1
^ Russian national language and its varieties
Vernacular- words, expressions, grammatical forms and constructions common in non-literary colloquial speech, characteristic of poorly educated native speakers and clearly deviating from existing literary language norms. The bearer of colloquial speech is the uneducated and semi-educated urban population; sometimes, words from colloquial speech are used by high-ranking officials in order to find a common language with the target audience. The term “vernacular” was introduced by Dmitry Ushakov to mean “the speech of the uneducated and semi-educated urban population who do not know literary norms.” Jargon- sociolect; differs from the general spoken language in specific vocabulary and phraseology, expressiveness of turns and special use of word-formation means, but does not have its own phonetic and grammatical system. It develops in an environment of more or less closed groups: schoolchildren, students, military personnel, and various professional groups. These languages should not be confused with professional languages, which are characterized by a highly developed and fairly accurate terminology of a particular craft, branch of technology, as well as “thieves’ jargons,” the language of the declassed, criminal elements of society. Dialect(Greek - “adverb” from Greek - “to speak, to express”) is a type of language that is used as a means of communication between people whom the majority of the public does not understand. A dialect is a complete system of speech communication (oral or signed, but not necessarily written) with its own vocabulary and grammar.
^ The concept of language norm. Variants of norms and difficulties associated with them. Types of norms
A historically determined set of commonly used linguistic means, as well as the rules for their selection and use, recognized by society as the most suitable in a particular historical period. A norm is one of the essential properties of a language, ensuring its functioning and historical continuity due to its inherent stability, although not excluding the variability of linguistic means and noticeable historical variability, since the norm is designed, on the one hand, to preserve speech traditions, and on the other, to satisfy current and the changing needs of society. Types:
lexical- ensure the correct choice of words;
accentological- provide for the correct placement of stress;
orthoepic- describe the correct pronunciation of words;
spelling- consolidate the uniformity of speech transmission in writing;
morphological- rules of inflection and word formation described in grammars;
syntactic- regulate the correct construction of grammatical structures.
^ The concept of speech culture. The role of speech culture in communication
a concept widespread in Soviet and Russian linguistics of the 20th century that combines mastery of the linguistic norms of oral and written language, as well as “the ability to use expressive language means in different communication conditions.” The same phrase denotes a linguistic discipline that deals with defining the boundaries of cultural (in the above sense) speech behavior, developing normative aids, and promoting language norms and expressive language means. The culture of speech, in addition to normative stylistics, includes the regulation of “those speech phenomena and spheres that are not yet included in the canon of literary speech and the system of literary norms” - that is, all everyday written and oral communication, including such forms as vernacular, various kinds of jargon etc. Role.“Man is realized in dialogue” Frankl. In relationships between people, the culture of speech and its style, the so-called “slang,” play an important role. This can best be observed in the communication of people from different walks of life, different age categories, the environment in which they find themselves, as well as the totality of these differences. So, for example, a person who grew up in a small village, communicated all his life with his own kind in this limited world - let’s call it “world A”, regardless of it, a unique culture is developed, and more often its complete absence, if we talk about generally accepted moral norms, speech and behavior during communication. So two or more individuals from world A, communicating, do not experience the slightest difficulty, since language, speech style, way of constructing sentences, interests, mental abilities, education, moral principles and their development are approximately at the same level. Accordingly, neither party experiences any inconvenience and the communication process proceeds normally: everyone receives from each other what they started communicating for. Both parties remain satisfied, and subsequently make contact with each other just as easily.
^ Functional styles of the modern Russian language: areas of use and characteristics.
