise, reducing the level of intraspecific competition and automatically increasing the pressure of cultivated organisms on competing organisms of other species (weeds). In relation to pathogens and pests, such a heterogeneous ecosystem is characterized by collective group immunity, which is determined by the interaction of many structural and functional features of individual bio-types.

5. Development of new drugs for medicine. Currently, active research is underway in the field of medicine: various types of new drugs are being created - targeted and individual.

Targeted drugs. The main causes of cancer are uncontrolled cell division and disruption of apoptosis. The action of drugs designed to eliminate them can be directed at any of the molecules or cellular structures involved in these processes. Research conducted in the field of functional genomics has already provided us with information about the molecular changes occurring in precancerous cells. Based on the data obtained, diagnostic tests can be created to identify molecular markers that signal the onset of the oncological process before the first visible cell abnormalities appear or symptoms of the disease appear.

Most chemotherapy drugs target proteins involved in cell division. Unfortunately, this kills not only malignant cells, but often normal dividing cells of the body, such as cells of the hematopoietic system and hair follicles. To prevent this side effect, some companies have begun developing drugs that stop the cell cycles of healthy cells immediately before administering a dose of a chemotherapy agent.

Individual preparations. At the current stage of scientific development, the era of individualized medicine begins, in which the genetic differences of patients will be taken into account for the most effective use of drugs. Using functional genomics data, it is possible to identify genetic variants that make specific patients susceptible to the negative side effects of some drugs and susceptible to others. This individual therapeutic approach, based on knowledge of the patient’s genome, is called pharmacogenomics.

Biological technologies (biotechnologies) provide controlled production of useful products for various spheres of human activity, based on the use of the catalytic potential of biological agents and systems of varying degrees of organization and complexity - microorganisms, viruses, plant and animal cells and tissues, as well as extracellular substances and cell components.

The development and transformation of biotechnology is driven by profound changes that have occurred in biology over the past 25-30 years. These events were based on new ideas in the field of molecular biology and molecular genetics. At the same time, it should be noted that the development and achievements of biotechnology are closely related to the body of knowledge not only of biological sciences, but also of many others.

The expansion of the practical sphere of biotechnology is also due to the socio-economic needs of society. Such urgent problems facing humanity on the threshold of the 21st century, such as a shortage of clean water and nutrients (especially protein), environmental pollution, lack of raw materials and energy resources, the need to obtain new, environmentally friendly materials, develop new diagnostic and treatment tools, cannot be solved by traditional methods. Therefore, to ensure human life support, improve the quality of life and its duration, it is becoming increasingly necessary to master fundamentally new methods and technologies.

The development of scientific and technological progress, accompanied by an increase in the rate of material and energy resources, unfortunately, leads to an imbalance in biosphere processes. The water and air basins of cities are polluted, the reproductive function of the biosphere is reduced, and due to the accumulation of dead-end products of the technosphere, global circulation cycles of the biosphere are disrupted.

The rapid pace of modern scientific and technological progress of mankind was figuratively described by the Swiss engineer and philosopher Eichelberg: “It is believed that the age of mankind is 600,000 years. Let’s imagine the movement of humanity in the form of a 60 km marathon, which, starting somewhere, goes towards the center of one of our cities, as if towards the finish... Most of the distance runs along a very difficult path - through virgin forests, and we We don’t know anything about this, because only at the very end, at 58-59 km of running, we find, along with primitive tools, cave drawings as the first signs of culture, and only at the last kilometer do signs of agriculture appear.

200 m before the finish line, a road covered with stone slabs leads past Roman fortifications. 100 meters away, the runners are surrounded by medieval city buildings. There are 50 meters left before the finish line, where a man stands, watching the runners with intelligent and understanding eyes - this is Leonardo da Vinci. There are 10 m left. They begin in the light of torches and the poor lighting of oil lamps. But when throwing in the last 5 meters, a stunning miracle occurs: the light floods the night road, carts without draft animals rush past, cars rustle in the air, and the amazed runner is blinded by the light of the spotlights of photo and television cameras...”, i.e. in 1 m, the human genius makes a stunning leap in the field of scientific and technological progress. Continuing this image, we can add that as the runner approaches the finish line, thermonuclear fusion is tamed, spaceships are launched, and the genetic code is deciphered.

