April 11th, 2017 admin
From time immemorial, humanity has striven to understand the secrets of space. A. The night sky, dotted with mysterious stars, has always aroused curiosity and inspiration. And the most curious set out to find out the secret of the star bodies. Finding a way to travel to the stars was the main task.
Dreams of the stars
Despite the developing scientific and technological progress, a flight to in the very near future is not feasible. The knowledge that humanity currently possesses is not yet sufficient to “ surf the expanses of the universe" Even the invention of an automatic spacecraft and its launch will not provide the same delight that a person’s personal flight to the stars can provide.
And yet, are there ways for humanity to travel to hidden worlds? Many scientists have thought about this topic and came to the conclusion that theoretically there are several options for implementing this idea.
Heavenly Ark
The Sky Ark is a starship for traveling in outer space. A flight on such a “generation ship” can take tens or hundreds of years, since its speed is several times less than the speed of light. This means that the ship must be fully equipped with resources and a crew adapted to self-sufficiency.
Perhaps it will act as a starship with a closed ecosystem inside. Entire cities will be created in the cavity for space pioneers to live. During the flight on such a planet there will be a change of several generations. And it is possible that the population of the ship will completely lose interest in the purpose of the journey. It is also possible that on the way to other stars such a planet could easily be ahead of a super-fast ship of the future, developed using the latest technologies.
The tragedy of this kind of project is that sending such an expedition condemns a significant number of people, without their consent, to indefinite imprisonment on a ship. As an exception, only the first generation of astronauts will perform, since they will go on a flight without a deadline voluntarily.
It is likely that the future generation will be able to build a spaceship capable of functioning for several thousand years. A theoretical plan for exploring space using a huge space station has already been developed. This project was developed by a group of American scientists under the command Gerard O'Neill.
Sleep of the mind
The main reason why spacecraft capable of withstanding flight over vast distances have not been created at present is that it is very expensive to create the materials from which the shuttle structures are assembled. If we also add the cost of maintaining and servicing the crew during the flight, the costs will be colossal.
Significant savings in resources required to maintain the crew's existence during long-distance flights can be achieved by such advanced technology as suspended animation.
Anabiosis is a state of the body in which vital functions are slowed down to such an extent that they are devoid of visible manifestations.
In the event of a successful attempt to slow down metabolism by introducing into a state of suspended animation, the astronaut will fall asleep and wake up at the final destination.
Putting the team into suspended animation will reduce the amount of living space. Due to the fact that useful substances will be supplied to the astronaut through an IV, a lot of space will not be required to store food supplies. The problem with leisure activities will also be solved. To bring a person out of a state of suspended animation, it will be enough to create favorable temperature conditions.
In theory, the probability of astronauts safely plunging into suspended animation is much higher than the probability of building a “ship of generations.” In nature, for example, there are many organisms that fall into suspended animation in order to survive under unfavorable living conditions.
According to unconfirmed reports, the Siberian salamander can hibernate for up to 100 years.
The main obstacle that stands in the way of introducing a person into suspended animation is crystal formation. Crystals begin to form in any living cell of the human body when frozen. These crystals have sharp edges that damage the cell walls, causing the cells to die. However, there is a solution for this problem too. In 1810, scientist Humphry Davy discovered the phenomenon of clathrate hydrates.
Clathrate hydrates is one of the states of water ice. When frozen, clathrate lattices become less solid than ice crystals. They are looser and their faces do not have sharp edges.
Experts believe that immersion in clathrate anabiosis can be achieved by inhaling a special substance by a person, which will lower the temperature of the human body. Unfortunately, at the moment there are not enough conditions for the formation of such a substance and its experimentation on people.
Even if we imagine that it will be possible to send “frozen” astronauts on a journey, it becomes clear that the travelers will return to a completely unfamiliar world. We can say that this will be a one-way journey.
Transport beam
Perhaps the most incredible option for overcoming outer space is teleportation. Basically, an event such as teleportation is often described in science fiction literature. Interest in this phenomenon also exists in the scientific community and among researchers of anomalous phenomena.
Teleportation, or as it is commonly called null transportation, is the instantaneous movement of a material object in space and time.
It should be noted that the facts of instantaneous movement of an object in the “space-time continuum” are recorded and occur. Apparently, this is why interest in this topic does not fade.
It is assumed that during teleportation, the transported object is “broken” into the smallest particles, and then “combined” at the final destination.
There are many versions of teleportation that explain how movement in space and time occurs. But all this is only in theory.
At present, the scientific association does not have enough information that can confirm any of the theories.
Star personality
He also reflected on the topic of space travel in his book “ Trajectory of life. Between yesterday and tomorrow» cosmonaut and professor Konstantin Petrovich Feoktistov.
He believed that it was possible to find a way to travel in space without the participation of a material body. One can imagine a specially invented individual from whom it will be possible to disconnect his “personality” as a package of information. But in order to transmit this packet of information over a long distance, you must first design and install transmitting and receiving stations. To do this, it will be necessary to construct huge antennas and transmitters with gigantic power.
Delivery and installation of such stations can take tens or hundreds of thousands of years. Nevertheless, this option is quite possible to implement.
The scientist also does not exclude the possibility of creating “artificial intelligence” - a person whose soul will be able to leave the material body and move from one star to another.
The most important obstacle to the implementation of this opportunity is moral and ethical standards. After all, when creating such a cyborg man, it is necessary to form his individuality. A person's individuality is formed under the influence of society and the environment that surrounds him. There are no standards for human personality.
“Is it permissible to create such a creature? Do we have the right to do this? What life incentives can we offer him?” — cosmonaut Feoktistov discussed this topic. Unfortunately, there are no answers to these questions yet.
One way or another, the main minds of the scientific community continue to reflect on the topic of human colonization of space. And I would like to believe that at least our descendants will have the opportunity to find out the answer to the main question." Are there other civilizations in our Galaxy?»
The desire to explore the surrounding world has always flowed in the blood of humanity. From America to the far reaches of the solar system, from the poles to the satellite of Jupiter, people find and record new places, put them on the world map, develop them and use them for their own purposes. But to explore the planets of the solar system, as well as the vast expanses of space, it is necessary to establish space flights. Of course, this requires ships capable of safely covering hundreds of kilometers of space in seconds, as well as carrying passengers and payload. There are many problems: from the disposability of missiles to the high cost of technology. But all spheres have faced this at one time or another, from automotive to aviation, so without a doubt, the next limit will be space.
The developer of the CST-100 Starliner manned spacecraft has delayed its first test launch to the International Space Station (ISS) by three months. According to the Reuters news agency, citing sources close to this project, the manned test flight of the spacecraft with a crew has also been postponed for the same period.
Contents of the article
MANned SPACE FLIGHTS. Manned space flight is the movement of people in an aircraft outside the Earth's atmosphere in orbit around the Earth or along a trajectory between the Earth and other celestial bodies for the purpose of exploring outer space or conducting experiments. In the Soviet Union, space travelers were called cosmonauts; in the USA they are called astronauts.
PRINCIPAL FEATURES OF DESIGN AND OPERATION
The design, launch and operation of manned spacecraft, called spacecraft, are much more complex than unmanned ones. In addition to the propulsion system, guidance systems, power supply and others available on automatic spacecraft, additional systems are required for manned spacecraft - life support, manual flight control, living quarters for the crew and special equipment - to ensure that the crew can stay in space and perform the necessary work. With the help of the life support system, conditions similar to those on Earth are created inside the ship: atmosphere, fresh water for drinking, food, waste disposal and a comfortable heat and humidity regime. Crew quarters require special layout and equipment because the ship maintains a zero-gravity environment in which objects are not held in place by gravity as they are on Earth. All objects on a spacecraft are attracted to each other, so special fastening devices must be provided and rules for handling liquids, ranging from food water to waste, must be carefully thought out.
To ensure human safety, all QC systems must be highly reliable. Typically, each system is duplicated or implemented in the form of two identical subsystems, so that the failure of one of them does not threaten the life of the crew. The ship's electronic equipment is carried out in the form of two or more sets or independent sets of electronic units (modular redundancy) to ensure the safe return of the crew in the event of the most unforeseen emergency situations.