Functional styles- these are varieties of language, determined by the spheres of human activity and having their own norms for the selection and combination of linguistic units. Scientific style Scientific style is the style of scientific communications. The scope of use of this style is science; the recipients of text messages can be scientists, future specialists, students, or simply anyone interested in a particular scientific field; The authors of texts of this style are scientists, experts in their field. The purpose of style can be described as describing laws, identifying patterns, describing discoveries, teaching, etc. Formal business style Business style is used for communication and information in an official setting (the sphere of legislation, office work, administrative and legal activities). This style is used for drawing up documents: laws, orders, regulations, characteristics, protocols, receipts, certificates. The scope of application of the official business style is law, the author is a lawyer, lawyer, diplomat, or just a citizen. Journalistic style The journalistic style serves to influence people through the media. It is found in the genres of articles, essays, reports, feuilletons, interviews, oratory and is characterized by the presence of socio-political vocabulary, logic, and emotionality. This style is used in the spheres of political-ideological, social and cultural relations. The information is intended not only for a narrow circle of specialists, but for broad layers of society, and the impact is directed not only on the mind, but also on the feelings of the recipient. Conversational style The conversational style is used for direct communication, when the author shares his thoughts or feelings with others, exchanges information on everyday issues in an informal setting. It often uses colloquial and colloquial vocabulary. It is distinguished by its large semantic capacity and colorfulness, giving liveliness and expressiveness to speech. The usual form of implementation of the conversational style is dialogue; this style is more often used in oral speech. There is no preliminary selection of language material. In this style of speech, extra-linguistic factors play an important role: facial expressions, gestures, and the environment. Artistic style The artistic style is used in fiction. It affects the imagination and feelings of the reader, conveys the thoughts and feelings of the author, uses all the wealth of vocabulary, the possibilities of different styles, and is characterized by imagery and emotionality of speech. The emotionality of an artistic style differs from the emotionality of colloquial and journalistic styles.
^ Lexical norms. The main errors that occur when lexical norms are violated.
Lexical norms regulate the use of words in speech. Lexical norms include:
norms of word usage;
norms of lexical compatibility
norms of functional and stylistic affiliation of a word (stylistic coloring).
^ Morphological norms. The main errors that occur when morphological norms are violated
Morphological norms are the norms for the correct formation of grammatical forms of words of different parts of speech (forms of gender, number, short forms and degrees of comparison of adjectives, etc.). In morphology (as well as in syntax and pronunciation) there are strong and weak norms. Strong ones are observed by everyone who speaks Russian as a native language. Weak ones are easily influenced by outsiders, are poorly absorbed and are often distorted. A typical violation of morphological norms is the use of a word in a form that does not exist or does not correspond to the context. For example: railway rail, imported shampoo, registered parcel post.
^ Syntactic norms. The main errors that occur when morphological norms are violated
Syntactic norms are the norms for the correct construction of phrases and sentences. Compliance with syntactic norms is the most important condition for correct speech. Syntactic norms include rules for word agreement and syntactic control, correlating parts of a sentence with each other using grammatical forms of words so that the sentence is a literate and meaningful statement. Violation of syntactic norms leads to syntactic errors of various types. For example, there is a violation of syntactic norms in the following sentences:
Reading the book, the question arises about the future of the country.
The poem is characterized by a synthesis of lyrical and epic principles.
Married to his brother, none of the children were born alive.
Orthoepic norms. The main errors that occur when spelling norms are violated
Orthoepy (from the Greek orthos “correct” and epos “speech”) - correct pronunciation. The word “orthoepy” is used in two meanings:
a system of uniform pronunciation standards in the literary language;
a science (section of phonetics) that deals with pronunciation standards, their justification and establishment.
with emphasis,
with pronunciation e or e after consonants in borrowed words,
with pronunciation e or е after stressed consonants,
with pronunciation ch or sh in combinations cht and chn,
with the pronunciation of individual words (use of extra vowels and consonants or, conversely, illegal omission of a vowel or consonant sound in a word),
with the pronunciation of the sounds [zh] and [zh"] in place of the combinations zhzh, zhd, zzh.
^ Language and communications: types of communication, rules of communication. How to make communication effective
Types: Frontal communication- a type of communication in which transactions go in one direction from the speaker to many listeners, according to the principle “one speaks - the rest are silent.” If, for example, during a lecture, a student asks the lecturer a question, then a dialogue may arise between the student and the lecturer, but the type of communication remains frontal, since while one of them speaks, the principle “one speaks - the rest are silent” is preserved . Dialogue- a type of communication in which transactions occur in both directions between two interlocutors. Indirect communication- a type of communication in which transactions occur in both directions through information recorded in some form, for example, through text, sound or video recording, drawing or diagram.
