Geographical envelope- this is an integral, continuous shell of the Earth, the environment of human activity, within which the lower layers of the atmosphere, the upper layers of the lithosphere, the entire hydrosphere and the biosphere come into contact, mutually penetrate each other and interact with each other (Fig. 1). All spheres of the geographic envelope continuously exchange matter and energy with each other, forming an integral and balanced natural system.
The geographical envelope does not have clear boundaries, so scientists draw them in different ways. The upper boundary is combined with the boundary of the troposphere (8-18 km) or with the ozone screen (25-30 km). The lower boundary is taken to be the boundary of the earth's crust (from 5 km under the oceans to 70 km under the mountainous structures of the continents) or the lower boundary of its sedimentary layer (up to 5 km). Matter in the geographic envelope is in three states: solid, liquid, gaseous. This is of great importance for the development of life and the ongoing natural processes on Earth.
The main sources of development of all processes occurring in the geographic shell are solar energy and the internal energy of the Earth. Experiencing the geographical envelope and the influence of space. Only in it are conditions created for the development of organic life.
Basic patterns of the geographical envelope
The geographical shell is characterized by the following general patterns of its development: integrity, rhythm, circulation of substances and energy, zonality, azonality. Knowledge of the general patterns of development of the geographical shell allows a person to use natural resources more carefully without causing damage to the environment.
Integrity- this is the unity of the geographical envelope, the interconnection and interdependence of its natural components (rocks, water, air, soils, plants, animals). The interaction and interpenetration of all natural components of the geographical envelope connects them into a single whole. Thanks to these processes, natural balance is maintained. A change in one component of nature inevitably entails a change in other components and the geographic environment as a whole. Knowledge of the law of the integrity of the geographical shell is of great practical importance. If human economic activity does not take into account this pattern of the geographical shell, then destructive processes will occur in it.
A preliminary thorough study of the area that is exposed to human impact is required. For example, after draining a swamp, the groundwater level decreases. As a result, the soil, microclimate, vegetation, and fauna change, i.e., the natural balance of the territory is disrupted.
Understanding the integrity of the geographical envelope allows us to anticipate possible changes in nature and give a geographical forecast of the results of human impact on nature.
Rhythm- this is the repeatability of certain natural phenomena at certain time intervals, or rhythms. In nature, all processes and phenomena are subject to rhythms. There are rhythms of different durations: daily (change of day and night), annual (change of seasons), intracentury (associated with changes in solar activity - 11, 22 years, etc.), centuries-old (centennial) and covering millennia and many millions of years. Their duration can reach 150-240 million years. Associated with them, for example, are periods of active formation of mountains and relative calm of the earth's crust, cooling and warming of the climate.
The most famous is the 11-year rhythm of solar activity, which is determined by the number of spots visible on the surface of the Sun. An increase in solar activity is accompanied by an increase in the number of sunspots and the flow of solar energy to the Earth (“solar wind”). This causes magnetic storms on Earth, affects the weather and climate, and human health.
Cycle of matter and energy- the most important mechanism for the development of natural processes of the geographical shell, thanks to which the exchange of substances and energy occurs between its component parts. There are various circulations (cycles) of substances and energy: the water cycle (hydrological cycle), air circulation in the atmosphere (atmospheric circulation), circulation in the lithosphere (geological cycle), etc.
The circulation of substances also occurs in the lithosphere. Magma flows to the surface and forms igneous rocks. Under the influence of solar energy, water and temperatures, they are destroyed and turned into sedimentary rocks. Submerging to great depths, sedimentary rocks experience high temperatures and pressure and transform into metamorphic rocks. At very high temperatures, rocks melt and they return to their original state (magma).
The cycles are not closed, they are constantly under the influence of external and internal forces, there are qualitative changes in substances and energy, the development of all components of nature and the geographical envelope as a whole. This helps maintain balance in nature and restore it. For example, with slight contamination, water can purify itself.