BASIC SYSTEMS OF MANNED SPACE FLIGHT
Three main systems are necessary to carry out a long flight of a spacecraft outside the atmosphere and safely return to Earth: 1) a sufficiently powerful rocket to launch the spacecraft into orbit around the Earth or a flight path to other celestial bodies; 2) thermal protection of the ship from aerodynamic heating during return to Earth; 3) a guidance and control system to ensure the desired trajectory of the ship.
FIRST FLIGHTS
"East".
After the launch of the first satellite, the Soviet Union began to develop a manned space flight program. The Soviet government provided scant information about the planned flights. Few in the West took these reports seriously until Yuri Gagarin's flight was announced on April 12, 1961, shortly after he had circled the globe and returned to Earth.
Gagarin made his flight on the Vostok-1 spacecraft, a spherical capsule with a diameter of 2.3 m, which was installed on a three-stage A-1 rocket (created on the basis of the SS-6 ICBM), similar to the one that launched Sputnik-1 into orbit. . Asbestos textolite was used as a heat-protective material. Gagarin flew in an ejection seat, which was supposed to be fired in the event of a launch vehicle failure.
The Vostok-2 ship (G.S. Titov, August 6–7, 1961) made 17 orbits around the Earth (25.3 hours); it was followed by two flights of twin ships. Vostok-3 (A.G. Nikolaev, August 11–15, 1962) and Vostok-4 (P.R. Popovich, August 12–15, 1962) flew 5.0 km from each other in almost parallel orbits . Vostok-5 (V.F. Bykovsky, June 14–19, 1963) and Vostok-6 (V.V. Tereshkova, the first woman in space, June 16–19, 1963) repeated the previous flight.
"Mercury".
In August 1958, President D. Eisenhower entrusted responsibility for manned flight to the newly formed National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), which chose the Mercury ballistic capsule project as the first manned flight program. Two 15-minute suborbital flights of astronauts were carried out in a capsule launched by a Redstone medium-range ballistic missile. A. Shepard and V. Grissom made these flights on May 5 and July 21 in Mercury-type capsules called Freedom 7 and Liberty Bell 7. Both flights were successful, although a malfunction caused the Liberty Bell 7's hatch cover to blow off prematurely, causing Grissom to nearly drown.
Following these two successful Mercury-Redstone suborbital flights, NASA conducted four orbital flights of the Mercury spacecraft, carried by the more powerful Atlas ICBM. The first two three-orbit flights (J. Glenn, Friendship 7, February 20, 1962; and M. Carpenter, Aurora 7, May 24, 1962) lasted about 4.9 hours. The third flight (W. Schirra, Sigma -7", October 3, 1962) lasted 6 orbits (9.2 hours), and the fourth (Cooper, "Faith-7", May 15–16, 1963) lasted 34.3 hours (22.9 orbits). A large amount of valuable information was obtained from these flights, including the conclusion that the crew members must be pilots and not just passengers. Several small malfunctions that occurred during the flight, in the absence of a specialist on board, could cause a premature termination of the flight or failure of the ship.
DECISION TO GO TO THE MOON
Mercury was still preparing for its first flight, and NASA management and specialists were planning future space programs. In 1960, they announced plans to build a three-seat Apollo spacecraft that could fly manned flights of up to two weeks in Earth orbit and, in the 1970s, fly around the Moon.
However, for political reasons, the Apollo program had to be radically changed before the end of the preliminary design phase in 1961. Gagarin's flight made a huge impression around the world and gave the Soviet Union an advantage in the space race. President John Kennedy instructed his advisers to identify areas of space activity in which the United States could surpass the Soviet Union.
It was decided that only one project - landing a man on the Moon - would have greater significance than Gagarin's flight. This flight was obviously beyond the capabilities of both countries at that time, but American experts and the military believed that the problem could be solved if all the country's industrial power was directed towards achieving such a goal. In addition, Kennedy's advisers convinced him that the United States had some key technologies that could be used to carry out the flight. These technologies included the Polaris ballistic missile guidance system, cryogenic missile technology, and extensive experience in implementing large-scale projects. For these reasons, despite the fact that the United States had only 15 minutes of experience in manned space flight at that time, Kennedy announced to Congress on May 25, 1961 that the United States had set a goal of a manned flight to the Moon within the next ten years.
Due to the differences in political systems, the Soviet Union did not initially take Kennedy's statement seriously. Soviet Premier N. S. Khrushchev viewed the space program primarily as an important propaganda resource, although the qualifications and enthusiasm of Soviet engineers and scientists were no less than those of their American rivals. Only on August 3, 1964, the CPSU Central Committee approved the plan for a manned flight around the Moon. A separate lunar landing program was approved on December 25, 1964 - more than three years behind the United States.
PREPARATION FOR A FLIGHT TO THE MOON
Meeting in lunar orbit.
To achieve Kennedy's goal of flying a man to the Moon and back, NASA management and specialists needed to choose a way to carry out such a flight. The preliminary design team considered two options - a direct flight from the surface of the Earth to the surface of the Moon and a flight with an intermediate docking in low-Earth orbit. A direct flight would require the development of a huge rocket, tentatively called Nova, to launch the lunar lander on a direct flight path to the Moon. An intermediate docking in Earth orbit would require the launch of two smaller rockets (Saturn V) - one to launch the spacecraft into Earth orbit and the other to refuel it before flying from orbit to the Moon.
Both of these options envisaged landing an 18-meter spacecraft directly on the Moon. Since NASA management and specialists considered this task too risky, in 1961-1962 they developed a third option - with a meeting in lunar orbit. In this approach, the Saturn V rocket launched two smaller spacecraft into orbit: the main block, which was supposed to carry three astronauts to lunar orbit and back, and a two-stage lunar cabin, which was supposed to take two of them from orbit to the surface of the Moon and back to meet and dock with the main block remaining in lunar orbit. This option was chosen at the end of 1962.
Project Gemini.
NASA tested various rendezvous and docking techniques for use in lunar orbit during the Gemini program, a series of missions of increasing sophistication on two-person spacecraft equipped to rendezvous with a target spacecraft (an unmanned upper stage of the rocket). Agena") in low-Earth orbit. The Gemini spacecraft consisted of three structural blocks: the descent module (crew compartment), designed for two astronauts and reminiscent of the Mercury capsule, a braking propulsion system and an aggregate compartment in which power sources and fuel tanks were located. Because Gemini was to be launched by a Titan 2 rocket, which used a less explosive propellant than the Atlas rocket, the ship lacked the emergency escape system found on the Mercury. In the event of an emergency, the rescue of the crew was ensured by ejection seats.
The ship "Voskhod".
However, even before the Gemini flights began, the Soviet Union carried out two rather risky flights. Not wanting to give up the priority of launching the first multi-seat spacecraft to the United States, Khrushchev ordered the urgent preparation of the three-seat Voskhod-1 spacecraft for flight. Following Khrushchev's orders, Soviet designers modified the Vostok so that it could carry three cosmonauts. The engineers abandoned the ejection seats, which saved the crew in case of a launch failure, and placed the central seat slightly ahead of the other two. The Voskhod-1 spacecraft with a crew consisting of V.M. Komarov, K.P. Feoktistov and B.B. Egorov (the first doctor in space) made a 16-orbit flight on October 12–13, 1964.
The Soviet Union also carried out another priority flight on Voskhod 2 (March 18–19, 1965), in which the left seat was removed to make room for an inflatable airlock. While P.I. Belyaev remained inside the ship, A.A. Leonov left the ship through this airlock for 20 minutes and became the first person to perform a spacewalk.
Flights under the Gemini program.
