Egyptian Mamluk nationality. Mamluks - who are they

Mamluks, Mamelukes (Arabic belonging) - a military caste in medieval Islamic Egypt, recruited from slave boys of Turkic (Kipchaks) and Caucasian origin (Circassians, Abkhazians and Georgians). Young men were sent to Islam, taught Arabic and trained in closed camps for military service. The predecessors of the Mamluks were the ghulams of the Arab Caliphate, and their analogue was the Iraqi kulemen.

Three different meanings of the term "Mamluk" must be distinguished:

Mamluk army

The Mamluks called the complex of military and physical training furusiya. It included archery, fencing, exercises with a spear and other weapons, and wrestling. An important skill for the Mamluk was archery. The Mamluks also learned to use a crossbow on horseback and on foot. As an excellent training for the Mamluks, hunting was organized like the Tatar hunt, during which large-scale roundups of animals were carried out.

The protective armament of the Mamluk warrior consisted of cotton-lined combat clothing, chain mail and lamellar armor - jawshan. A turban served as protection for the head of an ordinary warrior; rich Mamluks wore iron helmets with chain mail aventails. In the 15th century Ring-plate armor became most widespread. The main weapon was the bow. The Mamluks were also armed with spears, blades, sabers and maces. The Mamluks were also armed with crossbows, which they used extensively during sieges and naval battles. From the end of the 14th century. The Mamluks began to use artillery. During the campaign, the Mamluk warrior had only one horse, as well as 1 or 2 camels for transporting luggage and equipment. The Mamluk army did not have a uniform uniform, but many wore reddish or yellow clothes. Most of the banners were reddish color, because this color was the color of the former Ayyubid dynasty. The main difference between the officers was the belts, crowned with gold, silver and precious stones.

The Mamluk cavalry was trained in maneuvering, false retreats and other techniques. The infantry was capable of covering long distances and being ready to repel surprise attacks. The infantry were also trained to perform well against cavalry. It must be said that the Mamluks occasionally used foot soldiers in battles. They almost always relied on cavalry. Horsemen from elite units were trained in combat on foot, and they knew how to build field fortifications. During the battle, the Mamluks tried to choose a more comfortable position in front of the hillocks, in order to avoid a surprise attack by the enemy in the rear. The formation of the Mamluk army on the battlefield was usual, with a center and 2 flanks. In that case, the enemy army was smaller in number, and the Mamluks tried to surround it. On the contrary, in that case there were more opponents, the Mamluk military leaders tried not to deploy troops on a wide front. One of the main tactics of the Mamluks was to bombard the enemy with a hail of arrows. That is why the Mamluks were able to stop the crusaders near Gaza.

The Mamluk army consisted of 3 separate parts (their number did not include auxiliary units, also inexperienced recruits): the Sultan's personal guard, detachments of emirs and free mercenary guards (khalka). The Mamluks of the emirs were worse prepared than the Sultans, because, most importantly, they did not undergo training in elite schools. After the death of the emir, his mamluks were part of the detachments of other emirs or free khalkas. All Mamluk officers had land plots (irts) or other profitable places, granted to them for their service by the sultans. Holders of irts were exempt from taxes, but during the war they had to go on a campaign with a detachment of armed people. Irts were not inherited and, being the property of the sultans, were given out as conditional possession.

In the 2nd half of the 13th century. The Egyptian army was significantly increased in size thanks to the reforms of Sultan Baybars. It included 40,000 warriors, 4,000 of whom were Mamluks. At the beginning of the 14th century, the Mamluk army already numbered 24,000 horsemen stationed in Egypt, 12,400 of them were in the detachments of emirs. The provinces housed 13,000 Mamluks and 9,000 Khalqas. The most prestigious unit of the Mamluk army were the Sultan's Guards. They took part in all the important military campaigns of the sultans. Emir officers varied in rank. The emirs-centurions commanded a detachment of 1000 warriors and had a personal guard detachment of 100 warriors. The emirs of forty commanded a detachment of 100 warriors, their personal guard numbered 40 people. The Mamluk army also had the position of emir-foreman.

In 1260, the Mamluk armies defeated the Mongols, in 1268 they ousted the Crusaders from Palestine and Syria, and in 1273 they defeated the Ismaili assassins.

Khalqa units also had special elite units, consisting of the offspring of sultans, emirs and mamluks who chose a military career. Under the Ayyubids, the Khalqa units were quite prestigious units, but over time their combat effectiveness and highest status declined greatly. By the 14th century, anyone had the opportunity to join the ranks of the khalk by paying a certain currency fee.

Baybars significantly increased the salaries of the Mamluks. In addition to a monthly salary, the Mamluks received a certain amount once every six months or a year to cover the cost of clothing; the warriors also received a daily meat ration, and once every 2 weeks - an amount to buy food for a stallion. In addition to the income received from the irt, the Mamluk officers before the campaign, also with the accession of the new monarch, received rich gifts. First XV century. the salary of an ordinary warrior was 3 dinars, and the salary of an officer was 7 dinars.

In 1516-1517 The troops of the Turkish Sultan Selim I captured Syria, Egypt and Palestine, ending the rule of the Mamluks. After the Turkish conquest, part of the land in Egypt was left to the Mamluk beys, who were obliged to pay tribute to the Turkish pasha in Cairo. The weakening of the Ottoman Empire from the end of the 17th century allowed the Mamluks to practically regain their power. In 1808, the Mamluks' lands were taken away, and in 1811 their beys were exterminated.