The main regularity of the geographic envelope is the manifestation of geographic zonality. Geographical zoning- the basic law of the distribution of natural complexes on the Earth’s surface, which manifests itself in the form of latitudinal zonality (consecutive change of geographical zones and natural zones). Latitudinal zonation- a natural change in natural conditions on the Earth’s surface from the equator to the poles, associated with a change in the angle of incidence of the sun’s rays. A single and integral geographical envelope is heterogeneous at different latitudes. Due to the uneven distribution of solar heat with latitude on the globe, not only climate, but also soil-forming processes, vegetation, fauna, and the hydrological regime of rivers and lakes naturally change from the equator to the poles.
The largest zonal divisions of the geographical envelope are geographical zones. They, as a rule, extend in the latitudinal direction, replacing each other on land and in the ocean from the equator to the poles and are repeated in both hemispheres: equatorial, subequatorial, tropical, subtropical, temperate, subarctic and subantarctic, arctic and antarctic. Geographical zones differ from each other in air masses, climate, soils, vegetation, and wildlife.
Each geographical zone has its own set of natural zones. Natural area- a zonal natural complex within a geographic zone, which is characterized by common temperature conditions, moisture, similar soils, flora and fauna.
In accordance with the change in climatic conditions from south to north, in latitude, natural zones also change. The change of natural zones with geographic latitude is a manifestation of the geographic law of latitudinal zoning. Climatic conditions, especially humidity and temperature amplitudes, also change with distance from the ocean into the interior of the continents. Therefore, the main reason for the formation of several natural zones within a geographical zone is the relationship between heat and moisture. (Use the atlas map to analyze the correspondence of natural zones to geographical zones.)
Each natural zone is characterized by a certain climate, type of soil, vegetation and fauna. Natural zones naturally change from the equator to the poles and from the ocean coasts to the interior of the continents following changes in climatic conditions. The nature of the relief affects the moisture regime within the natural zone and can disrupt its latitudinal extent.
Along with zonality, the most important regularity of the geographical envelope is azonality. Azonality- this is the formation of natural complexes associated with the manifestation of internal processes of the Earth, which determine the heterogeneity of the earth's surface (the presence of continents and oceans, mountains and plains on continents, etc.). Azonality is most clearly manifested in the mountains in the form of altitudinal zonality. Altitudinal zone- natural change of natural complexes (belts) from the foot of the mountains to their peaks (see Fig. 2). Altitudinal zonality has much in common with latitudinal zonality: the change of zones when climbing mountains occurs in approximately the same sequence as on the plains when moving from the equator to the poles. The first altitudinal zone always corresponds to the natural zone in which the mountains are located.
The main patterns of the geographical shell are integrity, rhythm, circulation of substances and energy, zonality, azonality. Knowledge about the patterns of development of the geographical envelope is necessary for understanding the processes and phenomena occurring in nature, and anticipating the consequences of human economic activity.
We all know that the shape of the Earth is spherical. This structure is reflected in the distribution of solar radiation over its surface, which naturally decreases from the equator to the poles. This phenomenon is associated with the thermal regime of the Earth's surface, the consistent distribution of landscapes, and the patterns of the spatial state of the components of nature. This well-known global pattern is called geographic zonation.
The root cause of the formation of geographic zonality is considered to be the uneven distribution of solar radiation over the earth's surface and the unequal receipt of thermal energy per unit area. The existence of geographic zonality on the Earth's surface is not only the result of the uneven distribution of solar radiation, but also the intrinsic properties of the geographic shell. Evidence of this is the boundaries of geographical zones, which are not located at the same latitude, but change depending on one or another feature of the geographical envelope.
At the end of the 19th century, the famous Russian soil scientist V.V. Dokuchaev, having determined the unity and inextricable connection of the components of the geographical envelope, noted that these components naturally change from south to north and create natural (geographical) zones.