The Gemini project can be divided into three main stages: flight testing, long-duration flight, and flight with rendezvous and docking with the target ship. The first stage began with the unmanned flights of Gemini 1 and 2 (April 8, 1964 and January 19, 1965) and the three-orbit flight of W. Grissom and J. Young aboard Gemini 3 (March 23, 1965). On Gemini flights 4 (J. McDivitt and E. White Jr., June 3–7, 1965), 5 (L. Cooper and C. Conrad Jr., August 21–29, 1965) and 7 (F. Bormann and J. Lovell Jr., December 4–18, 1965) explored the possibility of long-term human stay in space by gradually increasing the flight duration to two weeks - the maximum duration of the flight to the Moon under the Apollo program. Gemini flights 6 (W. Schirra and T. Stafford, December 15–16, 1965), 8 (N. Armstrong and D. Scott, March 16, 1966), 9 (T. Stafford and Y. Cernan, June 3–6 1966), 10 (J. Young and M. Collins, July 18–21, 1966), 11 (C. Conrad and R. Gordon Jr., September 12–15, 1966) and 12 (J. Lovell and E. Aldrin- Jr., November 11–15, 1966) were originally planned for docking with the Agena target ship.
A private failure forced NASA to undertake one of the most dramatic orbital experiments of the 1960s. When the Agena rocket, the target ship for Gemini 6, exploded on launch on October 25, 1965, it was left without a target. Then NASA management decided instead to carry out a rendezvous in space between the two Gemini spacecraft. According to this plan, it was necessary to first launch Gemini 7 (on its two-week flight), and then, after quickly repairing the launch pad, launch Gemini 6. During the joint flight, a colorful film was made showing the approach of the ships until they touched joint maneuvering.
Gemini 8 docked with the target ship Agena. It was the first successful docking of two ships in orbit, but the flight was aborted less than 24 hours later when one of the attitude control engines failed to turn off, causing the ship to spin so rapidly that the crew nearly lost control of the situation. However, using the braking engine, N. Armstrong and D. Scott regained control and carried out an emergency splashdown in the Pacific Ocean.
When its Agena target failed to enter orbit, Gemini 9 attempted to dock with an upgraded target docking assembly (the Agena docking target mounted on a small satellite launched by an Atlas rocket). However, since the fairing used during insertion did not deploy, it could not be jettisoned, making docking impossible. In the last three flights, the Gemini spacecraft successfully docked with their targets.
During the Gemini 4 flight, E. White became the first American to perform a spacewalk. Subsequent spacewalks (Y. Cernan, M. Collins, R. Gordon and E. Aldrin, Gemini 9–12) showed that astronauts must carefully consider and control their movements. Due to weightlessness, there is no frictional force, which provides a fulcrum; even just standing becomes a difficult task. The Gemini program also tested new equipment (such as fuel cells for generating electricity from the chemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen), which later played an important role in the Apollo program.
"Daina-Sor" and MOL.
While NASA was pursuing the Mercury and Gemini projects, the US Air Force was pursuing the X-20 Dynasor aerospace aircraft and the MOL manned orbital laboratory as part of the larger manned spacecraft program. These projects were eventually canceled (not for technical reasons, but due to changing spaceflight requirements).
FLIGHT TO THE MOON
The main block of the Apollo spacecraft.
Like the Mercury and Gemini spacecraft, the Apollo crew compartment is cone-shaped with a heat shield made of ablative material. Parachutes and landing equipment are located in the nose of the cone. The three astronauts sit next to each other in special chairs attached to the base of the capsule. In front of them is the control panel. At the top of the cone there is a small tunnel to the exit hatch. On the opposite side there is a docking pin that fits into the docking hole of the lunar cabin and pulls them together tightly so that the claws can provide a sealed connection between the two ships. At the very top of the ship there is an emergency rescue system (more powerful than on the Redstone rocket), with the help of which the crew compartment can be taken to a safe distance in the event of an accident at the launch.
On January 27, 1967, during a simulated countdown before the first manned flight, a fire occurred in which three astronauts (W. Grissom, E. White and R. Chaffee) died.
The main changes in the design of the crew compartment after the fire were as follows: 1) restrictions were introduced on the use of flammable materials; 2) the composition of the atmosphere inside the compartment was changed before launch to a mixture of 60% oxygen and 40% nitrogen (in the air under normal conditions there are 20% oxygen and 80% nitrogen), after launch the cabin was purged, and the atmosphere in it was replaced with pure oxygen at reduced pressure ( the crew, while in spacesuits, used pure oxygen all the time); 3) a quick-opening escape hatch was added, which allowed the crew to leave the ship in less than 30 seconds.
The crew compartment is connected to a cylindrical engine compartment, which contains the propulsion system (PS), the attitude control system (SO) engines and the power supply system (SPS). The propulsion system consists of a propulsion rocket engine, two pairs of fuel and oxidizer tanks. This engine should be used to decelerate the ship when entering lunar orbit and accelerate it to return to Earth; in addition, it is included for intermediate flight path corrections. CO allows you to control the position of the ship and maneuver during docking. The PDS provides the ship with electricity and water (which is produced by a chemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen in the fuel cells).
Lunar cabin.
While the main body of the spacecraft is designed for reentry, the lunar cabin is designed only for flight in airless space. Since there is no atmosphere on the Moon and the acceleration of gravity on its surface is six times less than on Earth, landing and takeoff on the Moon require significantly less energy expenditure than on Earth.
The landing stage of the lunar cabin has the shape of an octagon, inside which there are four fuel tanks and an engine with adjustable thrust. The four telescopic landing gear struts end in disc-shaped supports to prevent the cabin from falling into lunar dust. To absorb shock during landing, the landing gear struts are filled with crushable aluminum honeycomb core. Experimental equipment is placed in special compartments between the racks.
The take-off stage is equipped with a small engine and two fuel tanks. Due to the fact that the overloads experienced by astronauts are relatively small (one lunar g when the engine is running and about five g during landing), and human legs absorb moderate shock loads well, the designers of the lunar cabin did not install chairs for astronauts. Standing in the cabin, the astronauts are close to the windows and have a good view; therefore, there was no need for large and heavy portholes. The windows of the lunar cabin are slightly larger than the size of a human face.
Saturn 5 launch vehicle.
The Apollo spacecraft was launched by the Saturn 5 rocket, the largest and most powerful of those successfully tested in flight. It is built on the basis of a project developed by V. von Braun's group at the US Army Ballistic Missile Directorate in Huntsville (Alabama). Three modifications of the rocket were built and flown - Saturn 1, Saturn 1B and Saturn 5. The first two rockets were built to test multiple engines working together in space and for experimental launches of the Apollo spacecraft (one unmanned and one manned) into Earth orbit.
The most powerful of them, the Saturn 5 launch vehicle, has three stages S-IC, S-II and S-IVB and an instrument compartment to which the Apollo spacecraft is attached. The first stage of the S-IC is powered by five F-1 engines running on liquid oxygen and kerosene. Each engine during launch develops a thrust of 6.67 MN. The S-II second stage has five J-2 oxygen-hydrogen engines with a thrust of 1 MN each; the third stage of the S-IVB has one such engine. The instrument compartment contains guidance system equipment that provides navigation and flight control up to the Apollo compartment.
General flight diagram.
The Apollo spacecraft was launched from the cosmodrome. Kennedy, located on the island. Merritt (Florida). The lunar cabin was located inside a special casing above the third stage of the Saturn 5 rocket, and the main block was attached to the top of the casing. The Saturn rocket's three stages launched the spacecraft into low-Earth orbit, where the crew checked all systems over three orbits before re-igniting the third-stage engines to put the craft on a flight path to the Moon. Shortly after the third stage engines were turned off, the crew undocked the main unit, deployed it and docked it to the lunar cabin. After this, the combination of the main block and the lunar cabin was separated from the third stage and the ship flew to the Moon over the next 60 hours.
Near the Moon, the combination of the main block and the lunar cabin described a trajectory resembling a figure eight. While above the far side of the Moon, the astronauts turned on the propulsion engine of the main unit to brake and transfer the spacecraft into lunar orbit. The next day, two astronauts moved into the lunar cabin and began a gentle descent to the surface of the Moon. First, the device flies with its landing legs forward, and the landing stage engine slows down its movement. When approaching the landing site, the cabin turns vertically (landing struts down) so that the astronauts can see the surface of the Moon and manually control the landing process.
To explore the Moon, the astronauts, while in spacesuits, had to depressurize the cabin, open the hatch and go down to the surface via a ladder located on the front landing gear. Their spacesuits provided autonomous life activity and communication on the surface for up to 8 hours.