^ Speech etiquette and its functions. Etiquette in formal and informal communication situations. Features of Russian speech etiquette
The etiquette formulas themselves do not contain direct messages, but do contain indirect ones. The word “hello” in everyday communication means: “I want to maintain a relationship with you,” and the absence of this etiquette sign is read as an unwillingness to maintain a relationship. That is why the norm is to greet employees, clients, partners, and visitors not only at the beginning of a conversation, but also in the absence of the intention to enter into verbal contact. If you enter the office of a colleague or boss where strangers are sitting, it is customary to greet everyone present. Feature The Russian language is the presence in it of two pronouns - “you” and “you”, which can be perceived as forms of the second singular. The choice of one form or another depends on the social status of the interlocutors, the nature of their relationship, and the official/informal environment. It is not customary to address strangers with “you”; in an official setting; with those older in age, rank and sometimes position. At the same time, you should not use “you” to address friends and relatives, classmates or work colleagues. In the official situations (boss - subordinate, employee - client, teacher - student, etc.), the strictest rules of speech etiquette apply. This area of communication is most clearly regulated by etiquette. Therefore, violations of speech etiquette are most noticeable in it, and it is in this area that violations can have the most serious consequences for the subjects of communication. In unofficial situations (acquaintances, friends, relatives, etc.), the norms of speech etiquette are the most free. Often verbal communication in this situation is not regulated at all. Close people, friends, relatives, lovers, in the absence of strangers, can tell each other everything and in any tone. Their verbal communication is determined by moral norms that fall within the scope of ethics, but not by etiquette norms. But if an outsider is present in an informal situation, then the current rules of speech etiquette immediately apply to the entire situation.
^ Official business style and its features
Official business style is a functional style of speech, the environment of verbal communication in the field of official relations: in the field of legal relations and management. This area covers international relations, law, economics, the military industry, advertising, communication in official institutions, and government activities. Peculiarities: Official business style is the style of documents: international treaties, government acts, legal laws, regulations, charters, instructions, official correspondence, business papers, etc.
conciseness, compact presentation, economical use of language;
standard arrangement of material, frequent obligatory form (identity card, various kinds of diplomas, birth and marriage certificates, monetary documents, etc.), the use of clichés inherent in this style;
widespread use of terminology, names (legal, diplomatic, military, administrative, etc.), the presence of a special stock of vocabulary and phraseology (official, clerical), inclusion of complex abbreviations and abbreviations in the text;
frequent use of verbal nouns, denominative prepositions (based on, in relation to, in accordance with, in fact, by virtue of, for the purpose of, at the expense of, along the line, etc.), complex conjunctions;
the narrative nature of the presentation, the use of nominative sentences with enumeration;
direct word order in a sentence as the predominant principle of its construction;
the tendency to use complex sentences reflecting the logical subordination of some facts to others;
almost complete absence of emotionally expressive speech means;
weak individualization of style.
Rules of oral business communication. Telephone conversation
Be punctual in everything
Don't say too much
Think not only about yourself, but also about others
Dress appropriately
Speak and write in good language
^ Preparing and conducting presentations, self-presentations (interviews)
When preparing your speech, remember that this is the most important stage. You should ensure that you have all the necessary information and materials. So, you will need:
All information on the topic of the presentation
Information about the place and time of the presentation
Well-designed visual aids
Abstract cards
Necessary vocabulary and terminology on the presentation topic
An assistant in front of whom you will rehearse your speech
^ Preparing and conducting business conversations and meetings
A business conversation is a meaningful desire of one person or group of people, through a word, to evoke a desire in another person or group of people to take action that will change at least one of the parties to a situation or establish new relationships between the participants in the conversation. Preparation
Planning
preliminary analysis of participants and situation;
initiative to conduct a conversation and determine its objectives;
defining strategy and tactics;
a detailed plan for preparing for the conversation.
Operational preparation:
collection of materials;
selection and systematization of materials;
thinking and arranging materials;
work plan;
developing the main part of the conversation;
the beginning and end of a conversation.
Editing:
control (i.e. checking the work done);
giving final form to the conversation.
Written official business speech and its linguistic features
It would be wrong and unfair to call the official business style clerical. This is a whole variety of Russian literary language. And this is an appropriate style, which has its own means of expression, ways of naming objects and phenomena, and is even expressive in its own way. By observing the norms of official business speech, we pay tribute not to cliches and bureaucracy, but to the objectively established tradition of constructing speech in accordance with the expressed content, setting and purpose of the statement. Two features of formal business style:
The content expressed in an official business style, given its enormous importance, must exclude any ambiguity, any discrepancies.
Official business style is characterized by a certain, more or less limited range of topics.
^ Types of documents. Language and style of documents for official use. Samples of documents for personal use
By purpose - organizational documents (Charter, Job description, Regulations, Staffing table, Structure and staffing); administrative documents (Order, Extract from the order, Order, Instruction, Resolution, Decision), information and reference documents (Act, Protocol, Report, Explanatory Note, Service Note, Letter, Certificate);
By time of creation - primary and secondary (abstract, abstract, review, etc.);
By production method - rough, white, electronic, graphic, handwritten document, typewritten, printed (brochure, book, magazine);
By type of content - text, iconic (graphic), idiographic (diagrams, maps, notes), auditory, multimedia;
According to the method of presentation - electronic, on paper;
By place of publication - internal, external;
By sending direction - incoming, outgoing;
By distribution - published, unpublished, unpublished, intermediate;
According to the need for technical means - human-readable, machine-readable;
According to the level of secrecy - not secret, secret, with different levels of secrecy.