Historical actions

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Mamelukes(from the Arabic Mamluk - slave, white slave), originally slaves, guards of the last sultans of the Ayyubid dynasty, who independently ruled from 1250 in Egypt (until 1517) and Syria (until 1516). The Mameluke dynasties are known - Bahri and Burji. The most prominent Mameluk sultans are Aibek, Baybars, Kalaun, Barsbey, Guri. In the second half of the 13th century, the Mameluk armies defeated the Mongols (Battle of Ain Jalut), drove the Crusaders out of Syria and Palestine, and defeated the Ismaili Assassins. The Mameluke emirs nominated a sultan from among them. The Sultan headed the feudal hierarchy, the top layer of which included the emirs-centurions; subordinate to them were the emirs of forty, ten and five squads. The Mameluke state was conquered by Turkish troops in 1517 and incorporated into the Ottoman Empire.

Mamluks, Mamluks (Arabic - white slaves, slaves), warrior-slaves (mainly from the Turks, as well as Georgians, Circassians and other Caucasian peoples), sold to Egypt by the Mongols after their conquest of Wed. Asia and the Caucasus and formed the guard of the last Egyptian rulers from the Ayyubid dynasty (1171-1250). The number of M. ranged from 9 to 12 thousand people. (according to some sources, up to 24 thousand people). Their troops were periodically replenished with new slaves. In 1250, the commanding elite of M. overthrew Turan Shah (the last sultan of the Ayyubid dynasty) and seized power in Egypt. The best lands passed into the hands of the Mamluk military leaders, mainly. craft enterprises and government positions. M. retained the military-fief system that had developed before them, in which, for performing military service, vassals were endowed by the Sultan with land holdings. A strong army was created, the basis of which was made up of M. cavalry detachments under the command of 24 beys from among the large feudal lords. M. was headed by the Sultan, who was elected by the state. advice from the most influential. military leaders. There are two known dynasties of Mamluk sultans: Bahri (mainly of Turkic origin, ruled 1250-1390) and Burji (mainly Circassian origin, ruled 1390-1517). The high fighting qualities of the Mamluk army made it a formidable force, which was used both to fight external enemies and to suppress unrest and uprisings in Egypt. population. 3 Sep. 1260 in the battle of Ain Jalut (near the modern city of Beisan), M.'s troops defeated the Mongols who invaded Palestine and Syria, expelled the remnants of the crusaders from these countries. In 1273 they defeated the Ismaili Assassins (a secret sectarian organization formed in Iran at the end of the 11th century). The eastern part of Libya (Barka), Nubia, Hijaz, from 1375 - Cilicia, from 1426 - Cyprus were in vassal dependence on M. During M.'s reign in the 13th and early 14th centuries. The economy has begun. rise of Egypt state The state has been improved. control system, irrigation agriculture, trade, craft production and culture developed. Along with the expansion, unlimited. The power of the Mamluk nobility intensified the exploitation of Egypt. peasantry. Famine, epidemics, uprisings of fellahs and Bedouins in the second half. 14-15th century became frequent occurrences in the life of Egypt and led to its weakening. In 1516-17, Egypt was conquered by the Turks and became a province of the Ottoman Empire. Part of Egypt. The Turks left lands to M., who had to pay a tour. tribute to the pasha in Cairo. In the beginning 18th century, taking advantage of the weakening of Sultan Turkey, M. actually restored their power in Egypt. In 1798 irregular. M.'s cavalry, according to F. Engels, at that time by far the best in single combat, but undisciplined (see Marx K., Engels F. Soch. Ed. 2ge. T. 20, p. 131), was defeated by the troops of Napoleon Bonaparte in the battle of Egypt. pyramids However, having lost the military. strength, M. retained dominance, political. influence in the country. After the evacuation of the French from Egypt (1801), part of the M. rank and file followed them. Napoleon I accepted them into his cavalry, and later formed them into the Horse Guards. squadron (250 people), which took part in all the wars of the empire. The remnants of Mamluk were almost completely destroyed during the retreat of the army of Napoleon I from Russia during the Patriotic War of 1812. A strong blow to the Mamluk feudal lords and the tour. Janissaries, who replaced the French in 1801. conquerors, inflicted people. uprisings in Cairo and partisans. movement in the provinces at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th century. After the people's victory. Uprising in Cairo in 1805, a tour came to power in Egypt with the support of the Cairo clergy. military leader Muhammad Ali, who commanded the Albanian detachment. volunteers for the tour. army. Immediately after coming to power, Muhammad Ali dealt with the leaders of the uprising; in 1808 he confiscated all the lands from the Mamluk beys, and in 1811 he destroyed many of them, luring them to the Cairo citadel.

Materials from the Soviet Military Encyclopedia in 8 volumes, volume 5 were used.

Literature:

History of the Second World War. 1939-1945. T. 3. M., 1974, p. 358-365;

Karbyshev D. M. Mannerheim Line. - Fav. scientific works. M., 1962.

New history of the countries of foreign Asia and Africa. L., 1971;

History of foreign Asian countries in the Middle Ages. M., 1970;

Semenova L. A. Sadah ad-din and the Mamluks in Egypt. M., 1966.

(-) and Burji (-).

In 1516, the Turkish army led by Sultan Selim I defeated the Mamluks at the Battle of Marj Dabiq near Aleppo and annexed their possessions to the Ottoman Empire. The Mamluks retained their influence in Egypt as an influential class until 1811, when the Egyptian Sultan Muhammad Ali ordered their extermination.

Mamluk rule was carried out by two dynasties - Bahrit (1250-1390) and Burjit (1390-1516).

Bakhrits

Burjits

Characteristics

Preparation

The Mamluks' complex of military and physical training was called furusiya. It included archery, fencing, exercises with a spear and other weapons, and wrestling. The most important skill for a Mamluk was archery. The Mamluks also learned to use a crossbow on horseback and on foot. As an excellent training for the Mamluks, hunting was organized like the Mongolian one, during which large-scale roundups of animals were carried out.

