World War I briefly

About the First World War in brief 1914 - 1918

Pervaya mirovaya vo yna

Beginning of the First World War
Stages of the First World War

Results of the First World War

The First World War, in short, represents one of the largest and most difficult military conflicts of the 20th century.

Causes of military conflict

To understand the causes of the First World War, we need to briefly consider the balance of power in Europe. By the 19th century, three major world powers - the Russian Empire, Great Britain and England had already divided spheres of influence among themselves. Until a certain point, Germany did not strive for a dominant position in Europe; it was more concerned with its economic growth.

But everything changed at the end of the 19th century. Having strengthened economically and militarily, Germany began to urgently need new living space for its growing population and markets for its goods. Colonies were needed, which Germany did not have. To achieve this, it was necessary to begin a new redistribution of the world by defeating the allied bloc of three powers - England, Russia and France.

By the end of the 19th century, Germany's aggressive plans became completely clear to its neighbors. In response to the German threat, the Entente alliance was created, consisting of Russia, France and England, which joined them.

In addition to Germany's desire to win living space and colonies, there were other reasons for the First World War. This issue is so complex that there is still no single point of view on this matter. Each of the main countries participating in the conflict puts forward its own reasons.

The First World War, in short, began due to irreconcilable differences between the countries of the Entente and the Central Alliance, primarily between Great Britain and Germany. Other states also had their own claims against each other.

Another reason for the war is the choice of the path of development of society. And here again two points of view collided - Western European and Central-South European.
Could the war have been avoided? All sources unanimously say that it is possible if the leadership of the countries participating in the conflict really wanted this. Germany was most interested in the war, for which it was fully prepared, and made every effort to get it started.

Main participants

The war was fought between the two largest political blocs at that time - the Entente and the Central Bloc (formerly the Triple Alliance). The Entente included the Russian Empire, England and France. The central block consisted of the following countries: Austria-Hungary, Germany, Italy. The latter later joined the Entente, and the Triple Alliance included Bulgaria and Türkiye.
In total, 38 countries took part in the First World War, briefly speaking.

Reason for war

The beginning of the military conflict was associated with the assassination of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo. The killer was a member of the Yugoslav revolutionary youth organization.

Beginning of the war 1914

This event was enough for Austria-Hungary to start a war with Serbia. At the beginning of July, the Austrian authorities announced that Serbia was behind the assassination of the Archduke and put forward an ultimatum that could not be fulfilled. Serbia, however, agrees to all of his conditions except one. Germany, which desperately needed war, stubbornly pushed Austria-Hungary to declare war. At this time, all three countries are mobilizing.
July 28, Austria-Hungary announces Serbia’s failure to comply with the terms of the ultimatum, begins shelling the capital and sends troops into its territory. Nicholas II calls in a telegram from William I for a peaceful resolution of the situation through the Hague Conference. The German authorities are silent in response.
On July 31, Germany announced an ultimatum to Russia and demanded an end to mobilization, and on August 1, an official declaration of war came.
It must be said that none of the participants in these events imagined that the war, which was planned to end within a few months, would drag on for more than 4 years.

Progress of the war

It is simpler and more convenient to divide the course of the war into five periods, according to the years during which it lasted.
1914 - military operations unfolded on the Western (France) and Eastern (Prussia, Russia) fronts, the Balkans and the colonies (Oceania, Africa and China). Germany quickly captured Belgium and Luxembourg, and launched an offensive against France. Russia led a successful offensive in Prussia. In general, in 1914, none of the countries managed to fully implement their plans.
1915 - Fierce fighting took place on the Western Front, where France and Germany desperately sought to turn the situation in their favor. On the Eastern Front, the situation changed for the worse for Russian troops. Due to supply problems, the army began to retreat, losing Galicia and Poland.
1916 - during this period, the bloodiest battle took place on the Western Front - Verdun, during which more than a million people died. Russia, trying to help the allies and draw back the forces of the German army, launched a successful counteroffensive - the Brusilov breakthrough.
1917 - success of the Entente troops. The USA joins them. Russia, as a result of revolutionary events, is actually leaving the war.
1918 - Russia concluded peace with Germany on extremely unfavorable and difficult terms. The remaining allies of Germany make peace with the Entente countries. Germany is left alone and in November 1918 agrees to surrender.

Results of the war 1918

Before World War II, this military conflict was the most widespread, affecting almost the entire globe. The shocking number of victims (taking into account the loss of military and civilian casualties, as well as the wounded) is about 80 million people. During the 5 years of war, empires such as the Ottoman, Russian, German and Austro-Hungarian collapsed.

Both sides pursued aggressive goals. Germany sought to weaken Great Britain and France, seize new colonies on the African continent, tear Poland and the Baltic states away from Russia, Austria-Hungary - to establish itself on the Balkan Peninsula, Great Britain and France - to retain their colonies and weaken Germany as a competitor in the world market, Russia - to seize Galicia and take possession of the Black Sea straits.

Reasons

Intending to go to war against Serbia, Austria-Hungary secured German support. The latter believed that the war would become local if Russia did not defend Serbia. But if it provides assistance to Serbia, then Germany will be ready to fulfill its treaty obligations and support Austria-Hungary. In an ultimatum presented to Serbia on July 23, Austria-Hungary demanded that its military units be allowed into Serbia in order to, together with Serbian forces, suppress hostile actions. The answer to the ultimatum was given within the agreed 48-hour period, but it did not satisfy Austria-Hungary, and on July 28 it declared war on Serbia. On July 30, Russia announced general mobilization; Germany used this occasion to declare war on Russia on August 1, and on France on August 3. Following the German invasion of Belgium on 4 August, Great Britain declared war on Germany. Now all the great powers of Europe were drawn into the war. Together with them, their dominions and colonies were involved in the war.