^ Scientific style and its substyles: characteristics and areas of use
a functional style of speech, a literary language, which is characterized by a number of features: preliminary consideration of the statement, monologue character, strict selection of linguistic means, inclination towards standardized speech. The style of scientific works is ultimately determined by their content and the goals of scientific communication: to explain facts as accurately and completely as possible, to show cause-and-effect relationships between phenomena, to identify patterns of historical development, and so on. Substyles:
Scientific. The addressee of this style is a scientist, a specialist. The purpose of style can be called the identification and description of new facts, patterns, discoveries. Typical for dissertations, monographs, abstracts, scientific articles, scientific reports, theses, scientific reviews, etc.
Scientific and educational. Works in this style are addressed to future specialists and students, with the goal of teaching and describing the facts necessary to master the material, therefore the facts presented in the text and examples are given as typical ones. A description “from general to specific”, strict classification, active introduction and use of special terms are mandatory. Typical for textbooks, teaching aids, lectures, etc. Popular science. The audience with this style usually does not have special knowledge in this area. Yu. A. Sorokin points out that a popular science text is written “scientifically, popularly, artistically,” that is, while maintaining the rigor and clarity of presentation characteristic of a scientific text, its feature is the simplified nature of the presentation and the possible use of emotionally expressive means of speech.
^ Linguistic features of scientific text. Terminology as a system
Generality. Abstractness, abstractness of presentation. Almost every word acts as a designation of a general concept or abstract object. The abstract-generalized nature of speech is manifested in the selection of lexical material (nouns predominate over verbs, general scientific terms and words are used, verbs are used in certain tense and finite forms) and special syntactic constructions (indefinite-personal sentences, passive constructions)
Logical presentation. There is an orderly system of connections between the parts of the statement; the presentation is consistent and consistent. This is achieved by using special syntactic structures and typical means of interphrase communication.
Precision of presentation. Achieved by using unambiguous expressions, terms, words with clear lexical and semantic compatibility
Evidentiary presentation. Reasoning substantiates scientific hypotheses and propositions
Objectivity of presentation. Manifests itself in the presentation, analysis of different points of view on the problem, in the focus on the subject of the statement and the absence of subjectivity in conveying the content, in the impersonality of linguistic expression
Saturation with factual information, which is necessary for evidence and objectivity of presentation. The most important task of the scientific style of speech is to explain the causes of phenomena, communicate essential features, describe the properties of the subject of scientific research, identify patterns, and teach.
Lexical units that have a functional-style coloring of a given (i.e. scientific) style. These are special lexical units, syntactic structures, morphological forms
Interstyle units, i.e. linguistic units are stylistically neutral, used equally in all styles
Stylistically neutral linguistic units, predominantly functioning in a given style. Thus, their quantitative predominance in a given style becomes stylistically significant.
^ Logical structure, construction of a scientific text. Ways and methods of creating scientific text
Composition is the structure, relationship and relative position of the parts of a work. Compositionally, any scientific work, regardless of the field of science and genre, contains two interconnected parts - descriptive (overview) and main. The descriptive (overview) part reflects the progress of scientific research, while the introduction provides justification for the relevance of scientific research, formulates the subject and chosen method of research, sets out the history of the issue (if necessary) and the expected result. The main part of the scientific work highlights the research methodology and technology and the achieved result. All materials that are not vital for understanding the problem are included in the appendix. Scheme for constructing the introductory part of a scientific work (abstract, dissertation, problem article, etc.):
justification of the relevance of scientific research (relevance of the problem);
characteristics of the theoretical and practical works available on this topic; history of the research question;
highlighting a specific issue (subject of research);
putting forward a hypothesis;
justification for the use of the chosen theory (method);
preliminary formulation of conclusions.
a summary of the scientific study;
final formulation of conclusions;
list of author's works.
topic, i.e. object of consideration, the content of which is revealed in a certain aspect; in addition, a subtopic, i.e. a topic that is included in a broader topic, forming part of it and distinguished by a narrower aspect of consideration or consideration of one of the parts of a given text. There is also a microtheme, which is equal to a paragraph in the text and provides semantic connections between parts of the text.)