After completing the research, the cosmonauts ascended to the takeoff stage and, starting from the landing stage, returned to the lunar orbit. Then they had to approach and dock with the main block, leave the take-off stage and join the third cosmonaut, who was waiting for them in the crew compartment. During the final orbit, from the far side of the Moon, they turned on the propulsion engine to complete the figure eight and return to Earth. The return journey (also lasting about 60 hours) ended with a fiery passage through the earth's atmosphere, a smooth descent by parachute and splashdown in the Pacific Ocean.
Preparatory flights.
The extreme difficulty of landing on the Moon forced NASA to conduct a series of four preliminary flights before the first landing. In addition, NASA took two very risky steps that made the 1969 landing possible. The first was the decision to conduct two test flights (November 9, 1967 and April 8, 1968) of the Saturn V rocket as general acceptance tests. Instead of conducting separate acceptance flights for each stage, NASA engineers tested three stages at once along with a converted Apollo spacecraft.
Another risky undertaking resulted from delays in the production of the lunar cabin. The first manned flight of the main block of the Apollo spacecraft (Apollo 7, W. Schirra, D. Eisele and W. Cunningham, October 11–22, 1968), launched by the Saturn-1B rocket into low-Earth orbit, showed that the main block ready to fly to the moon. Next, it was necessary to test the main unit with the lunar cabin in low-Earth orbit. However, due to delays in the production of the lunar cabin and rumors that the Soviet Union might try to send a man around the Moon and win the space race, NASA management decided that Apollo 8 (F. Borman, J. Lovell and W. Anders , December 21–27, 1968) will fly to the Moon in the main block, spend a day in lunar orbit and then return to Earth. The flight was successful; The crew transmitted spectacular video reports to Earth from lunar orbit on Christmas Eve.
During the Apollo 9 flight (J. McDivitt, D. Scott and R. Schweickart, March 3–13, 1969), the main unit and lunar cabin were tested in low-Earth orbit. The Apollo 10 flight (T. Stafford, J. Young and Y. Cernan, May 18–26, 1969) followed an almost complete program, with the exception of landing the lunar cabin.
Following Vostok, Soviet scientists and engineers created Soyuz, a spacecraft that occupies an intermediate position between Gemini and Apollo in terms of its complexity and capabilities. The descent compartment is located above the aggregate compartment, and above it there is a household compartment. During launch or descent, two or three astronauts can be in the descent compartment. The propulsion system, power supply and communication systems are located in the aggregate compartment. The Soyuz was launched into orbit by the A-2 launch vehicle, which was developed to replace the A-1 launch vehicle, which was used to launch the Vostok spacecraft.
According to the original plan for a manned flight around the Moon, the unmanned Soyuz-B upper stage would first be launched, followed by four Soyuz-A cargo ships to refuel it. After this, the descent compartment of Soyuz-A with a crew of three people was docked with the upper stage and headed towards the Moon. Instead of this rather complicated plan, it was eventually decided to use the more powerful Proton rocket to launch a modified Soyuz, called Zond, to the Moon. Two unmanned flights to the Moon took place (“Zond” 5 and 6, September 15–21 and November 10–17, 1968), which included the return of the vehicles to Earth, but the launch of the unscheduled “Zond” on January 8 was unsuccessful (the second stage of the launch vehicle exploded ).
The flight pattern to the Moon was approximately the same as in the Apollo program. The three-seat Soyuz spacecraft and the single-seat descent module were to be launched onto the flight path to the Moon by the N-1 launch vehicle, which had a slightly larger size and power than the Saturn-5. A special propulsion system was supposed to slow down the bundle for transition to lunar orbit and provide braking for the descent vehicle. The final stage of landing was to be carried out by the descent vehicle independently. The weak point of this project was that the lunar module had one engine, which was used for both descent and takeoff (fuel tanks for each stage were separate), so the position of the astronauts became hopeless in the event of an engine failure during descent. After a short stay on the lunar surface, the astronauts returned to lunar orbit and joined their comrade. The return to Earth in the Soyuz spacecraft was similar to that described above for the Apollo spacecraft.
However, problems - both with the Soyuz spacecraft and with the N-1 carrier - did not allow the Soviet Union to implement the program of landing a man on the Moon. The first flight of the Soyuz spacecraft (V.M. Komarov, April 23–24, 1967) ended in the death of the astronaut. During the flight of Soyuz-1, problems arose with the solar panels and the orientation system, so it was decided to abort the flight. After an initially normal descent, the capsule began to somersault and became entangled in the braking parachute lines, the descent vehicle crashed into the ground at high speed, and Komarov died.
After an 18-month break, launches under the Soyuz program resumed with flights of the Soyuz-2 (unmanned, October 25–28, 1968) and Soyuz-3 spacecraft. (G.T. Beregovoy, October 26–30, 1968). Beregovoi carried out maneuvers and approached the Soyuz-2 spacecraft to a distance of 200 m. During the flights of Soyuz-4 (V.A. Shatalov, January 14–17, 1969) and Soyuz-5 (B.V. Volynov, E.V. Khrunov and A.S. Eliseev, January 15–18, 1969) further progress was made; Khrunov and Eliseev transferred to Soyuz-4 through outer space after the ships docked. (The docking mechanism of Soviet ships did not allow direct transfer from ship to ship.)
In addition, there was intense rivalry between various design bureaus, which prevented many talented scientists and engineers from not only working on the lunar program, but even using the necessary equipment. As a result, the first stage of the N-1 rocket was equipped with 30 engines (24 around the perimeter and 6 in the center) of medium power, and not five large engines, as on the first stage of the Saturn 5 rocket (such engines were available in the country), and the stages did not undergo fire testing before flight. The first N-1 rocket, launched on February 20, 1969, caught fire 55 seconds after launch and fell 50 km from the launch site. The second N-1 rocket exploded on the launch pad on July 3, 1969.
Expeditions to the Moon.
The success of the preparatory flights for the Apollo program (Apollo 7–10) allowed the Apollo 11 spacecraft (N. Armstrong, E. Aldrin and M. Collins, July 16–24, 1969) to make the historic first flight to land a man on the Moon . The flight was extremely successful, following the program almost minute by minute.
However, three significant events during the descent of Armstrong and Aldrin into the Eagle lunar cabin on July 20 confirmed the important role of human presence and the requirement made by the first American astronauts that they be able to control the ship. At an altitude of approx. At 12,000 m, the Eagle computer began to emit an audible alarm (as it later turned out, as a result of the operation of the landing radar). Aldrin decided that this was the result of a computer overload, and the crew ignored the alarm. Then, in the final minutes of the descent, after Eagle had turned into an upright position, Armstrong and Aldrin saw the cabin land directly into a pile of rocks - slight anomalies in the Moon's gravitational field had diverted them from their course. Armstrong took control of the cockpit and flew a little further to a more level area. At the same time, the gurgling of fuel in the tanks showed that there was little fuel left. Flight control informed the crew that they had time to spare, but Armstrong made a soft landing on four landing gear legs approximately 6.4 km from the intended point, with only 20 more fuel left in the flight.
A few hours later, Armstrong left the cabin and descended to the lunar surface. In accordance with the flight plan, which included the utmost caution, he and Aldrin spent only 2 hours and 31 minutes outside the cockpit on the surface of the Moon. The next day, after 21 hours and 36 minutes on the Moon, they launched from its surface and joined Collins, who was in the main Columbia block, in which they returned to Earth.
The subsequent flights of the Apollo program significantly expanded man's knowledge of the Moon. During the flight of the Apollo 12 spacecraft (C. Conrad, A. Bean and R. Gordon, November 14–24, 1969), Gordon and Bean landed their lunar cabin "Intrepid" ("Brave") 180 m from the automatic space probe " Surveyor 3 and retrieved its components for return to Earth during one of its two surface trips, each of which lasted about four hours.