Armament

The protective weapons of the Mamluk warrior consisted of yushman combat clothing lined with cotton (it was in the form of both a robe and a shirt), chain mail and lamellar armor - javshana. A turban served as protection for the head of a simple warrior; rich Mamluks wore metal helmets with chain mail aventails. In the 15th century, ring-plate armor became most widespread. The main weapon was the bow; they were also armed with spears, swords, sabers and maces; They were also armed with crossbows, which were actively used during sieges and naval battles. From the end of the 14th century, the Mamluks began to use artillery. On a campaign, the Mamluk warrior had only one horse, as well as one or two camels for transporting luggage and equipment. The Mamluk army did not have a uniform uniform, but many wore red or yellow clothing. Most of the banners were yellow, as this was the color of the former Ayyubid dynasty. The main difference between the officers were belts decorated with gold, silver and precious stones.

Tactics

The Mamluk cavalry was trained in maneuvering, false retreats and other techniques. The infantry was capable of covering long distances and being ready to repel unexpected attacks. Infantry were also trained to act effectively against cavalry. It must be said that the Mamluks rarely used foot soldiers in battles, in most cases relying on cavalry. Cavalrymen from elite units were trained in combat on foot, and they also knew how to build field fortifications. During the battle, the Mamluks tried to choose the most convenient position in front of the hills, in order to avoid an unexpected enemy attack in the rear. The formation of the Mamluk army on the battlefield was traditional, with a center and two flanks. If the enemy army was small in number, the Mamluks tried to surround it. On the contrary, if there were more enemies, then the Mamluk commanders tried not to deploy troops on a wide front. One of the main tactics of the Mamluks was to bombard the enemy with a hail of arrows. It was in this way that the Mamluks managed to stop the crusaders near Gaza.

Organization

The Mamluk army consisted of 3 separate parts (they did not include auxiliary units, as well as inexperienced recruits): the personal guard of the Sultan, detachments of emirs and free mercenary guards ( hulk). The Emirs' Mamluks were less prepared than the Sultan's, since they generally did not undergo training in elite schools. After the death of the emir, his mamluks were part of the detachments of other emirs or free hulk. All Mamluk officers had land - irty or other profitable positions granted to them for their service by the sultans. Owners irtov were exempt from taxes, but during the war they were obliged to go on a campaign with a detachment of armed people. Irty were not inherited and, being the property of the sultans, were given out as conditional possession.