Biotechnology is the basis of scientific and technological progress and improving the quality of human life

“White” biotechnology includes industrial biotechnology, focused on the production of products previously produced by the chemical industry - alcohol, vitamins, amino acids, etc. (taking into account the requirements of resource conservation and environmental protection).

Green biotechnology covers an area of ​​relevance to agriculture. These are research and technologies aimed at creating biotechnological methods and preparations for controlling pests and pathogens of cultivated plants and domestic animals, creating biofertilizers, increasing plant productivity, including using genetic engineering methods.

Red (medical) biotechnology is the most significant area of ​​modern biotechnology. This is the production of diagnostics and drugs using biotechnological methods using cellular and genetic engineering technologies (green vaccines, gene diagnostics, monoclonal antibodies, tissue engineering designs and products, etc.).

Gray biotechnology develops technologies and drugs to protect the environment; these are soil reclamation, wastewater and gaseous emissions treatment, industrial waste disposal and toxicant degradation using biological agents and biological processes.

Blue biotechnology is mainly focused on the efficient use of ocean resources. First of all, this is the use of marine biota to obtain food, technical, biologically active and medicinal substances.

Modern biotechnology is one of the priority areas of the national economy of all developed countries. The way to increase the competitiveness of biotechnological products in sales markets is one of the main ones in the overall strategy for the development of biotechnology in industrialized countries. A stimulating factor is specially adopted government programs to accelerate the development of new areas of biotechnology.

State programs provide for the issuance of gratuitous loans to investors, long-term loans, and tax exemptions. As basic and targeted research becomes increasingly costly, many countries are seeking to move significant research beyond national borders.

As is known, the probability of success of R&D projects in general does not exceed 12-20%, about 60% of projects reach the stage of technical completion, 30% - commercial development, and only 12% are profitable.

Features of the development of research and commercialization of biological technologies in the USA, Japan, EU countries and Russia

Allocations to this sector of science and economics in the United States are significant and amount to over $20 billion. USA annually. Revenues of the US biotechnology industry increased from $8 billion. in 1992 to 39 billion dollars. in 2003

This industry is under close government attention. Thus, during the period of formation of the latest biotechnology and the emergence of its directions related to the manipulation of genetic material, in the mid-70s. last century, the US Congress paid great attention to the safety of genetic research. In 1977 alone, 25 special hearings were held and 16 bills were passed.

In the early 90s. The focus has shifted to developing measures to encourage the practical use of biotechnology for the production of new products. The development of biotechnology in the United States is associated with the solution of many key problems: energy, raw materials, food and environmental issues.

Among the biotechnological areas that are close to practical implementation or are at the stage of industrial development are the following:
- bioconversion of solar energy;
- the use of microorganisms to increase oil yield and leaching of non-ferrous and rare metals;
- designing strains that can replace expensive inorganic catalysts and change synthesis conditions to obtain fundamentally new compounds;
- the use of bacterial plant growth stimulants, changing the genotype of cereals and their adaptation to ripening in extreme conditions (without plowing, watering and fertilizers);
- directed biosynthesis for the effective production of target products (amino acids, enzymes, vitamins, antibiotics, food additives, pharmacological drugs;
- obtaining new diagnostic and therapeutic drugs based on cellular and genetic engineering methods.

The role of the US leader is due to the high allocations of government and private capital for basic and applied research. The National Science Foundation (NSF), the Departments of Health and Human Services, Agriculture, Energy, Chemicals, Food, Defense, National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), and the Interior play key roles in biotechnology funding. Allocations are allocated on a program-target basis, i.e. Research projects are subsidized and contracted.