The launch and transition to the flight path to the Moon of the Apollo 13 spacecraft (April 11–17, 1970) went well. However, approximately 56 hours after launch, the flight control center asked the crew (J. Lovell, F. Heise Jr. and J. Schweigert Jr.) to turn on all the agitators and tank heaters, followed by a loud bang, complete loss of oxygen from one tank and leakage from the other. (As was later determined by NASA's emergency commission, the tank explosion was the result of manufacturing defects and damage sustained during pre-launch testing.) Within minutes, the crew and mission control realized that the Odyssey's main unit would soon lose all oxygen and be left without power and that the lunar cabin "Aquarius" ("Aquarius") will have to be used as a lifeboat when the spacecraft circles the Moon and on the way back to Earth. For almost five and a half days, the crew was forced to remain in temperatures close to zero, making do with a limited supply of water and turning off almost all the ship's service systems to save electricity. The cosmonauts turned on the Aquarius engines three times to correct the trajectory. Before entering the Earth's atmosphere, the crew turned on the systems of the Odyssey ship, using chemical current sources intended for landing, and separated from the Aquarius. After a normal descent through the atmosphere, the Odyssey splashed down safely in the Pacific Ocean.
After this accident, NASA specialists installed additional emergency chemical batteries and an oxygen tank in a separate compartment of the main unit and changed the design of the oxygen tanks. Manned lunar expeditions resumed with the Apollo 14 mission (A. Shepard, E. Mitchell and S. Roosa, January 31 - February 9, 1971). Shepard and Mitchell spent 33 hours on the lunar surface and made two walks to the surface. The last three expeditions of the Apollo spacecraft 15 (D. Scott, J. Irwin and A. Worden, July 26 - August 7, 1971), 16 (J. Young, C. Duke Jr. and K. Mattingly II, 16–27 April 1972) and 17 (Y. Cernan, G. Schmitt and R. Evans, December 1–19, 1972) were the most fruitful from a scientific point of view. Each lunar cabin included a lunar all-terrain rover (lunokhod) powered by electric batteries, which allowed the astronauts to move up to 8 km from the cabin in each of the three exits to the surface; in addition, each main unit had television cameras and other measuring instruments in one of the equipment compartments.
The samples delivered by the Apollo expeditions for scientific research amounted to more than 379.5 kg of rocks and soil, which changed and expanded man's understanding of the origin of the solar system.
After the success of the first Apollo flights, the Soviet Union made only a few launches of Soyuz spacecraft, Zond spacecraft, and the N-1 launch vehicle as part of the manned lunar mission and landing program. Since 1971, the Soyuz spacecraft has been used as a transport ship as part of the flight program of the Salyut and Mir space stations.
EXPERIMENTAL FLIGHT "APOLLO" - "SOYUZ"
What began as a rivalry ended with the joint Apollo-Soyuz experimental flight program (ASTP). This flight was attended by D. Slayton, T. Stafford and V. Brandt in the main block of the Apollo spacecraft (July 15–24, 1975) and A.A. Leonov and V.N. Kubasov on the Soyuz-19 spacecraft (15 –July 21, 1975). The program arose from the desire of the two states to develop joint rescue procedures and technical means in the event that any space crew becomes stranded in orbit. Since the atmosphere of the ships was completely different, NASA created a special docking compartment that was used as a decompression chamber. Several rendezvous maneuvers and docking operations were successfully completed, after which the ships separated and flew autonomously until returning to Earth.
Literature:
Glushko V.P. Cosmonautics: encyclopedia. M., 1985
Gatland K. et al. Space Technology: An Illustrated Encyclopedia. M., 1986
Kelly K. et al. Our home is Earth. M., 1988
Contents of the article
MANned SPACE FLIGHTS. Manned space flight is the movement of people in an aircraft outside the Earth's atmosphere in orbit around the Earth or along a trajectory between the Earth and other celestial bodies for the purpose of exploring outer space or conducting experiments. In the Soviet Union, space travelers were called cosmonauts; in the USA they are called astronauts.
PRINCIPAL FEATURES OF DESIGN AND OPERATION
The design, launch and operation of manned spacecraft, called spacecraft, are much more complex than unmanned ones. In addition to the propulsion system, guidance systems, power supply and others available on automatic spacecraft, additional systems are required for manned spacecraft - life support, manual flight control, living quarters for the crew and special equipment - to ensure that the crew can stay in space and perform the necessary work. With the help of the life support system, conditions similar to those on Earth are created inside the ship: atmosphere, fresh water for drinking, food, waste disposal and a comfortable heat and humidity regime. Crew quarters require special layout and equipment because the ship maintains a zero-gravity environment in which objects are not held in place by gravity as they are on Earth. All objects on a spacecraft are attracted to each other, so special fastening devices must be provided and rules for handling liquids, ranging from food water to waste, must be carefully thought out.
To ensure human safety, all QC systems must be highly reliable. Typically, each system is duplicated or implemented in the form of two identical subsystems, so that the failure of one of them does not threaten the life of the crew. The ship's electronic equipment is carried out in the form of two or more sets or independent sets of electronic units (modular redundancy) to ensure the safe return of the crew in the event of the most unforeseen emergency situations.
BASIC SYSTEMS OF MANNED SPACE FLIGHT
Three main systems are necessary to carry out a long flight of a spacecraft outside the atmosphere and safely return to Earth: 1) a sufficiently powerful rocket to launch the spacecraft into orbit around the Earth or a flight path to other celestial bodies; 2) thermal protection of the ship from aerodynamic heating during return to Earth; 3) a guidance and control system to ensure the desired trajectory of the ship.
FIRST FLIGHTS
"East".
After the launch of the first satellite, the Soviet Union began to develop a manned space flight program. The Soviet government provided scant information about the planned flights. Few in the West took these reports seriously until Yuri Gagarin's flight was announced on April 12, 1961, shortly after he had circled the globe and returned to Earth.
Gagarin made his flight on the Vostok-1 spacecraft, a spherical capsule with a diameter of 2.3 m, which was installed on a three-stage A-1 rocket (created on the basis of the SS-6 ICBM), similar to the one that launched Sputnik-1 into orbit. . Asbestos textolite was used as a heat-protective material. Gagarin flew in an ejection seat, which was supposed to be fired in the event of a launch vehicle failure.
The Vostok-2 ship (G.S. Titov, August 6–7, 1961) made 17 orbits around the Earth (25.3 hours); it was followed by two flights of twin ships. Vostok-3 (A.G. Nikolaev, August 11–15, 1962) and Vostok-4 (P.R. Popovich, August 12–15, 1962) flew 5.0 km from each other in almost parallel orbits . Vostok-5 (V.F. Bykovsky, June 14–19, 1963) and Vostok-6 (V.V. Tereshkova, the first woman in space, June 16–19, 1963) repeated the previous flight.
"Mercury".
In August 1958, President D. Eisenhower entrusted responsibility for manned flight to the newly formed National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), which chose the Mercury ballistic capsule project as the first manned flight program. Two 15-minute suborbital flights of astronauts were carried out in a capsule launched by a Redstone medium-range ballistic missile. A. Shepard and V. Grissom made these flights on May 5 and July 21 in Mercury-type capsules called Freedom 7 and Liberty Bell 7. Both flights were successful, although a malfunction caused the Liberty Bell 7's hatch cover to blow off prematurely, causing Grissom to nearly drown.
Following these two successful Mercury-Redstone suborbital flights, NASA conducted four orbital flights of the Mercury spacecraft, carried by the more powerful Atlas ICBM. The first two three-orbit flights (J. Glenn, Friendship 7, February 20, 1962; and M. Carpenter, Aurora 7, May 24, 1962) lasted about 4.9 hours. The third flight (W. Schirra, Sigma -7", October 3, 1962) lasted 6 orbits (9.2 hours), and the fourth (Cooper, "Faith-7", May 15–16, 1963) lasted 34.3 hours (22.9 orbits). A large amount of valuable information was obtained from these flights, including the conclusion that the crew members must be pilots and not just passengers. Several small malfunctions that occurred during the flight, in the absence of a specialist on board, could cause a premature termination of the flight or failure of the ship.
DECISION TO GO TO THE MOON
Mercury was still preparing for its first flight, and NASA management and specialists were planning future space programs. In 1960, they announced plans to build a three-seat Apollo spacecraft that could fly manned flights of up to two weeks in Earth orbit and, in the 1970s, fly around the Moon.