The scientist was also the first to notice that the formation of geographical zones is not only influenced by direct solar radiation, but also depends on the distribution of heat and moisture on the earth’s surface, especially on the comparative ratio of the latter two factors. This means that although natural zones are strips of landscapes successively located from the equator to the poles, their boundaries are not lines of parallels. Depending on the structure of the Earth’s surface, the distribution of moisture, the proximity of sea coasts and for other reasons, the signs of zones sometimes appear inconsistently, intermittently, sometimes appear, sometimes disappear temporarily (for example, deserts and semi-deserts, deciduous forests, etc.), and sometimes landscapes are formed not according to the zonal principle, but according to azonal factors.
Geographical zoning has a huge impact on human economic activity and on its relationship with the environment. For example, from the equator to the poles, a person spends more and more labor to ensure his life (construction, transport, production of clothing, food, etc.), his life support becomes more and more expensive.
Geographic zoning accelerates or slows down the course of similar natural processes and phenomena. For example, woody plants in the humid tropics and in the taiga grow at different rates; or take the productivity of 1 km2 of tundra pastures, which allows us to obtain only 800-900 kg of meat per year, while the productivity of African savannas reaches 27-30 tons. Thus, one cannot ignore zonality in the use of animal resources.
The geographic envelope is a natural complex on a global scale. It is divided into natural-territorial complexes of a lower rank (continent, ocean, country, region, etc.). Natural-territorial complexes at the local level are “tract” and “facies”. The main properties of a natural complex are the unity of its components, the continuous exchange of substances between these components and the directed flows of energy inherent in this complex.
According to the law of materialist dialectics: without knowing the whole, it is impossible to know its parts. Therefore, without knowing the patterns of development of the global system - the geographical shell, it is impossible to fully know the properties of natural complexes of the lowest rank, and based on the study of only one of these latter, it is impossible to identify the general patterns of the development of nature. The identified patterns for one of the components of the natural environment or on the basis of local territorial studies cannot be extended to all components or ranks of natural-territorial complexes. Environmental problems are multifaceted, diverse, and different in nature. Modern environmental problems are taking on a global scale, so their resolution must be comprehensive, taking into account the conditions of all components of the natural environment and the complexity of the problems.
Geographic zonality is determined by the zonal distribution of solar radiant energy. Therefore, as S.V. wrote. Kolesnik, “on earth there are eonal temperatures of air, water and soil, evaporation and cloudiness, precipitation, baric relief and wind system, properties of air masses, the nature of the hydrographic network and hydrological processes, features of geochemical processes of weathering and soil formation, type of vegetation and fauna, sculptural landforms, to a certain extent, types of sedimentary rocks, and finally, geographical landscapes combined into a system of landscape zones."[...]
Geographic zoning is inherent not only to the continents, but also to the World Ocean, within which different zones differ in the amount of incoming solar radiation, balances of evaporation and precipitation, water temperature, characteristics of surface and deep currents, and, consequently, the world of living organisms.[...]
The foundations of the geographical zonation of soils were laid by V.V. Dogchaev, who pointed out that “the same zoning. [...]
The study of the geographical distribution of ecosystems can only be undertaken at the level of large ecological units - macroecosystems, which are considered on a continental scale. Ecosystems are not scattered in disorder; on the contrary, they are grouped in fairly regular zones, both horizontally (in latitude) and vertically (in height). This is confirmed by the periodic law of geographical zoning by A. A. Grigoriev - M. I. Budyko: with the change of physical-geographical zones of the Earth, similar landscape zones and their some general properties periodically repeat. This was also discussed when considering the ground-air environment of life. The periodicity established by law is manifested in the fact that the values of the dryness index vary in different zones from 0 to 4-5, three times between the poles and the equator they are close to unity. These values correspond to the highest biological productivity of landscapes (Fig. 12.1).[...]
The periodic law of geographical zoning by A. A. Grigoriev - M. I. Budyko - with the change of physical-geographical zones of the Earth, similar landscape zones and some of their general properties periodically repeat.[...]