The main ways of constructing a scientific text are description, reasoning, and narration. A scientific text is a type of text with a rigid structure. Description- this is a verbal depiction of a phenomenon of reality by listing its characteristics.
Narration- a story about events, phenomena, conveyed in a certain sequence. In this case, the order of words in the sentence is observed: subject - predicate.
Reasoning- verbal presentation, explanation and confirmation of any thought.
^ Primary and secondary scientific texts. Abstracts, abstract: design, structure, language constructions
Primary- these are primary sources, originals. These include: scientific article, monograph. A scientific article is an essay in which the author sets out scientific research. Secondary- are created on the basis of primary texts belonging to another author. In a scientific text, the following parts are distinguished: title, introductory part (the purpose of the work is formulated and the choice of research topic is justified, research methods are described). The main part is divided into chapters in accordance with the objectives of the work.
^ Abstract, synopsis, review: design, structure, language structures
Abstract- a brief summary of a scientific work or several scientific works.
structure:
Introductory part - bibliographic description.
The actual text, consisting of an introduction, main part and conclusion.
Conclusions, reference material.
The abstract must have a title page, table of contents, introduction, main part, conclusion, bibliography. Abstract- written recording of the main provisions, perceived by ear or written text. When taking notes, you need to write down all the output data of the source (year, place of publication, author, title). Select fields on the page, preferably on the right and left. On the left, the original pages and structural sections are marked, and the main problems are formulated. On the right are your own conclusions and links to other sources. A brief summary of the content of the text is written in the central part of the page. (quotes, facts, calculations). Review- written analysis of the text, which involves commenting on the main provisions of the work (i.e., interpretation of the author’s thoughts, expression of one’s attitude to the problem, argumentation and evaluation, conclusions about the value of the work) Structure: introduction, indicating problems and tasks, characteristics, summary (the article is devoted to the topic, problems, the article discusses, the author describes the methods), evaluative honor - advantages and disadvantages (the advantages of the work include, it is necessary to note the creative nature of the research, conclusions) Plan
Subject of analysis (in the work under review)
Relevance of the topic (the work is devoted to a current topic)
Formulation of the main thesis (the article brings the question to the fore)
Brief summary of the work
Overall assessment (thus the work clearly reveals opportunities)
Advantages, disadvantages (however, the thesis that the noted shortcomings do not reduce the high level of work raises doubts)
^ Rhetoric. Types and types of oratory. Argument in rhetoric
Rhetoric- is the science of methods of persuasion, various forms of predominantly linguistic influence on the audience. Genera and species table.
Dispute- public discussion of problems of interest to the participants in the discussion, caused by the desire to thoroughly and deeply understand the issues under discussion. Synonyms - dispute, polemic, discussion, debate, debate. Dispute- collective discussion of moral, political, etc. problems.
Discussion- public discussion of any problems or controversial issues at a meeting. The main feature is the absence of a thesis and the presence of a topic of discussion.
Controversy- The struggle of fundamentally opposing opinions in order to reject someone else’s opinion and defend one’s point of view.
^ Preparation, creation, delivery of a public speech. Speaker and audience
Preparing a speech begins with determining its topic. The topic should not be abstract, but clear and understandable to listeners, precise and concise. The topic can be chosen by the author himself or it can be determined by chance or situation. The topic is covered if all selected aspects are covered, a sufficient number of necessary facts are given, when the conclusion logically follows from the content of the lecture and everything is clear to the audience. Then the purpose of the speech is determined, because in one case, the goal is to inform the listener, in the other, to make the listener worry, in the third, to accept the author’s position. The next stage is the selection of material for a specific performance. The speaker must study official documents, reference and popular science literature, and summarize observations and reflections.
UDC 82.015
CONCISE LANGUAGE CONSTRUCTIONS,
BASED ON COMPRESSION OF SYNTACTIC STRUCTURE
_© 2012 Rimikhanova A.N.
Dagestan State Pedagogical University
The tendency towards linguistic economy of means is analyzed, and this shows the idiostyle of V. Veresaev. The writer's syntactic laconicism is represented by incomplete, elliptical constructions, nominative sentences, truncation, non-conjunction, etc. The originality of these constructions in structure and stylistic use is revealed. They clearly demonstrate the closeness of the language of stories to living spoken language. The works of V. Veresaev in this regard continue the line of democratization of the Russian literary language.