Progress of the war

1914

The war consisted of five campaigns. During the First Campaign, Germany invaded Belgium and northern France, but was defeated at the Battle of the Marne. Russia captured parts of East Prussia and Galicia (East Prussian Operation and Battle of Galicia), but was then defeated by the German and Austro-Hungarian counter-offensive. As a result, there was a transition from maneuvering to positional forms of combat.

1915

Italy, the disruption of the German plan to withdraw Russia from the war and bloody, inconclusive battles on the Western Front.

During this campaign, Germany and Austria-Hungary, concentrating their main efforts on the Russian front, carried out the so-called Gorlitsky breakthrough and ousted Russian troops from Poland and parts of the Baltic states, but were defeated in the Vilna operation and were forced to switch to positional defense.

On the Western Front, both sides fought a strategic defense. Private operations (at Ypres, Champagne and Artois) were unsuccessful, despite the use of poison gases.

On the Southern Front, Italian troops launched an unsuccessful operation against Austria-Hungary on the Isonzo River. German-Austrian troops managed to defeat Serbia. Anglo-French troops successfully carried out the Thessaloniki operation in Greece, but were unable to capture the Dardanelles. On the Transcaucasian front, Russia, as a result of the Alashkert, Hamadan and Sarykamysh operations, reached the approaches to Erzurum.

1916

The city's campaign is associated with the entry of Romania into the war and the waging of a grueling positional war on all fronts. Germany again turned its efforts against France, but was unsuccessful at the Battle of Verdun. The operations of the Anglo-French troops on Somna were also unsuccessful, despite the use of tanks.

On the Italian front, Austro-Hungarian troops launched the Trentino offensive, but were driven back by a counter-offensive by Italian troops. On the Eastern Front, troops of the Southwestern Russian Front carried out a successful operation in Galicia on a wide front stretching up to 550 km (Brusilovsky breakthrough) and advanced 60-120 km, occupied the eastern regions of Austria-Hungary, which forced the enemy to transfer up to 34 divisions to this front from the Western and Italian fronts.

The decisive Battle of Jutland took place on the Baltic Sea. As a result of the campaign, conditions were created for the Entente to seize the strategic initiative.

1917

The city's campaign is associated with the entry of the United States into the war, Russia's revolutionary exit from the war and the conduct of a number of successive offensive operations on the Western Front (Nivelle's operation, operations in the Messines area, Ypres, near Verdun, and Cambrai). These operations, despite the use of large forces of artillery, tanks and aviation, practically did not change the general situation in the Western European theater of military operations. In the Atlantic at this time, Germany launched an unrestricted submarine war, during which both sides suffered heavy losses.

1918

The campaign was characterized by a transition from positional defense to a general offensive by the Entente armed forces. First, Germany launched the Allied March offensive in Picardy and private operations in Flanders and on the Aisne and Marne rivers. But due to lack of strength, they did not develop.

From the second half of the year, with the entry of the United States into the war, the Allies prepared and launched retaliatory offensive operations (Amiens, Saint-Miel, Marne), during which they eliminated the results of the German offensive, and in September they launched a general offensive, forcing Germany to surrender ( Truce of Compiegne).

Results

The final terms of the peace treaty were worked out at the Paris Conference of 1919-1920. ; During the sessions, agreements regarding five peace treaties were determined. After its completion, the following were signed: 1) the Treaty of Versailles with Germany on June 28; 2) Saint-Germain Peace Treaty with Austria on September 10, 1919; 3) Neuilly Peace Treaty with Bulgaria on November 27; 4) Trianon Peace Treaty with Hungary on June 4; 5) Treaty of Sèvres with Turkey on August 20. Subsequently, according to the Treaty of Lausanne on July 24, 1923, changes were made to the Treaty of Sèvres.

As a result of the First World War, the German, Russian, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires were liquidated. Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire were divided, and Russia and Germany, ceasing to be monarchies, were reduced territorially and economically weakened. Revanchist sentiments in Germany led to World War II. The First World War accelerated the development of social processes and was one of the prerequisites that led to revolutions in Russia, Germany, Hungary, and Finland. As a result, a new military-political situation in the world was created.

In total, World War I lasted 51 months and 2 weeks. Covered the territories of Europe, Asia and Africa, the waters of the Atlantic, North, Baltic, Black and Mediterranean seas. This is the first military conflict on a global scale, in which 38 of the 59 independent states that existed at that time were involved. Two-thirds of the world's population took part in the war. The number of warring armies exceeded 37 million people. The total number of people mobilized into the armed forces was about 70 million. The length of the fronts was up to 2.5-4 thousand km. The casualties of the parties amounted to about 9.5 million killed and 20 million wounded.

During the war, new types of troops were developed and widely used: aviation, armored forces, anti-aircraft troops, anti-tank weapons, and submarine forces. New forms and methods of armed struggle began to be used: army and front-line operations, breaking through front fortifications. New strategic categories have emerged: operational deployment of the armed forces, operational cover, border battles, initial and subsequent periods of the war.

Materials used

• Dictionary "War and Peace in Terms and Definitions", First World War
• Encyclopedia "Around the World"

To thoroughly understand how the First World War (1914-1918) began, you must first become familiar with the political situation that developed in Europe at the beginning of the 20th century. The prehistory of the global military conflict was the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871). It ended with the complete defeat of France, and the confederate union of German states was transformed into the German Empire. Wilhelm I became its head on January 18, 1871. Thus, a powerful power emerged in Europe with a population of 41 million people and an army of almost 1 million soldiers.

Political situation in Europe at the beginning of the 20th century

At first, the German Empire did not strive for political dominance in Europe, since it was economically weak. But over the course of 15 years, the country gained strength and began to claim a more worthy place in the Old World. Here it must be said that politics is always determined by the economy, and German capital had very few markets. This can be explained by the fact that Germany in its colonial expansion was hopelessly behind Great Britain, Spain, Belgium, France, and Russia.