THE LAW OF PERIODIC GEOGRAPHICAL ZONING (A.V. GRIGORIEV - M.I. BUDIKO): with the change of physical-geographical zones, similar landscape zones and some of their general properties periodically repeat. The dryness index values vary in different zones from O to 4-5; three times between the poles and the equator they are close to unity - these values correspond to the normal biological productivity of landscapes.[...]
A significant influence on geographic zonation is exerted by the earth's oceans, which on continents form longitudinal sectors (in temperate, subtropical and tropical zones), oceanic and continental.[...]
Types of felling are characterized by geographic zonation.[...]
Subsequently, the radiation foundations for the formation of the zonality of the globe were developed by A. A. Grigoriev and M. I. Budyko. To establish the quantitative characteristics of the relationship between heat and moisture for different geographical zones, they determined some coefficients. The ratio of heat and moisture is expressed by the ratio of the surface radiation balance to the latent heat of evaporation and the amount of precipitation (radiation dryness index). A law was established, called the law of periodic geographic zoning (A. A. Grigorieva - M. I. Budyko), which states that with a change in geographic zones, similar geographic (landscape, natural) zones and some of their general properties periodically repeat. Based on the radiation balance, the radiation dryness index, taking into account the annual runoff, showing the degree of surface moisture, A. A. Grigoriev and M. I. Budyko constructed a graph of the geographic zonation of the northern hemisphere (Fig. 5.65).[...]
As is known, the factors that make up climate are characterized by geographic zonation. In addition, the nature and individual properties of climate are very important influenced by the distribution of land and water spaces on the surface of the globe, which forms climates - continental and marine. The forest also exerts its influence by shaping its own ecoclimate, or rather a series of them.[...]
Milkov F.N. Physical geography: the study of landscape and geographical zonality. Voronezh. 1986. 328 pp.[...]
The purpose of the work is to determine the mercury content in soils of different geographical areas using the atomic absorption method.[...]
O. Classifications based on the principle of latitudinal and altitudinal physiographic zonation
A. Wallace's rule, with which the review in this section began, is valid for geographic zonation in general and for similar biotic communities, but only for similar ones, since the absence or presence of one or (usually) a group of species indicates that we we are dealing not with the same, but with a different ecosystem (according to the rule of correspondence between species and cenosis - see section 3.7.1). At the same time, similar ecosystems can be found within different vertical zonations - the further south, the higher the mountain belts (the rule of changing vertical belts), or on slopes of a different aspect; for example, on the northern slopes ecosystems of more northern landscape variations are formed. The latter phenomenon was formally established in 1951[...]
The ideas of A. A. Grigoriev had, although not immediately, an impact on the entire course of development of geographical science in the USSR. He carried out a number of works together with geophysicist M. I. Budyko. The latter owns works on the heat balance of the earth's surface, the introduction of the radiation dryness index as an indicator of bioclimatic conditions, used in substantiating (together with A. A. Grigoriev) the periodic law of geographic zonation.[...]
A. A. Grigoriev (1966) carried out theoretical research on the causes and factors of geographic zoning. He comes to the conclusion that in the formation of zonality, along with the value of the annual radiation balance and the amount of annual precipitation, their ratio, the degree of their proportionality, plays a huge role. A lot of work was done by A. A. Grigoriev (1970) on characterizing the nature of the main geographical zones of land.[...]
The main natural feature of the Timan-Pechora region is a clear manifestation of latitudinal geographic zoning, which determines the main parameters of the ecological and natural resource potential of the territory (natural living conditions of the population and the quantity and quality of natural resources), and imposes corresponding requirements on the technology of territory development - laying roads, construction, operation of oil and gas fields, etc. Zonal features also determine the corresponding restrictions that must be observed in the developed territories in order to maintain optimal quality of the natural environment.[...]
Consequently, underground flow into the seas from the European continent is also subject to latitudinal physiographic zoning (Fig. 4.3.3). Local geological, hydrogeological and relief features of drainage areas complicate this general picture of runoff distribution and can sometimes cause sharp deviations from typical average values. An example of such a determining influence of local factors on the conditions for the formation of underground runoff is the coastal regions of Scandinavia and the Mediterranean, where the screening effect of mountain structures, the widespread development of karst and fractured rocks lead to azonally high submarine runoff. [...]