The author of the article analyzes the tendency towards the linguistic means economy. Its characteristic of V. Veresaev's idiostyle. The writer's laconicism is represented by incomplete, elliptic constructions, nominative sentences, reduction, asyndeton, etc. She revealed the originality of these constructions in the structure and stulystic use. They visually demonstrate the closeness of the language to the vivid conversational speech. In this respect V. Veresaev's work continues the line of democratizing the Russian literary language.
Key words: incomplete constructions, syntax of literary prose, nominative structures, truncated constructions, non-union sentences, compression of syntactic structure.
Keywords: incomplete construction, fiction syntax, nominative structures, reducted constructions, asyndetic sentences, syntactic structure ellipticity.
The tendency towards language economy is present in any language. It is clearly manifested in the language of V. Veresaev. Since communication is the “transfer of experience” in the form of textual information, language economy is expressed, first of all, in various methods of its compression. The compression process is characterized by two opposing trends: on the one hand, the desire to reduce the length of the speech message, on the other, a simultaneous increase in the information content and meaningful volume of the utterance. Information sufficiency will allow the author of a written text to be adequately understood, compactness of presentation will save time and effort for readers. Therefore, when speaking about the means of linguistic conciseness, it is first of all necessary to keep in mind those means of language that allow the writer to reduce the length of the statement and the area of the text.
The issue of style, in particular the style of V. Veresaev, cannot be resolved without penetrating into the syntactic structure of works of art, which depends on the methods of expression and argumentation of thought chosen by the author. In the hierarchy of language levels, syntax occupies the top position. “Syntax is a necessary organizing part of the structure of a literary text; it is where the writer’s style is reflected most directly and visibly.”
We are inclined to the same opinion, believing that the main signs
The writer’s individual style is most clearly visible in the syntactic means he uses.
Syntactic laconicism involves compression of the sign structure by using incomplete, elliptical constructions, nominative sentences, truncation, non-conjunction, etc.
One of the typical style-forming features of Veraev’s works is the incompleteness of the statement. It manifests itself in very different ways.
Incomplete sentences are distinguished by brevity, dynamism, solve the problem of saving language resources, give liveliness, naturalness, ease to speech, and provide emotional presentation.
Traditionally, incomplete sentences are divided into contextual, situational and actually elliptical. In the first two varieties, incompleteness is motivated by context or speech situation. In the third type, thanks to the lexical meanings of existing words, the content of the utterance is perceived as complete, not requiring restoration of the “missing” (elliptical) member, most often the predicate. He stood, stood, waited, waited. Dimka still doesn’t come out. He got worried, opened the door slightly, looked in - no one was there. I went into the restroom. On the floor there is a blue skirt, a ladies' wind hat. And there is no one. He was dumbfounded, then rushed to the hole and looked in. Nowhere. He picked up his skirt and hat from the floor and went outside. (“Two Escapes”). (About Chaliapin.) He sings decently. (“Spouses”). If I hadn’t started making vodka, I would now have a house like this. I earn one and a half hundred rubles a month... Does it happen that they bite? No, they don’t bite, I understand their character. (“Dog hairdresser”).
In the linguistic system, incomplete and complete sentences represent variants of one invariant. In terms of content, these constructions are equivalent, since there are two ways of presenting information - explicit and implicit. Incompleteness is seen as an implicit way of conveying information, and incomplete utterance is only an option in terms of expression.
An incomplete utterance is an utterance in the structure of which one or another component is not verbally represented as a result of adaptation to the context. Context is a necessary condition for communication. It can be explicit, that is, clearly expressed by both verbal and non-verbal means, and implicit, that is, clearly unexpressed. Implicit context is either one of the types of presupposition, or background knowledge of communicants about the previous situation, or knowledge of previous texts.
On the fourth day, he asked his beaten comrade to hand over the delivery of mail to the military commander out of turn. He delivered and did not take off his cap. The military commander punched him in the mouth (“Rudometov”).
In 1899, the illustrated weekly Niva published Leo Tolstoy’s new novel “Resurrection.” (...) We started talking about the novel. Merchant:
Bad, bad! I receive Niva and read it - it’s very bad! As I wrote before! "Cossacks"! "Anna Karenina"! "War and Peace"! What a deal! And now!.. No, it’s outdated! It's time for him to go to the attic. Where do old furniture go... (“Company”).