Map of Europe by 1914. Germany and its allies are shown in brown. Entente countries are shown in green.

It is also necessary to take into account the small area of ​​the state, whose population was growing rapidly. It required food, but there was not enough of it. In a word, Germany gained strength, but the world was already divided, and no one was going to voluntarily give up the promised lands. There was only one way out - to take away the tasty morsels by force and provide a decent, prosperous life for your capital and people.

The German Empire did not hide its ambitious claims, but it could not resist England, France and Russia alone. Therefore, in 1882, Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy formed a military-political bloc (Triple Alliance). Its consequences were the Moroccan crises (1905-1906, 1911) and the Italo-Turkish War (1911-1912). It was a test of strength, a rehearsal for a more serious and large-scale military conflict.

In response to increasing German aggression in 1904-1907, a military-political bloc of Cordial Concord (Entente) was formed, which included England, France and Russia. Thus, at the beginning of the 20th century, two powerful military forces emerged in Europe. One of them, led by Germany, sought to expand its living space, and the other force tried to counteract these plans in order to protect its economic interests.

Germany's ally, Austria-Hungary, represented a hotbed of instability in Europe. It was a multinational country, which constantly provoked interethnic conflicts. In October 1908, Austria-Hungary annexed Herzegovina and Bosnia. This caused sharp discontent in Russia, which had the status of protector of the Slavs in the Balkans. Russia was supported by Serbia, which considered itself the unifying center of the South Slavs.

A tense political situation was observed in the Middle East. The Ottoman Empire, which once dominated here, began to be called the “sick man of Europe” at the beginning of the 20th century. And therefore, stronger countries began to lay claim to its territory, which provoked political disagreements and local wars. All of the above information has given a general idea of ​​the background to the global military conflict, and now it’s time to find out how the First World War began.

Assassination of Archduke Ferdinand and his wife

The political situation in Europe was heating up every day and by 1914 it had reached its peak. All that was needed was a small push, a pretext for unleashing a global military conflict. And soon such an opportunity presented itself. It went down in history as the Sarajevo murder, and it happened on June 28, 1914.

Assassination of Archduke Ferdinand and his wife Sophia

On that ill-fated day, Gavrilo Princip (1894-1918), a member of the nationalist organization Mlada Bosna (Young Bosnia), killed the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand (1863-1914) and his wife Countess Sofia Chotek (1868-1914). “Mlada Bosna” advocated the liberation of Bosnia and Herzegovina from the rule of Austria-Hungary and was ready to use any methods for this, including terrorism.

The Archduke and his wife arrived in the capital of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Sarajevo, at the invitation of the Austro-Hungarian governor, General Oscar Potiorek (1853-1933). Everyone knew about the arrival of the crowned couple in advance, and members of Mlada Bosna decided to kill Ferdinand. For this purpose, a battle group of 6 people was created. It consisted of young people, natives of Bosnia.

Early on the morning of Sunday, June 28, 1914, the crowned couple arrived in Sarajevo by train. She was met on the platform by Oscar Potiorek, journalists and an enthusiastic crowd of loyal associates. The arrivals and high-ranking greeters were seated in 6 cars, while the Archduke and his wife found themselves in the third car with the top folded. The motorcade took off and rushed towards the military barracks.

By 10 o'clock the inspection of the barracks was completed, and all 6 cars drove along the Appel embankment to the city hall. This time the car with the crowned couple was the second in the motorcade. At 10:10 a.m. the moving cars caught up with one of the terrorists named Nedeljko Chabrinovic. This young man threw a grenade, aiming at the car with the Archduke. But the grenade hit the convertible top, flew under the third car and exploded.

Detention of Gavrilo Princip, who killed Archduke Ferdinand and his wife

The driver of the car was killed by shrapnel, passengers were injured, as well as people who were near the car at that moment. A total of 20 people were injured. The terrorist himself swallowed potassium cyanide. However, it did not give the desired effect. The man vomited, and he jumped into the river to escape the crowd. But the river in that place turned out to be very shallow. The terrorist was dragged ashore, and angry people brutally beat him. After this, the crippled conspirator was handed over to the police.

After the explosion, the motorcade increased speed and reached the city hall without incident. There, a magnificent reception awaited the crowned couple, and, despite the assassination attempt, the official part took place. At the end of the celebration, it was decided to curtail the further program due to the emergency situation. It was decided only to go to the hospital to visit the wounded there. At 10:45 a.m. the cars started moving again and drove along Franz Joseph Street.

Another terrorist, Gavrilo Princip, was waiting for the moving motorcade. He was standing outside Moritz Schiller's Deli, next to the Latin Bridge. Seeing the crowned couple sitting in a convertible car, the conspirator stepped forward, caught up with the car and found himself next to it at a distance of only one and a half meters. He shot twice. The first bullet hit Sophia in the stomach, and the second in Ferdinand's neck.

After shooting people, the conspirator tried to poison himself, but, like the first terrorist, he only vomited. Then Princip tried to shoot himself, but people ran up, took the gun away and began beating the 19-year-old man. He was beaten so badly that the killer's arm was amputated in the prison hospital. Subsequently, the court sentenced Gavrilo Princip to 20 years of hard labor, since according to the laws of Austria-Hungary he was a minor at the time of the crime. In prison, the young man was kept in the most difficult conditions and died of tuberculosis on April 28, 1918.

Ferdinand and Sofia, wounded by the conspirator, remained sitting in the car, which rushed to the governor’s residence. There they were going to provide medical assistance to the victims. But the couple died on the way. First, Sofia died, and 10 minutes later Ferdinand gave his soul to God. Thus ended the Sarajevo murder, which became the reason for the outbreak of the First World War.