The dependence of lake water mineralization on physical-geographical conditions and especially on climate determines the geographic zonality in the distribution of salt lakes over the earth's surface. In the Soviet Union, a strip of salt lakes stretches from the lower Danube in the west to the Pacific Ocean in the east, located mainly in zones of steppes, semi-deserts and deserts. In this strip there are large lakes - the Caspian Sea, the Aral Sea, Lake. Balkhash and many small, sometimes temporary salt reservoirs. The northernmost position in this strip is occupied by carbonate lakes.[...]
The formation of meadow clearings in place of green moss fields with fresh, dry soils is also strictly subject to geographic zoning; to the south they are replaced by reed grass and some other types.[...]
Publication of the work of V.V. Dokuchaev (Russia) “Towards the Doctrine of Natural Zones”, which formed the basis of modern ideas about geographical zonality.[...]
Since the most important soil-forming factor is climate, the genetic types of soils largely coincide with geographic zonation: arctic and tundra soils, podzolic soils, chernozems, chestnut, gray-brown soils and gray soils, red soils and yellow soils. The distribution of the main soil types on the globe is shown in Fig. 6.6.[...]
The formation of meadow clearings, formed on the site of green moss with fresh and dry soils, is also strictly subject to geographic zoning. To the south they are replaced by reed grasses, as well as some other types. The figures given in the table cannot be overestimated and given absolute values for a long period. As logging continues to develop and expands into different types of forests, the numbers may change. But geographical patterns in the distribution of types of felling will remain, and will even be more clearly expressed, in particular, in relation to swampy clearings, as well as other types.[...]
Analysis of the distribution of underground runoff values into the seas and oceans from the territory of Africa shows that it is also subject to latitudinal physical-geographical zoning (Fig. 4.3.2).[...]
At the first stage of field work, reconnaissance is carried out along several shortened routes, which makes it possible to obtain information about the patterns of geographical (zonal) distribution of the main types of soils and the features of the structure of the soil cover as a whole. The accumulated information can be extrapolated during soil survey to adjacent territories with similar soil formation conditions and equally displayed on aerial and satellite images. After reconnaissance, research is carried out along all planned routes, laying out the main and verification sections. From the main sections, samples are selected according to genetic horizons for analytical processing. Between the points where the main sections are laid along the route, inter-item descriptions of landforms, vegetation, soil-forming rocks and other natural conditions are carried out.[...]
Lakes are very diverse in the set and concentration of dissolved substances, and in this they are closer to groundwater than to the ocean. The mineralization of lakes is subject to geographic zoning: the Earth is surrounded by brackish and saline lakes, characteristic of arid and desert zones. Salt lakes are often drainless, that is, they receive rivers, but water flows do not flow out of them, and dissolved substances brought by rivers gradually accumulate in the lake as a result of the evaporation of water from its surface. The water of some lakes is so saturated with salts that they crystallize, forming crusts of different shades on its surface or settling to the bottom. One of the saltiest lakes discovered in Antarctica is Lake Victoria, whose water is 11 times saltier than ocean water.[...]
It was revealed that regional natural conditions determine many features of the small river regime. However, in general, its characteristics, and therefore its use and protection, are most closely related to geographic zonality, with the moisture conditions that determine its water content - excessive, unstable, insufficient. The possibilities for using a small river (especially as a source of local water supply) vary significantly depending on whether it is located in the upper reaches of a large river basin, in its middle or lower part. In the first case, a small river actively forms runoff and creates water content in the main river arteries, so its use for local “small” irrigation and water withdrawal for industrial and agricultural water supply affect the water balance of large regions. Limitations were pointed out when determining the volumes of water taken from small rivers in the upper parts of the basins of rivers such as the Dnieper, Oka, etc. On the contrary, the active use of the flow of small rivers in the lower part of a large river basin (for example, in the Rostov region) is associated with less serious consequences for the water management of the river basin as a whole.[...]