Veresaev's sentences with ellipsis of the subject are more common. There is a scientific explanation for this. Researchers note that the predicate is omitted less frequently than the subject: firstly, it is the predicate that usually contains what is new that is communicated in the sentence, and secondly, with the help of the predicate, predicativity is largely expressed - a feature that characterizes the sentence as such. With all this, we can note that Veresaev uses
incomplete sentences in the later period of creativity. For example, in the story “Two Escapes” there are a lot of incomplete, subjectless sentences: She hasn’t eaten since the morning. My head began to spin from hunger and the excitement I had experienced. She will faint and attract attention... She directed all her willpower not to fall (Two escapes). The owner entered the room. For some reason he was arrested only the next day. I saw Dimka and was surprised (Two escapes).
There are sentences with ellipsis of minor members. It is significant that among the secondary members, the distributors of the predicate - additions and adverbials - are more often omitted. They then strengthen the role of the predicate in comparison with the subject, so that in communicative and stylistic terms the predicate dominates, its composition expressing the various states of the characters: In the dark corner of the room there were two beds next to each other. On one, a boy of about seven years old, wrapped in a blanket, was sleeping, on the other, one of the arrested was dozing (“Two Escapes”).
Sentences with an ellipsis of the predicate are rarely found: Suddenly the doors are wide open, a gendarmerie officer, followed by policemen; There are also police under the windows. (“Two Escapes”). From our unit, senior non-commissioned officer Bastrykin was sent in a gig to the post office for letters and parcels in the city of Maimakai. Coming back. An officer on horseback approached and rode past... (“From our unit”).
Incomplete constructions that perform the function of concise text are also found in complex sentences. This juice has the following property: a person, upon waking up, blindly falls in love with the first woman he sees, and a woman with the first man she sees. (“Notes to Self”). Kichunov is standing, and in front of him, next to his old mother, is an amazingly beautiful girl of about fifteen, naked to the waist (“Paramedic Kichunov”). Together we walked along the stage from Chelyabinsk. I recognized you immediately. (The gentleman stepped back, he followed him). They were imprisoned for theft, they stole together (“Ivan Ivanovich”). The apprentices received payment every week, the girls - after two weeks (Two Ends, 296). Some applaud Skvortsov, others applaud him (Moscow Literary and Artistic Circle, 355).
In some constructions, both main members of the sentence are missing:
(Yura) Asks his father:
Who's raining?
Have you seen how the sponge gets wet? That’s how a cloud is: it gets wet, and then rain starts dripping from it.
Yurku was not satisfied with the explanation. I asked my grandmother. She talked for a long time about evaporation, about cooling. Yura listened attentively, respectfully and did not understand anything. However he said:
And dad is so stupid! He says: because the cloud got wet (“Yura”).
Greater stylistic load in the works of V.V. Veresaev
They also have nominative sentences. They are one-part sentences of the substantive type, where the main member has the form of the nominative case and combines the function of naming an object and the idea of its existence, being. “The meaning of beingness is dominant here, and this meaning has its own qualitative connotation in nominative sentences - the static existence of an object.”
The existence of an object in nominative sentences is expressed in the present tense. Both the existential meaning and the indication of the coincidence of being with the moment of speech, regardless of the presence or absence of other members, appear in the main member of the sentence. Due to their grammatical nature, nominative sentences, which express predicativeness without the help of a verb and are thus informatively rich, are used by V. Veresaev for a short, extremely concise message. This form of presentation against the background of neutral syntactic constructions
stands out for its fragmentation and attracts attention by updating the information it contains. Being a type of verbless constructions, nominative sentences belong to expressive syntax. The expressiveness of nominative sentences is based on their brevity and on the substantive nature of the construction, which allows them to display the fact of reality in isolation, to focus the reader’s attention on particularly significant moments of the situation.
Nominative sentences contribute to the creation of subtext, which is formed by omitting some details or components of the design. Thanks to nominative constructions, the subtext is enriched with the essence of being, in which the author’s abstract thought is concentrated. By participating in the organization of the text, nominative sentences influence the structuring of its parts.
The introduction of nominative sentences into the text along with verbal sentences is due to V. Veresaev’s desire for a more figurative and emotional reflection of reality.
In the artistic works of V. Veresaev there are nominative sentences, both uncommon and common. Common nominative sentences consist of a main member and a related agreed and inconsistent definition or various adverbial words. A month, roofs and fences shining with dew, heavy black shadows on the paths (Error). Once, as a student, I was walking along Nevsky Prospect. Frosty wind, blizzard, so dry and stabbing (To Life, 5).