July crisis

The July Crisis was a series of diplomatic clashes between the leading powers of Europe in the summer of 1914, provoked by the Sarajevo assassination. Of course, this political conflict could have been resolved peacefully, but the powers that be really wanted war. And this desire was based on the confidence that the war would be very short and effective. But it became protracted and claimed more than 20 million human lives.

Funeral of Archduke Ferdinand and his wife Countess Sophia

After the assassination of Ferdinand, Austria-Hungary stated that Serbian state structures were behind the conspirators. At the same time, Germany publicly announced to the whole world that in the event of a military conflict in the Balkans, it would support Austria-Hungary. This statement was made on July 5, 1914, and on July 23, Austria-Hungary issued a harsh ultimatum to Serbia. In particular, in it the Austrians demanded that their police be allowed into the territory of Serbia for investigative actions and punishment of terrorist groups.

The Serbs could not do this and announced mobilization in the country. Literally two days later, on July 26, the Austrians also announced mobilization and began to gather troops to the borders of Serbia and Russia. The final touch in this local conflict was July 28. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia and began shelling Belgrade. After artillery bombardment, Austrian troops crossed the Serbian border.

On July 29, Russian Emperor Nicholas II invited Germany to resolve the Austro-Serbian conflict at the Hague Conference peacefully. But Germany did not respond to this. Then, on July 31, general mobilization was announced in the Russian Empire. In response to this, Germany declared war on Russia on August 1, and war on France on August 3. Already on August 4, German troops entered Belgium, and its king Albert turned to European countries as guarantors of its neutrality.

After this, Great Britain sent a note of protest to Berlin and demanded an immediate end to the invasion of Belgium. The German government ignored the note, and Great Britain declared war on Germany. And the final touch of this general madness came on August 6th. On this day, Austria-Hungary declared war on the Russian Empire. This is how the First World War began.

Soldiers in the First World War

Officially it lasted from July 28, 1914 to November 11, 1918. Military operations took place in Central and Eastern Europe, the Balkans, the Caucasus, the Middle East, Africa, China, and Oceania. Human civilization had never known anything like this before. It was the largest military conflict that shook the state foundations of the leading countries of the planet. After the war, the world became different, but humanity did not grow wiser and by the middle of the 20th century unleashed an even larger massacre that claimed many more lives.

The First World War was the first military conflict on a global scale, in which 38 of the 59 independent states that existed at that time were involved.

The main reason for the war was the contradictions between the powers of two large blocs - the Entente (a coalition of Russia, England and France) and the Triple Alliance (a coalition of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy).

The reason for the outbreak of an armed clash between a member of the Mlada Bosna organization, high school student Gavrilo Princip, during which on June 28 (all dates are given according to the new style) 1914 in Sarajevo, the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife were killed.

On July 23, Austria-Hungary presented an ultimatum to Serbia, in which it accused the country’s government of supporting terrorism and demanded that its military units be allowed into the territory. Despite the fact that the Serbian government's note expressed its readiness to resolve the conflict, the Austro-Hungarian government declared that it was not satisfied and declared war on Serbia. On July 28, hostilities began on the Austro-Serbian border.

On July 30, Russia announced a general mobilization, fulfilling its allied obligations to Serbia. Germany used this occasion to declare war on Russia on August 1, and on August 3 on France, as well as neutral Belgium, which refused to allow German troops through its territory. On August 4, Great Britain and its dominions declared war on Germany, and on August 6, Austria-Hungary declared war on Russia.

In August 1914, Japan joined the hostilities, and in October, Türkiye entered the war on the side of the Germany-Austria-Hungary bloc. In October 1915, Bulgaria joined the bloc of the so-called Central States.

In May 1915, under diplomatic pressure from Great Britain, Italy, which initially took a position of neutrality, declared war on Austria-Hungary, and on August 28, 1916, on Germany.

The main land fronts were the Western (French) and Eastern (Russian) fronts, the main naval theaters of military operations were the North, Mediterranean and Baltic seas.

Military operations began on the Western Front - German troops acted according to the Schlieffen plan, which envisaged an attack by large forces on France through Belgium. However, Germany's hope for a quick defeat of France turned out to be untenable; by mid-November 1914, the war on the Western Front assumed a positional character.

The confrontation took place along a line of trenches stretching about 970 kilometers along the German border with Belgium and France. Until March 1918, any, even minor changes in the front line were achieved here at the cost of huge losses on both sides.

During the maneuverable period of the war, the Eastern Front was located on the strip along the Russian border with Germany and Austria-Hungary, then mainly on the western border strip of Russia.

The beginning of the 1914 campaign on the Eastern Front was marked by the desire of Russian troops to fulfill their obligations to the French and draw back German forces from the Western Front. During this period, two major battles took place - the East Prussian operation and the Battle of Galicia. During these battles, the Russian army defeated the Austro-Hungarian troops, occupied Lviv and pushed the enemy to the Carpathians, blocking the large Austrian fortress of Przemysl.

However, the losses of soldiers and equipment were colossal; due to the underdevelopment of transport routes, reinforcements and ammunition did not arrive in time, so the Russian troops were unable to develop their success.

Overall, the 1914 campaign ended in favor of the Entente. German troops were defeated on the Marne, Austrian troops in Galicia and Serbia, and Turkish troops at Sarykamysh. In the Far East, Japan captured the port of Jiaozhou, the Caroline, Mariana and Marshall Islands, which belonged to Germany, and British troops captured the rest of Germany's possessions in the Pacific Ocean.

Later, in July 1915, British troops, after protracted fighting, captured German South-West Africa (a German protectorate in Africa).

The First World War was marked by the testing of new means of combat and weapons. On October 8, 1914, the first air raid took place: British planes equipped with 20-pound bombs flew into German airship workshops in Friedrichshafen.