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Notes

Excerpt characterizing the Mamluks

Kutuzov sat, with his gray head drooping and his heavy body slumped, on a carpeted bench, in the very place where Pierre had seen him in the morning. He did not make any orders, but only agreed or disagreed with what was offered to him.
“Yes, yes, do it,” he responded to various proposals. “Yes, yes, go, my dear, have a look,” he addressed first one or the other of those close to him; or: “No, no, we’d better wait,” he said. He listened to the reports brought to him, gave orders when his subordinates required it; but, listening to the reports, he seemed not to be interested in the meaning of the words of what was said to him, but something else in the expressions of the faces, in the tone of speech of those reporting, interested him. From long-term military experience, he knew and with his senile mind understood that it is impossible for one person to lead hundreds of thousands of people fighting death, and he knew that the fate of the battle is not decided by the orders of the commander-in-chief, not by the place where the troops are stationed, not by the number of guns and killed people, and that elusive force called the spirit of the army, and he watched over this force and led it, as far as it was in his power.
The general expression on Kutuzov’s face was one of concentrated, calm attention and tension, which barely overcame the fatigue of his weak and old body.
At eleven o'clock in the morning they brought him the news that the flushes occupied by the French were again repulsed, but that Prince Bagration was wounded. Kutuzov gasped and shook his head.
“Go to Prince Pyotr Ivanovich and find out in detail what and how,” he said to one of the adjutants and then turned to the Prince of Wirtemberg, who stood behind him:
“Would it please Your Highness to take command of the first army?”
Soon after the prince's departure, so soon that he could not yet get to Semenovsky, the prince's adjutant returned from him and reported to his Serene Highness that the prince was asking for troops.
Kutuzov winced and sent Dokhturov an order to take command of the first army, and asked the prince, whom he said he could not do without at these important moments, to return to his place. When the news of Murat’s capture was brought and the staff congratulated Kutuzov, he smiled.
“Wait, gentlemen,” he said. “The battle has been won, and there is nothing unusual in the capture of Murat.” But it's better to wait and rejoice. “However, he sent an adjutant to travel through the troops with this news.
When Shcherbinin rode up from the left flank with a report about the French occupation of flushes and Semenovsky, Kutuzov, guessing from the sounds of the battlefield and from Shcherbinin’s face that the news was bad, stood up, as if stretching his legs, and, taking Shcherbinin by the arm, took him aside .
“Go, my dear,” he said to Ermolov, “see if anything can be done.”
Kutuzov was in Gorki, in the center of the position of the Russian army. The attack directed by Napoleon on our left flank was repulsed several times. In the center the French did not move further than Borodin. From the left flank, Uvarov's cavalry forced the French to flee.
In the third hour the French attacks stopped. On all the faces who came from the battlefield, and on those who stood around him, Kutuzov read an expression of tension that had reached the highest degree. Kutuzov was pleased with the success of the day beyond expectations. But the old man’s physical strength left him. Several times his head dropped low, as if falling, and he dozed off. He was served dinner.
The outhouse adjutant Wolzogen, the same one who, driving past Prince Andrei, said that the war must be im Raum verlegon [transferred into space (German)], and whom Bagration hated so much, drove up to Kutuzov during lunch. Wolzogen arrived from Barclay with a report on the progress of affairs on the left flank. The prudent Barclay de Tolly, seeing the crowds of wounded running away and the upset backsides of the army, having weighed all the circumstances of the case, decided that the battle was lost, and with this news he sent his favorite to the commander-in-chief.
Kutuzov chewed the fried chicken with difficulty and looked at Wolzogen with narrowed, cheerful eyes.
Wolzogen, casually stretching his legs, with a half-contemptuous smile on his lips, approached Kutuzov, lightly touching the visor with his hand.
Wolzogen treated His Serene Highness with a certain affected carelessness, the purpose of which was to show that he, as a highly educated military man, was allowing the Russians to make an idol out of this old, useless man, and he himself knew with whom he was dealing. “Der alte Herr (as the Germans called Kutuzov in their circle) macht sich ganz bequem, [The old gentleman settled down calmly (German)] - thought Wolzogen and, looking sternly at the plates standing in front of Kutuzov, began to report to the old gentleman the state of affairs on the left flank as Barclay ordered him and as he himself saw and understood it.
- All points of our position are in the hands of the enemy and there is nothing to recapture, because there are no troops; “They are running, and there is no way to stop them,” he reported.
Kutuzov, stopping to chew, stared at Wolzogen in surprise, as if not understanding what was being said to him. Wolzogen, noticing the excitement of des alten Herrn, [the old gentleman (German)] said with a smile:
– I did not consider myself entitled to hide from your lordship what I saw... The troops are in complete disorder...
-Have you seen it? Have you seen?.. – Kutuzov shouted, frowning, quickly getting up and advancing on Wolzogen. “How do you... how dare you!..”, he shouted, making threatening gestures with shaking hands and choking. - How dare you, dear sir, say this to me? You don't know anything. Tell General Barclay from me that his information is incorrect and that the real course of the battle is known to me, the commander-in-chief, better than to him.
Wolzogen wanted to object, but Kutuzov interrupted him.
- The enemy is repulsed on the left and defeated on the right flank. If you have not seen well, dear sir, then do not allow yourself to say what you do not know. Please go to General Barclay and convey to him the next day my absolute intention to attack the enemy,” Kutuzov said sternly. Everyone was silent, and all that could be heard was the heavy breathing of the out of breath old general. “They were repulsed everywhere, for which I thank God and our brave army.” The enemy has been defeated, and tomorrow we will drive him out of the sacred Russian land,” said Kutuzov, crossing himself; and suddenly sobbed from the tears that came. Wolzogen, shrugging his shoulders and pursing his lips, silently walked away to the side, wondering uber diese Eingenommenheit des alten Herrn. [at this tyranny of the old gentleman. (German)]
“Yes, here he is, my hero,” Kutuzov said to the plump, handsome, black-haired general, who was entering the mound at that time. It was Raevsky, who spent the whole day at the main point of the Borodino field.
Raevsky reported that the troops were firmly in their places and that the French did not dare to attack anymore. After listening to him, Kutuzov said in French:
– Vous ne pensez donc pas comme lesautres que nous sommes obliges de nous retirer? [You don't think, then, like others, that we should retreat?]
“Au contraire, votre altesse, dans les affaires indecises c"est loujours le plus opiniatre qui reste victorieux,” answered Raevsky, “et mon opinion... [On the contrary, your lordship, in indecisive matters the winner is the one who is more stubborn, and my opinion …]
- Kaisarov! – Kutuzov shouted to his adjutant. - Sit down and write an order for tomorrow. “And you,” he turned to the other, “go along the line and announce that tomorrow we will attack.”
While the conversation with Raevsky was going on and the order was being dictated, Wolzogen returned from Barclay and reported that General Barclay de Tolly would like to have written confirmation of the order that the field marshal gave.
Kutuzov, without looking at Wolzogen, ordered this order to be written, which the former commander-in-chief, very thoroughly, in order to avoid personal responsibility, wanted to have.
And through an indefinable, mysterious connection that maintains the same mood throughout the entire army, called the spirit of the army and constituting the main nerve of the war, Kutuzov’s words, his order for battle for the next day, were transmitted simultaneously to all ends of the army.
It was not the very words, not the very order that was transmitted in the last chain of this connection. There was not even anything similar in those stories that were passed on to each other at different ends of the army to what Kutuzov said; but the meaning of his words was communicated everywhere, because what Kutuzov said stemmed not from cunning considerations, but from a feeling that lay in the soul of the commander-in-chief, as well as in the soul of every Russian person.
And having learned that the next day we would attack the enemy, from the highest spheres of the army, having heard confirmation of what they wanted to believe, the exhausted, hesitant people were consoled and encouraged.