However, for political reasons, the Apollo program had to be radically changed before the end of the preliminary design phase in 1961. Gagarin's flight made a huge impression around the world and gave the Soviet Union an advantage in the space race. President John Kennedy instructed his advisers to identify areas of space activity in which the United States could surpass the Soviet Union.
It was decided that only one project - landing a man on the Moon - would have greater significance than Gagarin's flight. This flight was obviously beyond the capabilities of both countries at that time, but American experts and the military believed that the problem could be solved if all the country's industrial power was directed towards achieving such a goal. In addition, Kennedy's advisers convinced him that the United States had some key technologies that could be used to carry out the flight. These technologies included the Polaris ballistic missile guidance system, cryogenic missile technology, and extensive experience in implementing large-scale projects. For these reasons, despite the fact that the United States had only 15 minutes of experience in manned space flight at that time, Kennedy announced to Congress on May 25, 1961 that the United States had set a goal of a manned flight to the Moon within the next ten years.
Due to the differences in political systems, the Soviet Union did not initially take Kennedy's statement seriously. Soviet Premier N. S. Khrushchev viewed the space program primarily as an important propaganda resource, although the qualifications and enthusiasm of Soviet engineers and scientists were no less than those of their American rivals. Only on August 3, 1964, the CPSU Central Committee approved the plan for a manned flight around the Moon. A separate lunar landing program was approved on December 25, 1964 - more than three years behind the United States.
PREPARATION FOR A FLIGHT TO THE MOON
Meeting in lunar orbit.
To achieve Kennedy's goal of flying a man to the Moon and back, NASA management and specialists needed to choose a way to carry out such a flight. The preliminary design team considered two options - a direct flight from the surface of the Earth to the surface of the Moon and a flight with an intermediate docking in low-Earth orbit. A direct flight would require the development of a huge rocket, tentatively called Nova, to launch the lunar lander on a direct flight path to the Moon. An intermediate docking in Earth orbit would require the launch of two smaller rockets (Saturn V) - one to launch the spacecraft into Earth orbit and the other to refuel it before flying from orbit to the Moon.
Both of these options envisaged landing an 18-meter spacecraft directly on the Moon. Since NASA management and specialists considered this task too risky, in 1961-1962 they developed a third option - with a meeting in lunar orbit. In this approach, the Saturn V rocket launched two smaller spacecraft into orbit: the main block, which was supposed to carry three astronauts to lunar orbit and back, and a two-stage lunar cabin, which was supposed to take two of them from orbit to the surface of the Moon and back to meet and dock with the main block remaining in lunar orbit. This option was chosen at the end of 1962.
Project Gemini.
NASA tested various rendezvous and docking techniques for use in lunar orbit during the Gemini program, a series of missions of increasing sophistication on two-person spacecraft equipped to rendezvous with a target spacecraft (an unmanned upper stage of the rocket). Agena") in low-Earth orbit. The Gemini spacecraft consisted of three structural blocks: the descent module (crew compartment), designed for two astronauts and reminiscent of the Mercury capsule, a braking propulsion system and an aggregate compartment in which power sources and fuel tanks were located. Because Gemini was to be launched by a Titan 2 rocket, which used a less explosive propellant than the Atlas rocket, the ship lacked the emergency escape system found on the Mercury. In the event of an emergency, the rescue of the crew was ensured by ejection seats.
The ship "Voskhod".
However, even before the Gemini flights began, the Soviet Union carried out two rather risky flights. Not wanting to give up the priority of launching the first multi-seat spacecraft to the United States, Khrushchev ordered the urgent preparation of the three-seat Voskhod-1 spacecraft for flight. Following Khrushchev's orders, Soviet designers modified the Vostok so that it could carry three cosmonauts. The engineers abandoned the ejection seats, which saved the crew in case of a launch failure, and placed the central seat slightly ahead of the other two. The Voskhod-1 spacecraft with a crew consisting of V.M. Komarov, K.P. Feoktistov and B.B. Egorov (the first doctor in space) made a 16-orbit flight on October 12–13, 1964.
The Soviet Union also carried out another priority flight on Voskhod 2 (March 18–19, 1965), in which the left seat was removed to make room for an inflatable airlock. While P.I. Belyaev remained inside the ship, A.A. Leonov left the ship through this airlock for 20 minutes and became the first person to perform a spacewalk.
Flights under the Gemini program.
The Gemini project can be divided into three main stages: flight testing, long-duration flight, and flight with rendezvous and docking with the target ship. The first stage began with the unmanned flights of Gemini 1 and 2 (April 8, 1964 and January 19, 1965) and the three-orbit flight of W. Grissom and J. Young aboard Gemini 3 (March 23, 1965). On Gemini flights 4 (J. McDivitt and E. White Jr., June 3–7, 1965), 5 (L. Cooper and C. Conrad Jr., August 21–29, 1965) and 7 (F. Bormann and J. Lovell Jr., December 4–18, 1965) explored the possibility of long-term human stay in space by gradually increasing the flight duration to two weeks - the maximum duration of the flight to the Moon under the Apollo program. Gemini flights 6 (W. Schirra and T. Stafford, December 15–16, 1965), 8 (N. Armstrong and D. Scott, March 16, 1966), 9 (T. Stafford and Y. Cernan, June 3–6 1966), 10 (J. Young and M. Collins, July 18–21, 1966), 11 (C. Conrad and R. Gordon Jr., September 12–15, 1966) and 12 (J. Lovell and E. Aldrin- Jr., November 11–15, 1966) were originally planned for docking with the Agena target ship.
A private failure forced NASA to undertake one of the most dramatic orbital experiments of the 1960s. When the Agena rocket, the target ship for Gemini 6, exploded on launch on October 25, 1965, it was left without a target. Then NASA management decided instead to carry out a rendezvous in space between the two Gemini spacecraft. According to this plan, it was necessary to first launch Gemini 7 (on its two-week flight), and then, after quickly repairing the launch pad, launch Gemini 6. During the joint flight, a colorful film was made showing the approach of the ships until they touched joint maneuvering.
Gemini 8 docked with the target ship Agena. It was the first successful docking of two ships in orbit, but the flight was aborted less than 24 hours later when one of the attitude control engines failed to turn off, causing the ship to spin so rapidly that the crew nearly lost control of the situation. However, using the braking engine, N. Armstrong and D. Scott regained control and carried out an emergency splashdown in the Pacific Ocean.
When its Agena target failed to enter orbit, Gemini 9 attempted to dock with an upgraded target docking assembly (the Agena docking target mounted on a small satellite launched by an Atlas rocket). However, since the fairing used during insertion did not deploy, it could not be jettisoned, making docking impossible. In the last three flights, the Gemini spacecraft successfully docked with their targets.
During the Gemini 4 flight, E. White became the first American to perform a spacewalk. Subsequent spacewalks (Y. Cernan, M. Collins, R. Gordon and E. Aldrin, Gemini 9–12) showed that astronauts must carefully consider and control their movements. Due to weightlessness, there is no frictional force, which provides a fulcrum; even just standing becomes a difficult task. The Gemini program also tested new equipment (such as fuel cells for generating electricity from the chemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen), which later played an important role in the Apollo program.
"Daina-Sor" and MOL.
While NASA was pursuing the Mercury and Gemini projects, the US Air Force was pursuing the X-20 Dynasor aerospace aircraft and the MOL manned orbital laboratory as part of the larger manned spacecraft program. These projects were eventually canceled (not for technical reasons, but due to changing spaceflight requirements).
FLIGHT TO THE MOON
The main block of the Apollo spacecraft.
Like the Mercury and Gemini spacecraft, the Apollo crew compartment is cone-shaped with a heat shield made of ablative material. Parachutes and landing equipment are located in the nose of the cone. The three astronauts sit next to each other in special chairs attached to the base of the capsule. In front of them is the control panel. At the top of the cone there is a small tunnel to the exit hatch. On the opposite side there is a docking pin that fits into the docking hole of the lunar cabin and pulls them together tightly so that the claws can provide a sealed connection between the two ships. At the very top of the ship there is an emergency rescue system (more powerful than on the Redstone rocket), with the help of which the crew compartment can be taken to a safe distance in the event of an accident at the launch.