After this raid, a new class of aircraft began to be created - bombers.

The large-scale Dardanelles landing operation (1915-1916) ended in defeat - a naval expedition that the Entente countries equipped at the beginning of 1915 with the goal of taking Constantinople, opening the Dardanelles and Bosporus straits for communication with Russia through the Black Sea, withdrawing Turkey from the war and winning over the allies. Balkan states. On the Eastern Front, by the end of 1915, German and Austro-Hungarian troops had driven the Russians out of almost all of Galicia and most of Russian Poland.

On April 22, 1915, during the battles near Ypres (Belgium), Germany used chemical weapons for the first time. After this, poisonous gases (chlorine, phosgene, and later mustard gas) began to be used regularly by both warring parties.

In the 1916 campaign, Germany again shifted its main efforts to the west with the goal of withdrawing France from the war, but a powerful blow to France during the Verdun operation ended in failure. This was largely facilitated by the Russian Southwestern Front, which carried out a breakthrough of the Austro-Hungarian front in Galicia and Volyn. Anglo-French troops launched a decisive offensive on the Somme River, but, despite all efforts and the attraction of enormous forces and resources, they were unable to break through the German defenses. During this operation, the British used tanks for the first time. The largest battle of the war, the Battle of Jutland, took place at sea, in which the German fleet failed. As a result of the military campaign of 1916, the Entente seized the strategic initiative.

At the end of 1916, Germany and its allies first began to talk about the possibility of a peace agreement. The Entente rejected this proposal. During this period, the armies of the states actively participating in the war numbered 756 divisions, twice as many as at the beginning of the war, but they lost the most qualified military personnel. The bulk of the soldiers were elderly reserves and young people on early conscription, poorly prepared in military-technical terms and insufficiently trained physically.

In 1917, two major events radically affected the balance of power of the opponents. On April 6, 1917, the United States, which had long maintained neutrality in the war, decided to declare war on Germany. One of the reasons was an incident off the southeastern coast of Ireland, when a German submarine sank the British liner Lusitania, sailing from the United States to England, which was carrying a large group of Americans, killing 128 of them.

Following the United States in 1917, China, Greece, Brazil, Cuba, Panama, Liberia and Siam also entered the war on the side of the Entente.

The second major change in the confrontation of forces was caused by Russia's withdrawal from the war. On December 15, 1917, the Bolsheviks who came to power signed an armistice agreement. On March 3, 1918, the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty was concluded, according to which Russia renounced its rights to Poland, Estonia, Ukraine, part of Belarus, Latvia, Transcaucasia and Finland. Ardahan, Kars and Batum went to Turkey. In total, Russia lost about one million square kilometers. In addition, she was obliged to pay Germany an indemnity in the amount of six billion marks.

The major battles of the 1917 campaign, Operation Nivelle and Operation Cambrai, demonstrated the value of using tanks in battle and laid the foundation for tactics based on the interaction of infantry, artillery, tanks and aircraft on the battlefield.

On August 8, 1918, in the Battle of Amiens, the German front was torn apart by the Allied forces: entire divisions surrendered almost without a fight - this battle became the last major battle of the war.

On September 29, 1918, after the Entente offensive on the Thessaloniki Front, Bulgaria signed an armistice, Turkey capitulated in October, and Austria-Hungary capitulated on November 3.

Popular unrest began in Germany: on October 29, 1918, in the port of Kiel, the crew of two warships disobeyed and refused to go to sea on a combat mission. Mass revolts began: the soldiers intended to establish councils of soldiers' and sailors' deputies in northern Germany on the Russian model. On November 9, Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated the throne and a republic was proclaimed.

On November 11, 1918, at the Retonde station in the Compiegne Forest (France), the German delegation signed the Compiegne Armistice. The Germans were ordered to liberate the occupied territories within two weeks and establish a neutral zone on the right bank of the Rhine; hand over guns and vehicles to the allies and release all prisoners. The political provisions of the treaty provided for the abolition of the Brest-Litovsk and Bucharest peace treaties, and the financial provisions provided for the payment of reparations for destruction and the return of valuables. The final terms of the peace treaty with Germany were determined at the Paris Peace Conference at the Palace of Versailles on June 28, 1919.

The First World War, which for the first time in human history covered the territories of two continents (Eurasia and Africa) and vast sea areas, radically redrew the political map of the world and became one of the largest and bloodiest. During the war, 70 million people were mobilized into the ranks of the armies; of these, 9.5 million were killed or died from their wounds, more than 20 million were wounded, and 3.5 million were left crippled. The greatest losses were suffered by Germany, Russia, France and Austria-Hungary (66.6% of all losses). The total cost of the war, including property losses, was variously estimated to range from $208 billion to $359 billion.

The material was prepared based on information from RIA Novosti and open sources

Berlin, London, Paris wanted the start of a big war in Europe, Vienna was not against the defeat of Serbia, although they did not particularly want a pan-European war. The reason for the war was given by the Serbian conspirators, who also wanted a war that would destroy the “patchwork” Austro-Hungarian Empire and allow the implementation of plans for the creation of “Greater Serbia”.

On June 28, 1914, in Sarajevo (Bosnia), terrorists kill the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Franz Ferdinand, and his wife Sophia. It is interesting that the Russian Foreign Ministry and Serbian Prime Minister Pasic received a message through their channels about the possibility of such an assassination attempt and tried to warn Vienna. Pasic warned through the Serbian envoy in Vienna, and Russia through Romania.