Prince Andrei's regiment was in reserves, which until the second hour stood behind Semenovsky inactive, under heavy artillery fire. In the second hour, the regiment, which had already lost more than two hundred people, was moved forward to a trampled oat field, to that gap between Semenovsky and the Kurgan battery, where thousands of people were killed that day and on which, in the second hour of the day, intensely concentrated fire was directed from several hundred enemy guns.
Without leaving this place and without firing a single charge, the regiment lost another third of its people here. In front and especially on the right side, in the continuous smoke, cannons boomed and from a mysterious area of ​​smoke that covered the entire area ahead, cannonballs and slowly whistling grenades flew out, without ceasing, with a hissing rapid whistle. Sometimes, as if giving rest, a quarter of an hour passed, during which all the cannonballs and grenades flew over, but sometimes within a minute several people were torn out of the regiment, and the dead were constantly dragged away and the wounded were carried away.
With each new blow, fewer and fewer chances of life remained for those who had not yet been killed. The regiment stood in battalion columns at a distance of three hundred paces, but despite this, all the people of the regiment were under the influence of the same mood. All the people of the regiment were equally silent and gloomy. Rarely was a conversation heard between the rows, but this conversation fell silent every time a blow was heard and a cry: “Stretcher!” Most of the time, the people of the regiment, by order of their superiors, sat on the ground. Some, having taken off their shako, carefully unraveled and reassembled the assemblies; who used dry clay, spreading it in his palms, and polished his bayonet; who kneaded the belt and tightened the buckle of the sling; who carefully straightened and refolded the hems and changed his shoes. Some built houses from Kalmyk arable land or wove wickerwork from stubble straw. Everyone seemed quite immersed in these activities. When people were wounded and killed, when stretchers were being pulled, when ours were returning, when large masses of enemies were visible through the smoke, no one paid any attention to these circumstances. When the artillery and cavalry passed forward, the movements of our infantry were visible, approving remarks were heard from all sides. But the events that deserved the most attention were completely extraneous events that had nothing to do with the battle. It was as if the attention of these morally tormented people rested on these ordinary, everyday events. An artillery battery passed in front of the regiment's front. In one of the artillery boxes, the tie-down line came into place. “Hey, the tie-down!.. Straighten it! It will fall... Eh, they can’t see it!.. - they shouted from the ranks equally throughout the entire regiment. Another time, everyone’s attention was drawn to a small brown dog with a firmly raised tail, which, God knows where it came from, ran out in front of the ranks at an anxious trot and suddenly squealed from a cannonball that struck close and, with its tail between its legs, rushed to the side. Cackling and squeals were heard throughout the regiment. But entertainment of this kind lasted minutes, and people had been standing for more than eight hours without food and without anything to do under the persistent horror of death, and their pale and frowning faces became increasingly paler and frowning.
Prince Andrei, just like all the people of the regiment, frowning and pale, walked back and forth across the meadow near the oat field from one boundary to another, with his hands folded back and his head bowed. There was nothing for him to do or order. Everything happened by itself. The dead were dragged behind the front, the wounded were carried, the ranks closed. If the soldiers ran away, they immediately returned hastily. At first, Prince Andrei, considering it his duty to arouse the courage of the soldiers and show them an example, walked along the ranks; but then he became convinced that he had nothing and nothing to teach them. All the strength of his soul, just like that of every soldier, was unconsciously directed towards restraining himself from merely contemplating the horror of the situation in which they were. He walked through the meadow, dragging his feet, scratching the grass and observing the dust that covered his boots; either he walked with long strides, trying to follow the tracks left by the mowers across the meadow, then he, counting his steps, made calculations of how many times he had to walk from boundary to boundary to make a mile, then he purged the wormwood flowers growing on the boundary, and I rubbed these flowers in my palms and sniffed the fragrant, bitter, strong smell. From all yesterday's work of thought there was nothing left. He didn't think about anything. He listened with tired ears to the same sounds, distinguishing the whistling of flights from the roar of shots, looked at the closer faces of the people of the 1st battalion and waited. “Here she is... this one is coming to us again! - he thought, listening to the approaching whistle of something from the closed area of ​​​​smoke. - One, another! More! Got it... He stopped and looked at the rows. “No, it was postponed. But this one hit.” And he began to walk again, trying to take long steps in order to reach the boundary in sixteen steps.
Whistle and blow! Five steps away from him, the dry ground exploded and the cannonball disappeared. An involuntary chill ran down his spine. He looked again at the rows. A lot of people probably vomited; a large crowd gathered at the 2nd battalion.
“Mr. Adjutant,” he shouted, “order not to crowd.” - The adjutant, having carried out the order, approached Prince Andrei. From the other side, the battalion commander rode up on horseback.
- Be careful! - a frightened cry of a soldier was heard, and, like a bird whistling in rapid flight, crouching on the ground, two steps from Prince Andrei, next to the battalion commander’s horse, a grenade quietly plopped down. The horse was the first, without asking whether it was good or bad to express fear, snorted, reared up, almost toppling the major, and galloped away to the side. The horror of the horse was communicated to people.
- Get down! - shouted the voice of the adjutant, who lay down on the ground. Prince Andrei stood indecisive. The grenade, like a top, smoking, spun between him and the lying adjutant, on the edge of the arable land and meadow, near the wormwood bush.
“Is this really death? - thought Prince Andrey, looking with a completely new, envious gaze at the grass, at the wormwood and at the stream of smoke curling from the spinning black ball. “I can’t, I don’t want to die, I love life, I love this grass, earth, air...” He thought this and at the same time remembered that they were looking at him.
- Shame on you, Mr. Officer! - he told the adjutant. “What...” he didn’t finish. At the same time, an explosion was heard, the whistling of fragments as if of a broken frame, the stuffy smell of gunpowder - and Prince Andrei rushed to the side and, raising his hand up, fell on his chest.

(plural) mamalik, Arab) literally “owned”, “owned”, “slave”, a slave bought or transferred as part of a tax or tribute, but not a slave by birth. In the Qur'an (16:75-77) this term is mentioned once as "bonded slave". In 9-11 centuries. the words "Mamluk" and "Ghulam" were used as synonyms in relation to white slaves. From the 13th century Mamluks were slave warriors who served in special units of the army and could reach high positions. In Egypt they came to power in the mid-13th century. and ruled until the beginning of the 16th century.

The Fatimids (9691171) and Ayyubids (11711250), who ruled before the Mamluks, being strangers in Egypt, relied on their guard (Mamluks), consisting of slaves of different nationalities. For exemplary service, the Mamluks received land plots as a gift, which over time allowed them to turn into large landowners.