On January 27, 1967, during a simulated countdown before the first manned flight, a fire occurred in which three astronauts (W. Grissom, E. White and R. Chaffee) died.
The main changes in the design of the crew compartment after the fire were as follows: 1) restrictions were introduced on the use of flammable materials; 2) the composition of the atmosphere inside the compartment was changed before launch to a mixture of 60% oxygen and 40% nitrogen (in the air under normal conditions there are 20% oxygen and 80% nitrogen), after launch the cabin was purged, and the atmosphere in it was replaced with pure oxygen at reduced pressure ( the crew, while in spacesuits, used pure oxygen all the time); 3) a quick-opening escape hatch was added, which allowed the crew to leave the ship in less than 30 seconds.
The crew compartment is connected to a cylindrical engine compartment, which contains the propulsion system (PS), the attitude control system (SO) engines and the power supply system (SPS). The propulsion system consists of a propulsion rocket engine, two pairs of fuel and oxidizer tanks. This engine should be used to decelerate the ship when entering lunar orbit and accelerate it to return to Earth; in addition, it is included for intermediate flight path corrections. CO allows you to control the position of the ship and maneuver during docking. The PDS provides the ship with electricity and water (which is produced by a chemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen in the fuel cells).
Lunar cabin.
While the main body of the spacecraft is designed for reentry, the lunar cabin is designed only for flight in airless space. Since there is no atmosphere on the Moon and the acceleration of gravity on its surface is six times less than on Earth, landing and takeoff on the Moon require significantly less energy expenditure than on Earth.
The landing stage of the lunar cabin has the shape of an octagon, inside which there are four fuel tanks and an engine with adjustable thrust. The four telescopic landing gear struts end in disc-shaped supports to prevent the cabin from falling into lunar dust. To absorb shock during landing, the landing gear struts are filled with crushable aluminum honeycomb core. Experimental equipment is placed in special compartments between the racks.
The take-off stage is equipped with a small engine and two fuel tanks. Due to the fact that the overloads experienced by astronauts are relatively small (one lunar g when the engine is running and about five g during landing), and human legs absorb moderate shock loads well, the designers of the lunar cabin did not install chairs for astronauts. Standing in the cabin, the astronauts are close to the windows and have a good view; therefore, there was no need for large and heavy portholes. The windows of the lunar cabin are slightly larger than the size of a human face.
Saturn 5 launch vehicle.
The Apollo spacecraft was launched by the Saturn 5 rocket, the largest and most powerful of those successfully tested in flight. It is built on the basis of a project developed by V. von Braun's group at the US Army Ballistic Missile Directorate in Huntsville (Alabama). Three modifications of the rocket were built and flown - Saturn 1, Saturn 1B and Saturn 5. The first two rockets were built to test multiple engines working together in space and for experimental launches of the Apollo spacecraft (one unmanned and one manned) into Earth orbit.
The most powerful of them, the Saturn 5 launch vehicle, has three stages S-IC, S-II and S-IVB and an instrument compartment to which the Apollo spacecraft is attached. The first stage of the S-IC is powered by five F-1 engines running on liquid oxygen and kerosene. Each engine during launch develops a thrust of 6.67 MN. The S-II second stage has five J-2 oxygen-hydrogen engines with a thrust of 1 MN each; the third stage of the S-IVB has one such engine. The instrument compartment contains guidance system equipment that provides navigation and flight control up to the Apollo compartment.
General flight diagram.
The Apollo spacecraft was launched from the cosmodrome. Kennedy, located on the island. Merritt (Florida). The lunar cabin was located inside a special casing above the third stage of the Saturn 5 rocket, and the main block was attached to the top of the casing. The Saturn rocket's three stages launched the spacecraft into low-Earth orbit, where the crew checked all systems over three orbits before re-igniting the third-stage engines to put the craft on a flight path to the Moon. Shortly after the third stage engines were turned off, the crew undocked the main unit, deployed it and docked it to the lunar cabin. After this, the combination of the main block and the lunar cabin was separated from the third stage and the ship flew to the Moon over the next 60 hours.
Near the Moon, the combination of the main block and the lunar cabin described a trajectory resembling a figure eight. While above the far side of the Moon, the astronauts turned on the propulsion engine of the main unit to brake and transfer the spacecraft into lunar orbit. The next day, two astronauts moved into the lunar cabin and began a gentle descent to the surface of the Moon. First, the device flies with its landing legs forward, and the landing stage engine slows down its movement. When approaching the landing site, the cabin turns vertically (landing struts down) so that the astronauts can see the surface of the Moon and manually control the landing process.
To explore the Moon, the astronauts, while in spacesuits, had to depressurize the cabin, open the hatch and go down to the surface via a ladder located on the front landing gear. Their spacesuits provided autonomous life activity and communication on the surface for up to 8 hours.
After completing the research, the cosmonauts ascended to the takeoff stage and, starting from the landing stage, returned to the lunar orbit. Then they had to approach and dock with the main block, leave the take-off stage and join the third cosmonaut, who was waiting for them in the crew compartment. During the final orbit, from the far side of the Moon, they turned on the propulsion engine to complete the figure eight and return to Earth. The return journey (also lasting about 60 hours) ended with a fiery passage through the earth's atmosphere, a smooth descent by parachute and splashdown in the Pacific Ocean.
Preparatory flights.
The extreme difficulty of landing on the Moon forced NASA to conduct a series of four preliminary flights before the first landing. In addition, NASA took two very risky steps that made the 1969 landing possible. The first was the decision to conduct two test flights (November 9, 1967 and April 8, 1968) of the Saturn V rocket as general acceptance tests. Instead of conducting separate acceptance flights for each stage, NASA engineers tested three stages at once along with a converted Apollo spacecraft.
Another risky undertaking resulted from delays in the production of the lunar cabin. The first manned flight of the main block of the Apollo spacecraft (Apollo 7, W. Schirra, D. Eisele and W. Cunningham, October 11–22, 1968), launched by the Saturn-1B rocket into low-Earth orbit, showed that the main block ready to fly to the moon. Next, it was necessary to test the main unit with the lunar cabin in low-Earth orbit. However, due to delays in the production of the lunar cabin and rumors that the Soviet Union might try to send a man around the Moon and win the space race, NASA management decided that Apollo 8 (F. Borman, J. Lovell and W. Anders , December 21–27, 1968) will fly to the Moon in the main block, spend a day in lunar orbit and then return to Earth. The flight was successful; The crew transmitted spectacular video reports to Earth from lunar orbit on Christmas Eve.
During the Apollo 9 flight (J. McDivitt, D. Scott and R. Schweickart, March 3–13, 1969), the main unit and lunar cabin were tested in low-Earth orbit. The Apollo 10 flight (T. Stafford, J. Young and Y. Cernan, May 18–26, 1969) followed an almost complete program, with the exception of landing the lunar cabin.
Following Vostok, Soviet scientists and engineers created Soyuz, a spacecraft that occupies an intermediate position between Gemini and Apollo in terms of its complexity and capabilities. The descent compartment is located above the aggregate compartment, and above it there is a household compartment. During launch or descent, two or three astronauts can be in the descent compartment. The propulsion system, power supply and communication systems are located in the aggregate compartment. The Soyuz was launched into orbit by the A-2 launch vehicle, which was developed to replace the A-1 launch vehicle, which was used to launch the Vostok spacecraft.
According to the original plan for a manned flight around the Moon, the unmanned Soyuz-B upper stage would first be launched, followed by four Soyuz-A cargo ships to refuel it. After this, the descent compartment of Soyuz-A with a crew of three people was docked with the upper stage and headed towards the Moon. Instead of this rather complicated plan, it was eventually decided to use the more powerful Proton rocket to launch a modified Soyuz, called Zond, to the Moon. Two unmanned flights to the Moon took place (“Zond” 5 and 6, September 15–21 and November 10–17, 1968), which included the return of the vehicles to Earth, but the launch of the unscheduled “Zond” on January 8 was unsuccessful (the second stage of the launch vehicle exploded ).