In Berlin they decided that this was an excellent reason to start a war. Kaiser Wilhelm II, who learned about the terrorist attack at the celebration of Fleet Week in Kiel, wrote in the margins of the report: “Now or never” (the emperor was a fan of loud “historical” phrases). And now the hidden flywheel of war has begun to spin. Although most Europeans believed that this event, like many before (like the two Moroccan crises, two Balkan wars), would not become the detonator of a world war. Moreover, the terrorists were Austrian subjects, not Serbian ones. It should be noted that European society at the beginning of the 20th century was largely pacifist and did not believe in the possibility of a big war; it was believed that people were already “civilized” enough to resolve controversial issues by war, for this there were political and diplomatic tools, only local conflicts were possible.

Vienna had long been looking for a reason to defeat Serbia, which was considered the main threat to the empire, “the engine of pan-Slavic politics.” True, the situation depended on German support. If Berlin puts pressure on Russia and it retreats, then an Austro-Serbian war is inevitable. During negotiations in Berlin on July 5-6, the German Kaiser assured the Austrian side of full support. The Germans probed the mood of the British - the German ambassador told British Foreign Minister Edward Gray that Germany, “taking advantage of Russia’s weakness, considers it necessary not to restrain Austria-Hungary.” Gray avoided answering directly, and the Germans believed that the British would remain on the sidelines. Many researchers believe that in this way London pushed Germany into war; Britain's firm position would have stopped the Germans. Gray informed Russia that “England will take a position favorable to Russia.” On the 9th, the Germans hinted to the Italians that if Rome took a position favorable to the Central Powers, then Italy could receive Austrian Trieste and Trentino. But the Italians avoided a direct answer and, as a result, until 1915 they bargained and waited.

The Turks also began to fuss and began to look for the most profitable scenario for themselves. Naval Minister Ahmed Jemal Pasha visited Paris; he was a supporter of an alliance with the French. Minister of War Ismail Enver Pasha visited Berlin. And the Minister of Internal Affairs, Mehmed Talaat Pasha, left for St. Petersburg. As a result, the pro-German course won.

In Vienna at this time they were coming up with an ultimatum to Serbia, and they tried to include points that the Serbs could not accept. On July 14, the text was approved, and on the 23rd it was handed over to the Serbs. A response had to be given within 48 hours. The ultimatum contained very harsh demands. The Serbs were required to ban printed publications that promoted hatred of Austria-Hungary and the violation of its territorial unity; ban the “Narodna Odbrana” society and all other similar unions and movements conducting anti-Austrian propaganda; remove anti-Austrian propaganda from the education system; dismiss from the military and civil service all officers and officials who were engaged in propaganda directed against Austria-Hungary; assist the Austrian authorities in suppressing movements directed against the integrity of the empire; stop the smuggling and explosives into Austrian territory, arrest border guards involved in such activities, etc.

Serbia was not ready for war; it had just gone through two Balkan wars and was experiencing an internal political crisis. And there was no time to drag out the issue and diplomatic maneuvering. Other politicians also understood this; Russian Foreign Minister Sazonov, having learned about the Austrian ultimatum, said: “This is a war in Europe.”

Serbia began mobilizing the army, and the Serbian Prince Regent Alexander "begged" Russia for assistance. Nicholas II said that all Russian efforts are aimed at avoiding bloodshed, and if war breaks out, Serbia will not be left alone. On the 25th the Serbs responded to the Austrian ultimatum. Serbia agreed to almost all points except one. The Serbian side refused the participation of the Austrians in the investigation of the assassination of Franz Ferdinand on the territory of Serbia, since this affected the sovereignty of the state. Although they promised to conduct an investigation and reported the possibility of transferring the results of the investigation to the Austrians.

Vienna regarded this answer as negative. On July 25, the Austro-Hungarian Empire began a partial mobilization of troops. On the same day, the German Empire began covert mobilization. Berlin demanded that Vienna begin military action against the Serbs immediately.

Other powers tried to intervene to resolve the issue diplomatically. London made a proposal to convene a conference of great powers and peacefully resolve the issue. The British were supported by Paris and Rome, but Berlin refused. Russia and France tried to persuade the Austrians to accept a settlement plan based on Serbian proposals - Serbia was ready to transfer the investigation to the international tribunal in The Hague.

But the Germans had already decided on the issue of war; in Berlin on the 26th they prepared an ultimatum to Belgium, which stated that the French army planned to attack Germany through this country. Therefore, the German army must prevent this attack and occupy Belgian territory. If the Belgian government agreed, the Belgians were promised compensation for the damage after the war; if not, then Belgium was declared an enemy of Germany.

In London there was a struggle between various power groups. Supporters of the traditional policy of “non-intervention” had very strong positions; they were also supported by public opinion. The British wanted to stay out of the pan-European war. The London Rothschilds, linked to the Austrian Rothschilds, financed active propaganda for the laissez faire policy. It is likely that if Berlin and Vienna had directed the main attack against Serbia and Russia, the British would not have intervened in the war. And the world saw the “strange war” of 1914, when Austria-Hungary crushed Serbia, and the German army directed the main blow against the Russian Empire. In this situation, France could conduct a “war of position”, limiting itself to private operations, and Britain could not enter the war at all. London was forced to intervene in the war by the fact that it was impossible to allow the complete defeat of France and German hegemony in Europe. The First Lord of the Admiralty, Churchill, at his own peril and risk, after the completion of the summer fleet maneuvers with the participation of reservists, did not let them go home and kept the ships in concentration, without sending them to their places of deployment.

Russia

Russia at this time behaved extremely cautiously. The Emperor held lengthy meetings for several days with the Minister of War Sukhomlinov, the Minister of the Navy Grigorovich and the Chief of the General Staff Yanushkevich. Nicholas II did not want to provoke a war with the military preparations of the Russian armed forces.
Only preliminary measures were taken: on the 25th the officers were recalled from leave, on the 26th the emperor agreed to preparatory measures for partial mobilization. And only in a few military districts (Kazan, Moscow, Kiev, Odessa). No mobilization was carried out in the Warsaw Military District, because it bordered both Austria-Hungary and Germany. Nicholas II hoped that the war could be stopped, and sent telegrams to “Cousin Willy” (the German Kaiser) asking him to stop Austria-Hungary.