On Earth, there are very clear patterns of location of zones in space, with corresponding clear sets of natural features, such as the ratio of components of heat and water balances, zonal features of rock weathering processes, biogeochemical processes, soils and vegetation. The existence of these features and their regular distribution reflect the geographic zonation of the Earth’s landscapes.[...]
They also govern other natural phenomena, such as the main types of soils and geochemical processes, climate features, water balance and regime, many geomorphological processes, etc. This is the so-called law of geographic zoning, generalized by M.I. Budyko and A.A. Grigoriev.[...]
The qualitative and quantitative composition of the bird fauna of the northern part of the Urals characterizes it as typical for the taiga zone. The natural character, features of the distribution and promotion of species are quite consistent with the physical-geographical, zonal-latitudinal features and transformation of landscapes on the plains adjacent to the Urals.[...]
A. Humboldt formulated the first ideas about the biosphere as a union of all living organisms on the planet and environmental conditions. Lavoisier, in addition, gave a description of the carbon cycle, Lamarck - the adaptation of organisms to environmental conditions, Humboldt - geographical zonality. Lamarck was the author of the first cautionary forecasts of the possible harmful consequences of human influence on nature (see Alarmism). T. Malthus formulated ideas about exponential population growth and the danger of overpopulation. A huge contribution to ecology was made by Charles Darwin’s ideas about natural and artificial selection, which explained the adaptability of wild species to various habitats and the loss of these characteristics by cultivated plants and domestic animals. [...]
When carrying out similar processing of data for 1990 and 1991. for 46 stations of the Middle and Lower Volga, using a larger number of abiotic parameters at the height of summer, four classes were more clearly distinguished, including from 7 to 10 stations and corresponding to the geographical zonation of the cascade (Table 31).[...]
Particularly great is the contribution of the “father of botany” Theophrastus, who formulated the first ideas about the life forms of plants and geographical zonation.[...]
The largest land communities, occupying large areas and characterized by a certain type of vegetation and climate, are called biomes. The type of biome is determined by climate. In different areas of the globe with the same climate, similar types of biomes are found: deserts, steppes, tropical and coniferous forests, tundra, etc. Biomes have a pronounced geographic zonation (Fig. 45, p. 142). [...]
For example, within the northern hemisphere, the following zones are distinguished: ice, tundra, forest-tundra, taiga, mixed forests of the Russian Plain, monsoon forests of the Far East, forest-steppe, steppe, desert temperate and subtropical zones, Mediterranean, etc. The zones have predominantly (although far from 1st always) elongated in broad terms and are characterized by similar natural conditions, a certain sequence depending on the latitudinal position. Thus, latitudinal geographic zoning is a natural change in physical-geographical processes, components and complexes from the equator to the poles. It is clear that we are talking primarily about the combination of factors that form the climate.[...]
EVOLUTION OF BIOGEOCENOSES (ECOSYSTEM) - the process of continuous, simultaneous and interconnected changes in species and their relationships, the introduction of new species into the ecosystem and the loss from it of some species that were previously included in it, the cumulative impact of the ecosystem on the substrate and other abiotic environmental components and the reverse influence of these changed components on living components of the ecosystem. In the course of evolution, biogeocenoses adapt to changes in the planet’s ecosphere and emerging regional features of its parts (shifts in geographic zonation, etc.).
Geographical zoning
Geographical zoning
(physical-geographical zoning), a change in natural conditions from the poles to the equator, due to latitudinal differences in the flow of solar radiation to the Earth’s surface. Max. energy is received by the surface perpendicular to the sun's rays (equatorial latitudes); the greater the tilt, the less heating (polar latitudes). Geographic zoning is one of the most universal geographical patterns, which has the status of a law. In accordance with this law, the landscape shell of the Earth is divided into natural zones, repeating in the North. and Yuzh. hemispheres (for example, zones of forests and steppes of the temperate zone, tropical deserts, etc.).