The Mamluks are divided into two dynasties, whose names arose from the location of their barracks. The name of the first dynasty “Bakhrits” (1250-1390) is associated with the island of ar-Rawda on the Nile. The Nile was often called in the past al-bahr(Arabic for "sea"). The island originally housed a guard barracks. The second dynasty of Mamluk sultans “Burjits” (13821517) was named after the citadel ( al-Burj, in Egyptian pronunciation burg) Cairo, in which Sultan Kala'un (12801290) settled his guard. The Burjite Mamluks were not related by kinship, but were only united by belonging to one group. The entire period of their reign, the sultans replenished their army with new Mamluks - Turks and Caucasians.

The division into dynasties itself is arbitrary, but it is believed that ethnically the Bakhrits were mainly from the southern Russian steppes - Kipchaks (Cumans), as well as Mongols and Kurds.

Among the Burjits, natives of the Caucasus predominated. In the Middle East, it is customary to call all the small peoples of the Caucasus Circassians, but this name ( al-sharakis) called not only Circassians, but also Circassians, Karachais, etc. Among the Burjit Mamluks there were also immigrants from Georgia.

The Mamluks gradually rose to the position of the dominant stratum of feudal society, and in 1250, after civil strife began between members of the Ayyubid clan, the heirs of Salah ad-Din, they carried out a palace coup, putting their sultan Muizz Aybek (1250-1257) in power.

However, the list of Bahri Mamluks begins with the woman's name Shajar ad-Durr (in Egyptian pronunciation Shaggar ad-Durr, meaning "tree of pearls"). She was the widow of al-Malik al-Salih ad-din Ayyub (eldest son of the fifth Ayyubid sultan al-Malik al-Kamil (12181238)). After the death of Sultan al-Salih, Turan Shah, his son from his first marriage, urgently returned to Egypt. Until his return, it was Shajatat al-Durr who ruled Egypt.

The behavior of Turan Shah, his violent temper, his constant insults and humiliation of his subjects aroused the discontent of the highest ranks of the Mamluks and the hatred of the Mamluk guard; after another scandal he was killed. Shajar ad-Durr was proclaimed Sultana. Her power lasted only 80 days, since the top of the Mamluks did not want to obey a woman. Shajar al-Durr was asked to marry Aibak, the Mamluk commander-in-chief. She obeyed, but, despising her husband, firmly held the reins of power in her hands.

The history of Shajar al-Durr's removal from power is extremely complicated. Personal motives played an important role: Shajar ad-Durr forced Aibak to divorce his first wife, and after some time, when he wanted to marry another woman, she ordered him to be killed. She was put under house arrest, but Aibek’s first wife invited her to the bathhouse, where Muslim women went not only for hygiene, but also for spending time. It was here that the maids of the offended wife beat Shajar ad-Durr to death with their wooden shoes ( kab-kab) until death.

Historians also name other reasons for the removal of the sultana: enmity between the Mamluks of different emirs, popular unrest and intrigues of the last Ayyubids.

Subsequent rulers from among the Mamluk emirs constantly competed with each other. But they were excellent warriors and successfully defended Egypt from an external enemy. They prevented the Mongols from reaching the borders of Egypt and saved Cairo from the fate of Syrian cities that were devastated by Hulagu’s troops. In 1260, the Mamluk Sultan al-Muzaffar Sayf ad-din Qutuz (1259-1260) inflicted a crushing defeat on the Mongols in Syria (at Ain Jalut), but in the same year he was killed as a result of a conspiracy by his rivals.

Sultan al-Zahir Rukn ad-din Baybars I al-Bundukdari (12601277) who replaced him continued his policy and twice won battles with the Mongols in Syria. Baybars managed to unite Syria and Egypt. He rebuilt a number of fortifications, replenished weapons and ammunition depots, created a large fleet, and established regular postal communications. Following this, he turned his energies against the crusaders. He took Caesarea (1265), Jaffa and Antioch (1268) from them.

Fighting with the crusaders, he entered into an alliance with the assassins ( cm. Also ISMAILI) and the emirs of the Syrian cities of Homs and Hama. He managed to significantly reduce the possessions of the Crusaders on the Syrian coast. The loss of lands that the crusaders paid taxes significantly weakened the strength of the knights; as a result, Baybars managed to capture the largest stronghold of the crusaders, the fortress of Krak des Chevaliers (1271). In accordance with the concluded agreement, the crusaders, in exchange for their lives, were forced to leave several more fortresses on the coast. See also CRUSADES.

Under Baybars, a strict system of government was created, thanks to which Egypt gained stability. But as a ruler, he was extremely strict and quickly dealt with his subjects at the slightest offense. Concerned about the prosperity of his state, he even tried to force the Bedouins of Upper Egypt to switch to settled land use.

In 1279, Sultan Kala'un, nicknamed “alfi” (Arabic for “thousand”), came to power, since he had once been bought for 1000 dinars. This man, who spoke little Arabic, spent almost all the years of his reign in the military campaigns outside Egypt. His only son (from the Mongol princess Aslun Khatun), who ruled with a break in 12941295 and 12991309, was famous for his cruelty and fanatical adherence to Islamic morality. The oppression of the Christian population of Cairo began under him.

Under the Mamluks the army was transformed. According to some researchers, the Egyptian military hierarchy was greatly influenced by the Mongol order. The structure of the standing army became clearer: emirs (chiefs) of hundreds, forty, ten and five Mamluks appeared. 2/3 of the income was allocated for the maintenance of the Mamluks Ikta(from the Arabic verb act"a cut off, endow; transfer by the state of the right to receive taxes from a certain territory) to the emir, while under the Ayyubids the amount of their provision was decided by the emir himself.