At the same time, large industrial companies establish business relationships with universities and research centers. This contributes to the formation of complexes in one area or another, ranging from fundamental research to serial production of a product and delivery to the market. This “participation system” provides for the formation of specialized funds with appropriate expert councils and the attraction of the most qualified personnel.

When selecting projects with high commercial impact, it has become advantageous to use the so-called “constraint analysis”. This allows you to significantly reduce the project implementation time (on average from 7-10 to 2-4 years) and increase the probability of success to 80%. The concept of “specified limitations” includes the potential for successful sale of the product and making a profit, increasing annual production, competitiveness of the product, potential risk from a sales perspective, the possibility of restructuring production taking into account new achievements, etc.

Annual total US government spending on genetic engineering and biotechnology research amounts to billions of dollars. Investments from private companies significantly exceed these figures. Several billion dollars are allocated annually for the creation of diagnostic and anticancer drugs alone. These are mainly the following areas: methods of DNA recombination, production of hybrids, production and use of monoclonal antibodies, tissue and cell culture.

In the United States, it has become common for companies not previously associated with biotechnology to begin acquiring stakes in existing companies and building their own biotechnology enterprises (Table 1.1). This, for example, is the practice of such chemical giants as Philips Petrolium, Monsanto, Dow Chemical. About 250 chemical companies currently have interests in biotechnology. Thus, the giant of the US chemical industry, the De Pont company, has several biotechnological complexes worth 85-150 thousand dollars. with a staff of 700-1,000 people.

Similar complexes have been created within the Monsanto structure; moreover, currently up to 75% of the budget (over $750 million) is allocated to the field of biotechnology. The focus of these companies is the production of genetically engineered growth hormone, as well as a number of genetically engineered drugs for veterinary medicine and pharmacology. In addition, firms, together with university research centers, sign contracts for joint R&D.

Table 1.1. The largest US concerns and pharmaceutical companies producing medical biotechnological drugs

For example, in the 80s. General Electric, with the help of small firms, began to master the production of biologically active compounds; in 1981 alone, its risk allocations in biotechnology amounted to $3 million. Small firm risk-taking provides large companies and corporations with a mechanism for selecting economically viable innovations with strong commercial prospects.

N.A. Voinov, T.G. Volova

Biotechnology is the industrial use of biological agents or their systems to obtain valuable products and carry out targeted transformations.

Biological agents in this case are microorganisms, plant or animal cells, cellular components (cell membranes, ribosomes, mitochondria, chloroplasts), as well as biological macromolecules (DNA, RNA, proteins - most often enzymes). Biotechnology also uses viral DNA or RNA to transfer foreign genes into cells.

Man has used biotechnology for many thousands of years: people baked bread, brewed beer, made cheese using various microorganisms, without even knowing about their existence. Actually, the term itself appeared in our language not so long ago; instead of it the words “industrial microbiology”, “technical biochemistry”, etc. were used.

Probably the oldest biotechnological process was fermentation using microorganisms. This is supported by a description of the process of making beer, discovered in 1981 during excavations in Babylon on a tablet that dates back to approximately the 6th millennium BC. e.

In the 3rd millennium BC. e. The Sumerians produced up to two dozen types of beer. No less ancient biotechnological processes are winemaking, bread baking, and the production of lactic acid products. In the traditional, classical sense, biotechnology is the science of methods and technologies for the production of various substances and products using natural biological objects and processes.

The term "new" biotechnology, as opposed to "old" biotechnology, is used to distinguish bioprocesses using genetic engineering techniques from more traditional forms of bioprocesses. Thus, the usual production of alcohol during the fermentation process is “old” biotechnology, but the use of yeast in this process, improved by genetic engineering methods in order to increase the yield of alcohol, is “new” biotechnology.

Biotechnology as a science is the most important section of modern biology, which, like physics, became at the end of the 20th century. one of the leading priorities in world science and economics.

A surge in research on biotechnology in world science occurred in the 80s, but despite such a short period of its existence, biotechnology has attracted close attention from both scientists and the general public. According to forecasts, already at the beginning of the 21st century, biotechnological goods will account for a quarter of all global production.