These hesitations in Russia became proof for Berlin that “Russia is now incapable of combat,” that Nikolai is afraid of war. Wrong conclusions were drawn: the German ambassador and military attaché wrote from St. Petersburg that Russia was not planning a decisive offensive, but a gradual retreat, following the example of 1812. The German press wrote about “complete disintegration” in the Russian Empire.

Beginning of the war

On July 28, Vienna declared war on Belgrade. It should be noted that the First World War began with great patriotic enthusiasm. There was general rejoicing in the capital of Austria-Hungary, crowds of people filled the streets, singing patriotic songs. The same sentiments reigned in Budapest (the capital of Hungary). It was a real holiday, women showered the military, who were supposed to defeat the damned Serbs, with flowers and tokens of attention. Back then, people believed that war with Serbia would be a victory walk.

The Austro-Hungarian army was not yet ready for the offensive. But already on the 29th, the ships of the Danube Flotilla and the Zemlin fortress, located opposite the Serbian capital, began shelling Belgrade.

The Reich Chancellor of the German Empire, Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg, sent threatening notes to Paris and St. Petersburg. The French were informed that the military preparations that France was about to begin "forced Germany to declare a state of threat of war." Russia was warned that if the Russians continued military preparations, “then it will hardly be possible to avoid a European war.”

London proposed another settlement plan: the Austrians could occupy part of Serbia as a “collateral” for a fair investigation in which the great powers would take part. Churchill orders the ships to be moved north, away from possible attacks by German submarines and destroyers, and a “preliminary martial law” is introduced in Britain. Although the British still refused to "have their say" even though Paris asked for it.

The government held regular meetings in Paris. The Chief of the French General Staff, Joffre, carried out preparatory measures before the start of full-scale mobilization and proposed bringing the army to full combat readiness and taking up positions on the border. The situation was aggravated by the fact that French soldiers, by law, could go home during the harvest; half the army dispersed to the villages. Joffre reported that the German army would be able to occupy part of French territory without serious resistance. In general, the French government was confused. Theory is one thing, but reality is completely different. The situation was aggravated by two factors: firstly, the British did not give a definite answer; secondly, in addition to Germany, Italy could hit France. As a result, Joffre was allowed to recall the soldiers from leave and mobilize 5 border corps, but at the same time withdraw them from the border 10 kilometers to show that Paris was not going to attack first, and not to provoke a war with any accidental conflict between German and French soldiers.

In St. Petersburg there was also no certainty; there was still hope that a major war could be avoided. After Vienna declared war on Serbia, partial mobilization was announced in Russia. But it turned out to be difficult to implement, because in Russia there were no plans for partial mobilization against Austria-Hungary; there were such plans only against the Ottoman Empire and Sweden. It was believed that separately, without Germany, the Austrians would not risk fighting with Russia. But Russia itself had no intention of attacking the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The Emperor insisted on partial mobilization; the head of the General Staff, Yanushkevich, argued that without the mobilization of the Warsaw Military District, Russia risked missing a powerful blow, because According to intelligence reports, it was here that the Austrians would concentrate their strike force. In addition, if you start an unprepared partial mobilization, this will lead to disruption of railway transportation schedules. Then Nikolai decided not to mobilize at all, but to wait.

The information received was very contradictory. Berlin tried to gain time - the German Kaiser sent encouraging telegrams, reporting that Germany was persuading Austria-Hungary to make concessions, and Vienna seemed to agree. And then a note from Bethmann-Hollweg arrived, a message about the bombing of Belgrade. And Vienna, after a period of hesitation, announced the refusal of negotiations with Russia.

Therefore, on July 30, the Russian emperor gave the order for mobilization. But I canceled it immediately, because... Several peace-loving telegrams arrived from Berlin from “Cousin Willy”, who reported his efforts to induce Vienna to negotiate. Wilhelm asked not to start military preparations, because this will interfere with Germany's negotiations with Austria. Nikolai responded by suggesting that the issue be submitted to the Hague Conference. Russian Foreign Minister Sazonov went to the German Ambassador Pourtales to work out the main points for resolving the conflict.

Then Petersburg received other information. The Kaiser changed his tone to a harsher one. Vienna refused any negotiations; evidence emerged that the Austrians were clearly coordinating their actions with Berlin. There were reports from Germany that military preparations were in full swing there. German ships were transferred from Kiel to Danzig on the Baltic. Cavalry units advanced to the border. And Russia needed 10-20 days more to mobilize its armed forces than Germany. It became clear that the Germans were simply fooling St. Petersburg to gain time.

On July 31, Russia announced mobilization. Moreover, it was reported that as soon as the Austrians cease hostilities and a conference is convened, Russian mobilization will be stopped. Vienna reported that stopping hostilities was impossible and announced a full-scale mobilization directed against Russia. The Kaiser sent a new telegram to Nicholas, in which he said that his peace efforts had become “ghostly” and that it was still possible to stop the war if Russia canceled military preparations. Berlin received a casus belli. And an hour later, Wilhelm II in Berlin, to the enthusiastic roar of the crowd, announced that Germany was “forced to wage war.” Martial law was introduced in the German Empire, which simply legalized previous military preparations (they had been underway for a week).

France was sent an ultimatum on the need to maintain neutrality. The French had to answer within 18 hours whether France would be neutral in the event of a war between Germany and Russia. And as a pledge of “good intentions” they demanded to hand over the border fortresses of Toul and Verdun, which they promised to return after the end of the war. The French were simply stunned by such impudence; the French ambassador in Berlin was even embarrassed to convey the full text of the ultimatum, limiting himself to a demand for neutrality. In addition, in Paris they were afraid of mass unrest and strikes that the left threatened to organize. A plan was prepared according to which they planned, using pre-prepared lists, to arrest socialists, anarchists and all “suspicious” people.