A characteristic feature of the social system of Mamluk Egypt was the presence of slavery. The main source of slaves until the end of the 13th century. there were wars with the crusaders. Slaves came as war booty or were purchased at markets. In particular, as a result of the capture of the island of Cyprus (1426), many Cypriots ended up in Egypt. Slave artisans were especially valued, thanks to whom craft production was enriched with specialists. Historians note the rise of economic prosperity and the flowering of culture and art in Egypt during the Mamluk era, especially in such fields as architecture, pottery and metalworking, and textiles.

Mamluk Egypt traded with many countries, including Muscovy. “The city of Mysr (as both Egypt and Cairo are called O.B.) great,” wrote the Russian monk Barsanuphius, who visited Cairo in 1461. A river from paradise flows near it the golden-flowing Nile. The city is two miles across and twelve miles long.”

During the period of Mamluk rule, two of the greatest historians of that time lived and worked in Egypt: al-Maqrizi (1364–1442) and Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406). The latter was a judge under Sultan al-Zahir Sayf ad-din Barquq (reigned in 13821389 and again in 13901399). The English writer and public figure James Aldridge believed that the work of Ibn Khaldun Prolegomena, which dealt with social problems (for example, he considered the influence of tools and means of production on the historical process), stands much higher than the writings of Machiavelli, who was born a hundred years later. And to this day not a single historian of Cairo can do without the works of Al-Makrizi. Thanks to them, it is known that at the beginning of the 15th century. (under the Burjit Mamluks) in Cairo there were 11 caravanserais, 23 kaisariyas (large markets), 50 souks (small markets), 11 hippodromes. Among the works of Al-Maqrizi there is a book The road to understanding the royal dynasties, in which he writes about holidays and ceremonies in Cairo, about the clothing and weapons of emirs and troops.

The Mamluks had a complex hierarchical system. Among the Bahrits, the family principle of inheritance of power generally prevailed, and among the Burjits, hereditary succession of power was not allowed. Instead, according to the English orientalist C.E. Bosworth, there was something like the ancient Turkic system of lordship. Slave status was an important condition for advancement through the ranks. The power of the Sultan was limited by the top of the Mamluks and the bureaucratic apparatus, and the instability of the Sultanate was evidenced by the rapid change of rulers. Thus, during the 140 years of rule of the Mamluk-Bahrits, 29 sultans were replaced. One of them, an-Nasir Muhammad ibn Qala'un, came to power three times.

By the end of the 13th century. cities on the Syrian-Palestinian coast were liberated from the crusaders, thanks to which the Mamluks acquired great fame throughout the Muslim world as crushers of Christians and pagan Mongols. Now their possessions extended in the west to Cyrenaica (modern Libya), in the south to Nubia (Sudan), and in the north to the Taurus Mountains. The holy cities of Mecca and Medina in Arabia were also under their protection.

Under the Bahrits, Cairo was famous for its doctors - ophthalmologists (who even then treated cataracts), surgeons, gynecologists and even veterinarians who treated horses. However, F. Hitti, a historian of the Muslim Middle Ages, wrote that the rule of the Circassian (Burjit) Mamluks was “one of the darkest pages in the history of Syria and Egypt.”

The decline of the Mamluk era began already at the end of the 15th century, when Egypt was experiencing a deep political and economic crisis. At this time, the sea route from Europe to India around the Cape of Good Hope was opened. Portuguese merchants began, bypassing Cairo, to bring goods to Europe several times cheaper than those transported through Egypt. Already by 1502 trade in Cairo had fallen into decline. Venice, which previously (together with Egypt) held a monopoly on trade between the West and the East, also suffered damage from the new path. In Suez, the Egyptians, with the help of the Venetians, built a fleet and in 1508 defeated the Portuguese near Bombay. However, a year later, events took a different turn, and the Mamluk fleet was completely defeated at Diu.

In 1516, at the Battle of Marj Dabiq near Aleppo, the last truly significant, but already elderly Mamluk Sultan Kansukh al-Ghuri was killed (according to another version, he took poison). He was elected Sultan when he was already 60 years old. Despite his authority, he was not an outstanding military leader. Ottoman troops under the leadership of Sultan Selim I Yavuz (Selim the Terrible (15121520)) used their artillery (which at that time was considered the best in the world) and firearms, which provided them with an advantage. In addition, anti-government sentiments were strong among the subjects of the Mamluk Sultan. The soldiers did not want to fight, saying that they were ready to fight against the Europeans, but not against the Muslim Turks. And the Turks played a diplomatic game until the last moment, supporting the Mamluks’ hope of avoiding an armed conflict. After the defeat of the Mamluk army, the residents of Aleppo (Aleppo) and other Syrian cities themselves expelled the Mamluk garrisons and surrendered to the Ottoman troops.

On January 22, 1517, the Turkish Sultan Selim entered Cairo and hanged the last Mamluk ruler, Tuman Bey, at the city gates. After the conquest of Egypt by the Ottomans, the Mamluks remained as the military-feudal elite of the country. The Pasha, appointed from Istanbul, ruled with the help of the Mamluk emirs not only in Egypt, but also in Syria and Iraq.

In 1805, the Turkish governor Muhammad Ali (1769-1849) exterminated the entire Mamluk elite by cunning. Kindly received by the Ottoman pasha, more than 400 emirs were returning from the palace to the citadel along a narrow passage between the walls, when the gates were unexpectedly closed in front of them and the massacre began.