The idea of geographical zoning began to take shape in ancient times (Herodotus, Eudonis, Posidonius); The foundations of the doctrine of bioclimatic zonation were laid by A. Humboldt. In Russia, the greatest contribution to the doctrine of geographic zonation was made by V.V. Dokuchaev, L.S. Berg, A. A. Grigoriev, M.I. Budyko, I.P. Gerasimov, E. N. Lukasheva, A. G. Isachenko and others.
Law of geographical zoning: I R – radiation dryness index; the diameters of the circles are proportional to the biological productivity of landscapes
There are latitudinal, component (climate, soil, vegetation) zoning, sedimentogenesis zonality, exogenous geomorphological processes, hydrological (river flow characteristics zoning), hydrogeological and complex, or landscape. The basis for the differentiation of the geographical envelope into natural (landscape) zones is the ratio of heat and moisture. Latitudinal zoning is most clearly manifested on plains that extend enormously from north to south (Russian and West Siberian plains). Basic form of manifestation of zonality in the mountains - altitudinal zone. The features of latitudinal zonality are characteristic of the surface water masses of the ocean, which is manifested in the temperature of sea water, salinity, oxygen content, bioproductivity, and in the vertical and horizontal speed of movement.
Geography. Modern illustrated encyclopedia. - M.: Rosman. Edited by prof. A. P. Gorkina. 2006 .
See what “geographical zoning” is in other dictionaries:
The main pattern of differentiation of the geographical shell of the Earth, manifested in a consistent and definite change in geographical zones and zones, due mainly to the nature of the distribution of the solar radiant energy by latitude... ... Ecological dictionary
The main pattern of distribution of landscapes on the Earth's surface, consisting of a sequential change of natural zones, due to the nature of the distribution of radiant energy of the Sun across latitudes and uneven moisture. Geographical... ... Financial Dictionary
Differentiation of the earth's surface into zones according to climatic, biogeographical and other features due to the predominantly latitudinal distribution of solar heat. Ecological encyclopedic dictionary. Chisinau: Main editorial office of the Moldavian... ... Ecological dictionary
See geographical zoning. Geography. Modern illustrated encyclopedia. M.: Rosman. Edited by prof. A. P. Gorkina. 2006 ... Geographical encyclopedia
The pattern of differentiation of the geographical shell of the Earth; manifests itself in a consistent and definite change in geographical zones and zones, due mainly to the nature of the distribution of the solar radiant energy by latitude (decreases... Ecological dictionary
geographical zonation- Latitudinal differentiation of the geographical shell of the Earth, manifested in a consistent change of geographical zones, zones and subzones, caused by changes in the arrival of radiant energy from the Sun across latitudes and uneven humidification. → Fig. 367, p.... ... Dictionary of Geography
Geographic, the pattern of differentiation of the geographical (landscape) shell of the Earth, manifested in a consistent and definite change of geographical zones and zones (see Physico-geographical zones), caused primarily by ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia
geographical zonation- geografinė zona statusas T sritis ekologija ir aplinkotyra apibrėžtis Geografinės juostos žemyninė dalis, kurią lemia tam tikras šilumos ir drėgmės derinys. atitikmenys: engl. geographical zone vok. geografische Zonierung, f; globale Zonierung,… … Ekologijos terminų aiškinamasis žodynas
The doctrine of geographical zoning. A region in a broad sense, as already noted, is a complex territorial complex, which is delimited by the specific homogeneity of various conditions, including natural and geographical ones. This means that there is regional differentiation of nature. The processes of spatial differentiation of the natural environment are greatly influenced by such phenomena as zonality and azonality of the geographical shell of the Earth. According to modern concepts, geographic zonality means a natural change in physical-geographical processes, complexes, and components as one moves from the equator to the poles. That is, zonation on land is a consistent change of geographical zones from the equator to the poles and the regular distribution of natural zones within these zones (equatorial, subequatorial, tropical, subtropical, temperate, subarctic and subantarctic).