The flight pattern to the Moon was approximately the same as in the Apollo program. The three-seat Soyuz spacecraft and the single-seat descent module were to be launched onto the flight path to the Moon by the N-1 launch vehicle, which had a slightly larger size and power than the Saturn-5. A special propulsion system was supposed to slow down the bundle for transition to lunar orbit and provide braking for the descent vehicle. The final stage of landing was to be carried out by the descent vehicle independently. The weak point of this project was that the lunar module had one engine, which was used for both descent and takeoff (fuel tanks for each stage were separate), so the position of the astronauts became hopeless in the event of an engine failure during descent. After a short stay on the lunar surface, the astronauts returned to lunar orbit and joined their comrade. The return to Earth in the Soyuz spacecraft was similar to that described above for the Apollo spacecraft.
However, problems - both with the Soyuz spacecraft and with the N-1 carrier - did not allow the Soviet Union to implement the program of landing a man on the Moon. The first flight of the Soyuz spacecraft (V.M. Komarov, April 23–24, 1967) ended in the death of the astronaut. During the flight of Soyuz-1, problems arose with the solar panels and the orientation system, so it was decided to abort the flight. After an initially normal descent, the capsule began to somersault and became entangled in the braking parachute lines, the descent vehicle crashed into the ground at high speed, and Komarov died.
After an 18-month break, launches under the Soyuz program resumed with flights of the Soyuz-2 (unmanned, October 25–28, 1968) and Soyuz-3 spacecraft. (G.T. Beregovoy, October 26–30, 1968). Beregovoi carried out maneuvers and approached the Soyuz-2 spacecraft to a distance of 200 m. During the flights of Soyuz-4 (V.A. Shatalov, January 14–17, 1969) and Soyuz-5 (B.V. Volynov, E.V. Khrunov and A.S. Eliseev, January 15–18, 1969) further progress was made; Khrunov and Eliseev transferred to Soyuz-4 through outer space after the ships docked. (The docking mechanism of Soviet ships did not allow direct transfer from ship to ship.)
In addition, there was intense rivalry between various design bureaus, which prevented many talented scientists and engineers from not only working on the lunar program, but even using the necessary equipment. As a result, the first stage of the N-1 rocket was equipped with 30 engines (24 around the perimeter and 6 in the center) of medium power, and not five large engines, as on the first stage of the Saturn 5 rocket (such engines were available in the country), and the stages did not undergo fire testing before flight. The first N-1 rocket, launched on February 20, 1969, caught fire 55 seconds after launch and fell 50 km from the launch site. The second N-1 rocket exploded on the launch pad on July 3, 1969.
Expeditions to the Moon.
The success of the preparatory flights for the Apollo program (Apollo 7–10) allowed the Apollo 11 spacecraft (N. Armstrong, E. Aldrin and M. Collins, July 16–24, 1969) to make the historic first flight to land a man on the Moon . The flight was extremely successful, following the program almost minute by minute.
However, three significant events during the descent of Armstrong and Aldrin into the Eagle lunar cabin on July 20 confirmed the important role of human presence and the requirement made by the first American astronauts that they be able to control the ship. At an altitude of approx. At 12,000 m, the Eagle computer began to emit an audible alarm (as it later turned out, as a result of the operation of the landing radar). Aldrin decided that this was the result of a computer overload, and the crew ignored the alarm. Then, in the final minutes of the descent, after Eagle had turned into an upright position, Armstrong and Aldrin saw the cabin land directly into a pile of rocks - slight anomalies in the Moon's gravitational field had diverted them from their course. Armstrong took control of the cockpit and flew a little further to a more level area. At the same time, the gurgling of fuel in the tanks showed that there was little fuel left. Flight control informed the crew that they had time to spare, but Armstrong made a soft landing on four landing gear legs approximately 6.4 km from the intended point, with only 20 more fuel left in the flight.
A few hours later, Armstrong left the cabin and descended to the lunar surface. In accordance with the flight plan, which included the utmost caution, he and Aldrin spent only 2 hours and 31 minutes outside the cockpit on the surface of the Moon. The next day, after 21 hours and 36 minutes on the Moon, they launched from its surface and joined Collins, who was in the main Columbia block, in which they returned to Earth.
The subsequent flights of the Apollo program significantly expanded man's knowledge of the Moon. During the flight of the Apollo 12 spacecraft (C. Conrad, A. Bean and R. Gordon, November 14–24, 1969), Gordon and Bean landed their lunar cabin "Intrepid" ("Brave") 180 m from the automatic space probe " Surveyor 3 and retrieved its components for return to Earth during one of its two surface trips, each of which lasted about four hours.
The launch and transition to the flight path to the Moon of the Apollo 13 spacecraft (April 11–17, 1970) went well. However, approximately 56 hours after launch, the flight control center asked the crew (J. Lovell, F. Heise Jr. and J. Schweigert Jr.) to turn on all the agitators and tank heaters, followed by a loud bang, complete loss of oxygen from one tank and leakage from the other. (As was later determined by NASA's emergency commission, the tank explosion was the result of manufacturing defects and damage sustained during pre-launch testing.) Within minutes, the crew and mission control realized that the Odyssey's main unit would soon lose all oxygen and be left without power and that the lunar cabin "Aquarius" ("Aquarius") will have to be used as a lifeboat when the spacecraft circles the Moon and on the way back to Earth. For almost five and a half days, the crew was forced to remain in temperatures close to zero, making do with a limited supply of water and turning off almost all the ship's service systems to save electricity. The cosmonauts turned on the Aquarius engines three times to correct the trajectory. Before entering the Earth's atmosphere, the crew turned on the systems of the Odyssey ship, using chemical current sources intended for landing, and separated from the Aquarius. After a normal descent through the atmosphere, the Odyssey splashed down safely in the Pacific Ocean.
After this accident, NASA specialists installed additional emergency chemical batteries and an oxygen tank in a separate compartment of the main unit and changed the design of the oxygen tanks. Manned lunar expeditions resumed with the Apollo 14 mission (A. Shepard, E. Mitchell and S. Roosa, January 31 - February 9, 1971). Shepard and Mitchell spent 33 hours on the lunar surface and made two walks to the surface. The last three expeditions of the Apollo spacecraft 15 (D. Scott, J. Irwin and A. Worden, July 26 - August 7, 1971), 16 (J. Young, C. Duke Jr. and K. Mattingly II, 16–27 April 1972) and 17 (Y. Cernan, G. Schmitt and R. Evans, December 1–19, 1972) were the most fruitful from a scientific point of view. Each lunar cabin included a lunar all-terrain rover (lunokhod) powered by electric batteries, which allowed the astronauts to move up to 8 km from the cabin in each of the three exits to the surface; in addition, each main unit had television cameras and other measuring instruments in one of the equipment compartments.
The samples delivered by the Apollo expeditions for scientific research amounted to more than 379.5 kg of rocks and soil, which changed and expanded man's understanding of the origin of the solar system.
After the success of the first Apollo flights, the Soviet Union made only a few launches of Soyuz spacecraft, Zond spacecraft, and the N-1 launch vehicle as part of the manned lunar mission and landing program. Since 1971, the Soyuz spacecraft has been used as a transport ship as part of the flight program of the Salyut and Mir space stations.
EXPERIMENTAL FLIGHT "APOLLO" - "SOYUZ"
What began as a rivalry ended with the joint Apollo-Soyuz experimental flight program (ASTP). This flight was attended by D. Slayton, T. Stafford and V. Brandt in the main block of the Apollo spacecraft (July 15–24, 1975) and A.A. Leonov and V.N. Kubasov on the Soyuz-19 spacecraft (15 –July 21, 1975). The program arose from the desire of the two states to develop joint rescue procedures and technical means in the event that any space crew becomes stranded in orbit. Since the atmosphere of the ships was completely different, NASA created a special docking compartment that was used as a decompression chamber. Several rendezvous maneuvers and docking operations were successfully completed, after which the ships separated and flew autonomously until returning to Earth.
Literature:
Glushko V.P. Cosmonautics: encyclopedia. M., 1985
Gatland K. et al. Space Technology: An Illustrated Encyclopedia. M., 1986
Kelly K. et al. Our home is Earth. M., 1988