Cairo has preserved magnificent monuments of Mamluk architecture, giving an idea of ​​medieval Cairo. Among them are several dozen mosques. At the end of the 13th century. A complex of Sultan Qalaun was built, consisting of a mosque, a mausoleum, a maristan (hospital) and a madrasah (theological school). At the same time (12671269) the Baybars al-Bundukdari mosque was built. But the most famous buildings of the Mamluk period are the mosque, mausoleum and madrasah of Sultan Nasir ad-din al-Hasan, built in 1356-1363, which is distinguished by the exceptional beauty of its interior decoration. No less original is the mosque of al-Muayyad Sayf ad-din, created in 1415-1420. All facades of this building are decorated with niches with stalactites. Some of the monuments of the Mamluk period are decorated with heraldic signs, which were probably borrowed by the Mamluks from the Crusaders. In particular, on buildings built during the reign of Baybars I, you can see the image of two lions.

Olga Bibikova

Semenova L.A. Salah ad-Din and the Mamluks in Egypt. M., publishing house "Nauka", 1966
Aldridge. J. Cairo. M., Publishing House "Young Guard". 1970
Bosworth K.E. Muslim dynasties. M., Publishing house "Nauka", 1977
Zaborov M.A. Crusaders in the East. M., publishing house "Nauka", 1980
Uchok, Bahrie. Women rulers in Muslim states. M., Publishing house "Nauka", 1982

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The Mamluks are a unique, civilizational and international phenomenon, and, of course, very interesting.
In Egypt, many legends, traditions, real historical events and architectural monuments are associated with them. Who are the Mamluks? Nationality? No. Estate? No. Political party? No. And at the same time, this is a class, a political party, a profession, a social status, and even a family.
The Mamluks originated as a group of slaves turned into warriors who were bought and trained in the arts of war by the caliphs of Baghdad. The young men accepted Islam, studied Arabic and trained in closed boarding camps for military service. The predecessors of the Mamluks were the Ghulams of the Arab Caliphate. Even the word itself means a slave owned by someone. Also, this concept has become synonymous with military and political power.

At first, all white military slaves, as well as those who were freed, and their descendants were called Mamluks. The liberated Mamluks became high-ranking government officials, large landowners, and achieved the titles of bey and even sultan.
The actual supreme power in Egypt belonged to the Mamluks for less than three hundred years, but their influence on politics was felt until the 19th century. Thus, the traces and history of the Mamluks in Egypt stretch back seven centuries, and therefore without this it is difficult to understand the formation of Egyptian statehood as a whole.
There were two ways to become a Mamluk. Warriors bought boy slaves from the Caucasus, the Black Sea region, the Caspian region, Central Asia and the Urals to replenish their troops, or the future Mamluks themselves came to Egypt, having learned about the successes of their fellow tribesmen. They necessarily underwent special training in the art of war in schools owned by the emirs. The Sultan's school in Cairo was considered the best place.
Students of Mamluk schools had diaries where mentors noted the successes and failures of their students. At the end of school, the future fate of the slave depended on these records: if he studied well, was diligent and successfully passed the final tests, he received the right to become a freedman, grow a beard, start a family, and buy land. If the future Mamluk studied poorly, then he remained a slave.
At school, the Mamluks studied Arabic and Turkish, military art, and cavalry skills. Particular attention was paid to archery and the art of wielding a saber. They despised firearms, considering them unworthy of real warriors. This position led to their collapse when the Mavluks entered into battle with the Ottoman army armed with cannons and muskets.
The highest title of a Mamluk is emir. There were emirs of ten, emirs of forty, emirs of hundreds, who during the war commanded thousands of units. The emirs constituted the top of Mamluk society. Titles and positions among the Mamluks were not inherited, but were awarded for personal merit and, in rare cases, purchased. Therefore, everyone had to prove their right to power and wealth.
The school and the house of the elder Mamluk replaced the boys’ families. This is how loyalty to the Mamluk corporation and loyalty to the principles of the Mamluks and the head of the house was fostered. Growing up, the young Mamluk was obliged to buy slaves himself and expand the number of the so-called corporation. This is how clans and families appeared, which were called “houses”. In the center of the house were grouped blood relatives, their own Mamluks and freedmen, who owed everything to the head of the house.
However, over time, the Mamluks split into two large groups, which alternately seized power in Egypt. At first these were the Bahri Mamluks, “living by the river”, people from Turkic tribes and the Middle East. They had a long history and served as caliphs of Baghdad, while the rest of the country's population was mobilized into the army only in case of war.
Then the Burji Mamluks, “living in a tower,” came to power, people from Turkic tribes and the South Russian steppes, including the Volga region, as well as from the Caucasus. The leading positions in this group were occupied by Circassians and Greeks. Their rule is considered softer and more gentle towards the common population compared to the period of power of the Burji Mamluks. It was marked by a large number of unrest and coups.
The Mamluks ruled Egypt for almost three hundred years, and this time was characterized by endless bloody fratricidal feuds, which was a consequence of the lack of the right to inherit power. On the other hand, the Mamluks deeply despised the indigenous inhabitants of the country, imposed huge taxes on them and practically did not take their interests into account.
All these factors gradually led to the fact that the Mamluks found themselves surrounded by hostile states and faced uprisings within the country. They were excellent warriors, but did not know how to unite to solve problems in peacetime. Very soon the inability of the Mamluks to govern the state became obvious to their enemies, primarily to the Ottoman Empire.
Two other factors also played a significant role: the limited human resources of the Mamluks, which was aggravated by the terrible plague epidemic that raged in Egypt for two decades; and the persistent reluctance of the Mamluks to use gunpowder in warfare. Many even say that in the war between the Mamluks and the Ottomans, gunpowder was victorious, which the Mamluks considered a vile weapon, unworthy of a real warrior who fought with a bow, sword and dagger.
And yet, despite the fact that the Mamluks lost supreme power over Egypt, they remained the military aristocracy of the country for another four hundred years, an influential political force that regularly intervened in the course of the country’s history and the fate of its rulers, until Muhammad Ali finally destroyed Mamluks.
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