In recent years, with the humanization and sociologization of geography, geographic zones are increasingly being called natural-anthropogenic geographic zones.
The doctrine of geographic zonality is of great importance for regional and regional studies analysis. First of all, it allows us to reveal the natural prerequisites for specialization and farming. And in the conditions of modern scientific and technological revolution, with a partial weakening of the economy’s dependence on natural conditions and natural resources, its close ties with nature, and in many cases, dependence on it, continue to be preserved. The continuing important role of the natural component in the development and functioning of society and its territorial organization is obvious. Differences in the spiritual culture of the population also cannot be understood without referring to natural regionalization. It also forms the skills of a person’s adaptation to the territory and determines the nature of environmental management.
Geographic zoning actively influences regional differences in the life of society, being an important factor in zoning, and, consequently, regional policy.
The doctrine of geographic zonality provides enormous material for country and regional comparisons and thereby contributes to the elucidation of country and regional specifics and its causes, which ultimately is the main task of regional studies and regional studies. For example, the taiga zone in the form of a trail crosses the territories of Russia, Canada, and Fennoscandia. But the degree of population, economic development, and living conditions in the taiga zones of the countries listed above have significant differences. In regional studies and country studies analysis, neither the question of the nature of these differences nor the question of their sources can be ignored.
In a word, the task of regional and regional studies analysis is not only to characterize the features of the natural component of a particular territory (its theoretical basis is the doctrine of geographic zonality), but also to identify the nature of the relationship between natural regionalism and the regionalization of the world according to economic, geopolitical, cultural and civilizational factors. nym, etc. reasons.
Loop method
Loop method. The basic basis of this method is the fact that almost all space-time structures are characterized by cyclicity. The cycle method is one of the new ones and therefore, as a rule, is personalized, that is, it bears the names of its creators. This method has undoubted positive potential for regional studies. Identified N.N. Kolosovsky energy production cycles, unfolding in certain territories, made it possible to trace the regional specifics of their interaction. And it, in turn, was projected onto certain management decisions, i.e. on regional policy.
The concept of ethnogenesis L.N. Gumilyov, also based on the method of cycles, allows us to penetrate deeper into the essence of regional ethnic processes.
The concept of large cycles, or “long waves” N.D. Kondratyev is not only a tool for analyzing the current state of the world economy, but also has a great predictive charge not only with regard to the development of the world economy as a whole, but also its regional subsystems.
Models of cyclical geopolitical development (I. Wallerstein, P. Taylor, W. Thompson, J. Modelski, etc.) explore the process of transition from one “world order” to another, changes in the balance of power between great powers, the emergence of new conflict zones, centers of power . Thus, all these models are important when studying the processes of political regionalization of the world.
20. Program-target method. This method is a way to study regional systems, their socio-economic components and at the same time an important tool for regional policy. Examples of targeted comprehensive programs in Russia are the presidential program “Economic and social development of the Far East and Transbaikalia for 1996–2005”, “Federal program for the development of the Lower Angara region”, adopted in 1999, etc.
The program-target method is aimed at solving complex problems and is associated with the development of long-term forecasts for the socio-economic development of the country and its regions.
The program-target method is actively used to solve regional policy problems in most countries of the world. In Italy, as part of regional policy, the first law on “growth poles” was adopted in 1957. In accordance with it, several large enterprises were built in the south of Italy (a region that lags far behind the industrialized North), for example, a metallurgical plant in Tarante. “Growth poles” are also being created in France and Spain. The core of Japan's regional programs is the goal of developing infrastructure associated with increasing exports.
The development and implementation of targeted programs is a characteristic feature of the policy of the European Union. Examples of these are, for example, the Lingua and Erasmus programs. The goal of the first of them is to eliminate the language barrier, the second is to expand student exchange between the countries of the Union. In 1994–1999 Within the EU, 13 target programs were financed - “Leader II” (social development of rural areas), “Urban” (elimination of urban slums), “Reshar II” (coal industry), etc.
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