The situation was very difficult. In St. Petersburg, they learned about Germany’s ultimatum to stop mobilization from the German press (!). The German ambassador Pourtales was instructed to deliver it at midnight from July 31 to August 1, the deadline was given at 12 o'clock in order to reduce the scope for diplomatic maneuver. The word "war" was not used. It is interesting that St. Petersburg was not even sure of French support, because... The treaty of alliance was not ratified by the French parliament. And the British suggested that the French wait for “further developments of events”, because the conflict between Germany, Austria and Russia “does not affect the interests of England.” But the French were forced to enter the war, because... The Germans gave no other choice - at 7 o’clock in the morning on August 1, German troops (16th Infantry Division) crossed the border with Luxembourg and occupied the town of Trois Vierges (“Three Virgins”), where the borders and railway communications of Belgium, Germany and Luxembourg converged. In Germany they later joked that the war began with the possession of three maidens.

Paris began a general mobilization on the same day and rejected the ultimatum. Moreover, they haven’t talked about war yet, telling Berlin that “mobilization is not war.” Concerned Belgians (the neutral status of their country was determined by the treaties of 1839 and 1870, Britain was the main guarantor of Belgium's neutrality) asked Germany for clarification about the invasion of Luxembourg. Berlin replied that there was no danger for Belgium.

The French continued to appeal to England, recalling that the English fleet, according to an earlier agreement, should protect the Atlantic coast of France and the French fleet should concentrate in the Mediterranean Sea. During a meeting of the British government, 12 of its 18 members opposed French support. Gray informed the French ambassador that France must make its own decision; Britain was currently unable to provide assistance.

London was forced to reconsider its position because of Belgium, which was a possible springboard against England. The British Foreign Office asked Berlin and Paris to respect Belgium's neutrality. France confirmed the neutral status of Belgium, Germany remained silent. Therefore, the British announced that England could not remain neutral in an attack on Belgium. Although London retained a loophole here, Lloyd George opined that if the Germans did not occupy the Belgian coast, then the violation could be considered “minor.”

Russia offered Berlin to resume negotiations. It is interesting that the Germans were going to declare war in any case, even if Russia accepted the ultimatum to stop mobilization. When the German ambassador presented the note, he gave Sazonov two papers at once; war was declared in both of Russia.

A dispute arose in Berlin - the military demanded to start a war without declaring it, saying that Germany’s opponents, having taken retaliatory actions, would declare war and become “instigators.” And the Reich Chancellor demanded the preservation of the rules of international law, the Kaiser took his side, because loved beautiful gestures - the declaration of war was a historical event. On August 2, Germany officially declared general mobilization and war on Russia. This was the day the implementation of the “Schlieffen Plan” began - 40 German corps were to be transferred to offensive positions. Interestingly, Germany officially declared war on Russia, and troops began to be transferred to the west. On the 2nd Luxembourg was finally occupied. And Belgium was given an ultimatum to allow German troops through; the Belgians had to respond within 12 hours.

The Belgians were shocked. But in the end they decided to defend themselves - they did not believe in the Germans’ assurances to withdraw troops after the war, and they did not intend to ruin good relations with England and France. King Albert called for defense. Although the Belgians had hope that this was a provocation and Berlin would not violate the neutral status of the country.

On the same day England was determined. The French were informed that the British fleet would cover the Atlantic coast of France. And the reason for war would be a German attack on Belgium. A number of ministers who were against this decision resigned. The Italians declared their neutrality.

On August 2, Germany and Türkiye signed a secret agreement, the Turks pledged to side with the Germans. On the 3rd, Türkiye declared neutrality, which was a bluff, given the agreement with Berlin. On the same day, Istanbul began mobilizing reservists aged 23-45, i.e. almost universal.

On August 3, Berlin declared war on France, the Germans accused the French of attacks, “aerial bombings” and even violating “Belgian neutrality.” The Belgians rejected the German ultimatum, Germany declared war on Belgium. On the 4th the invasion of Belgium began. King Albert asked for help from the neutrality guarantor countries. London issued an ultimatum: stop the invasion of Belgium or Great Britain will declare war on Germany. The Germans were outraged and called this ultimatum “racial betrayal.” Upon expiration of the ultimatum, Churchill ordered the fleet to begin hostilities. Thus began the First World War...

Could Russia have prevented the war?

There is an opinion that if St. Petersburg had given Serbia to be torn to pieces by Austria-Hungary, the war could have been prevented. But this is a mistaken opinion. Thus, Russia could only gain time - a few months, a year, two. The war was predetermined by the course of development of the great Western powers and the capitalist system. It was necessary for Germany, the British Empire, France, and the USA, and it would have been started anyway sooner or later. They would have found another reason.

Russia could only change its strategic choice - for whom to fight - at the turn of approximately 1904-1907. At that time, London and the United States openly helped Japan, and France maintained cold neutrality. At that time, Russia could join Germany against the “Atlantic” powers.

Secret intrigues and the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand

Film from the series of documentaries "Russia of the 20th century". The director of the project is Smirnov Nikolai Mikhailovich, military expert-journalist, author of the project “Our Strategy” and the series of programs “Our View. Russian Frontier”. The film was made with the support of the Russian Orthodox Church. Its representative is a specialist in church history Nikolai Kuzmich Simakov. Involved in the film: historians Nikolai Starikov and Pyotr Multatuli, professor of St. Petersburg State University and Herzen State Pedagogical University and Doctor of Philosophy Andrei Leonidovich Vassoevich, chief editor of the national patriotic magazine "Imperial Revival" Boris Smolin, intelligence and counterintelligence officer Nikolai Volkov.

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