As for more modern biotechnological processes, they are based on recombinant DNA methods, as well as on the use of immobilized enzymes, cells or cellular organelles.

Modern biotechnology is the science of genetic engineering and cellular methods for creating and using genetically transformed biological objects to improve production or obtain new types of products for various purposes.

Main directions of biotechnology

Conventionally, the following main areas of biotechnology can be distinguished:

Food Biotechnology;
- biotechnology of preparations for agriculture;
- biotechnology of drugs and products for industrial and household use;
- biotechnology of drugs;
- biotechnology of diagnostic tools and reagents.

Biotechnology also includes leaching and concentration of metals, protection of the environment from pollution, degradation of toxic wastes and increased oil recovery.

Development of biofuel direction

The Earth's vegetation cover amounts to more than 1,800 billion tons of dry matter, which is energetically equivalent to the known energy reserves of minerals. Forests make up about 68% of terrestrial biomass, grass ecosystems about 16%, and cropland only 8%. For dry matter, the simplest way to convert it into energy is through combustion - it provides heat, which in turn is converted into mechanical or electrical energy.

As for the raw material, in this case the oldest and most effective method of converting biomass into energy is the production of biogas (methane). Methane “fermentation”, or biomethanogenesis, is a long-known process of converting biomass into energy. It was opened in 1776. Volta, who established the presence of methane in swamp gas.

Waste from the food industry and agricultural production is characterized by a high carbon content (in the case of beet distillation, up to 50 g of carbon per 1 liter of waste), so they are best suited for methane “fermentation”, especially since some of them are obtained at a temperature most favorable for this process .

The United Nations Conference on Science and Technology for Developing Countries (1979) and experts from the Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific emphasized the merits of agricultural programs using biogas.

It should be noted that 38% of the world's 95 million cattle, 72% of sugar cane residues and 95% of banana, coffee and citrus waste come from countries in Africa, Latin America, Asia and the Middle East. It is not surprising that huge quantities of raw materials for methane “fermentation” are concentrated in these regions.

The consequence of this was the orientation of some countries with agriculturally oriented economies towards bioenergy. The production of biogas by methane fermentation of waste is one of the possible solutions to the energy problem in most rural areas of developing countries.

Biotechnology can make a major contribution to solving energy problems also through the production of fairly cheap biosynthetic ethanol, which, in addition, is an important raw material for the microbiological industry in the production of food and feed proteins, as well as protein-lipid feed preparations.

Advances in biotechnology

Biotechnology has produced many products for the healthcare, agricultural, food and chemical industries. Moreover, it is important that many of them could not be obtained without the use of biotechnological methods. Particularly high hopes are associated with attempts to use microorganisms and cell cultures to reduce environmental pollution and produce energy.

In molecular biology, the use of biotechnological methods makes it possible to determine the structure of the genome, understand the mechanism of gene expression, model cell membranes in order to study their functions, etc.

The construction of the necessary genes using genetic and cellular engineering methods makes it possible to control the heredity and vital activity of animals, plants and microorganisms and create organisms with new properties useful for humans that have not previously been observed in nature.

The microbiology industry currently uses thousands of strains of different microorganisms. In most cases, they are improved by induced mutagenesis and subsequent selection. This allows large-scale synthesis of various substances. Some proteins and secondary metabolites can only be produced by culturing eukaryotic cells. Plant cells can serve as a source of a number of compounds - atropine, nicotine, alkaloids, saponins, etc.

In biochemistry, microbiology, and cytology, methods for the immobilization of both enzymes and whole cells of microorganisms, plants and animals are of undoubted interest. In veterinary medicine, biotechnological methods such as cell and embryo culture, in vitro oogenesis, and artificial insemination are widely used.

All this indicates that biotechnology will become a source not only of new food products and medicines, but also of energy and new chemicals, as well as organisms with desired properties.

Video: Biotechnology and the Emergence of New Therapeutics.