Nominative sentences outline the exposition, indicate the place and setting of the action. Beginning of July. At the dacha. Stepan Sergeich entered the dining room with a face as dark as cast iron (Stepan Sergeich). Late night. Electricity is burning in the smoky upper hall. (Moscow literary and artistic circle). Evening. They sit together and drink tea (Test). Petersburg. Outskirts. A narrow dray sleigh with wooden boxes with nails piled high on them (Belated). Ceylon! People believed the location of earthly paradise to be in Ceylon. It was my long-time dream to see him (Chokhov).
Nominative sentences are included in the author's speech as syntactic constructions of a descriptive type. Their appearance in various kinds of descriptions (landscape, a person’s appearance, the setting of an event) is due to the stylistic property of “cinematography” of nominative constructions, which manifests itself in the ability of this type of sentence to take a “snapshot” of a fact of reality. The author's descriptions endow the reader with the ability to see the depicted situation through the eyes of the author of the description; the reader becomes, as it were, a participant in the events, a co-author of the writer: The coffin stood in a gloomy Lutheran chapel. Lancet arches, lancet narrow windows. Dusk around (P.F. Lesgaft). By presenting individual details of the described situation in the form of bright strokes, nominative sentences focus attention on these details.
The author's speech can express the author's subjective assessment of some fact that is in the sphere of his attention and depiction: Student. A handsome man with thoughtful eyes, a poetic nature, he knew Tyutchev (The Blue Room) by heart. The first two parts of the second sentence are nominative, in them the author highlights the most significant, striking features of the hero.
The brevity and verbless nature of nominative sentences make it possible to impose on their content almost any emotional shades, which are determined by the meaning of the context in which the nominative sentence is included.
The chains in Veresaev’s texts are especially expressive
nominative sentences, when used, the fragmentation and brevity of the form “breaks” the usual syntactic connections. The intermittent rhythm of the narrative, created by chains of nominative sentences, has the goal, first of all, to actualize, highlight the statement, and draw closer attention to it, counting on the associative possibilities of the reader’s perception. Beginning of July. Full moon. Black shadows from trees and buildings on the grass of the yard. (“At night”) Rich family. A large estate near Moscow. Mansion in Moscow (“Not such a scoundrel”).
The nominative series can be determined by the structure of the text of a descriptive nature: Came. A large workshop, plaster masks on the walls, ancient weapons; deliberately dim lighting of shaded bulbs, two spreading palm trees, in the dusk the diamonds in the earrings and rings of women flash sharply (“At the Artist’s”).
A chain of nominative sentences can reveal the content of the preceding sentence: I admired her. Subtle facial features, a kind of deep spiritual grace and inviolably chaste purity of lips (“At the Artist’s”).
As A. S. Popov notes, “laconism (and thereby a certain abstractness) and at the same time figurativeness, picturesqueness (and thereby figurative concreteness) - these are the specific features inherent in nominative sentences in the functional-stylistic aspect.” The use of nominative sentences allows you to create a picture from disparate details and elements.
The descriptive nature of nominative constructions contributes to their frequent use in works of art. For V. Veresaev, the use of nominative sentences has become an important artistic device, giving laconicism and expressiveness to the statement.
One of the linguistic means that allows V. Veresaev to achieve laconic speech is non-union.
Having studied the writer’s work, we traced the evolution of artistic syntax, which follows the path of a sharp reduction in the use of complex sentences (especially conjunctions) in favor of simple ones, and in complex sentences the non-conjunctive connection prevails over the conjunctive one.
Most often in the works of V. Veresaev the following types of non-union connections are found between individual parts of a complex sentence:
1. Non-union constructions with a causal relationship between parts. The second part of such sentences contains the basis or reason for what is reported in the first part; in this case, the first sentence is pronounced with a special warning intonation, “a restless lowering of the voice” (A. M. Peshkovsky) towards the end of the statement, so that the reader is, as it were, prepared for the fact that an explanation should follow; In addition, there is a rather long pause before the second part. Here there could no longer be any hesitation: the poems, without any doubt, were very strong, imbued with a fiery civic feeling and generally impeccable (Memoirs, 171). The gentleman behaved with his companions especially respectfully and attentively - they must have only met here, on the ship (Meeting, 147). There is only one behest of mine to you: do not come to our workshop: there is death for women there (Two Ends, 275). I resolutely refused to speak tomorrow - I’m very upset by Alexei’s death, my head is a mess, I won’t be able to connect two words (To Life, 86).
Unconjunct complex sentences of this type are found mainly in the author's narration. They help the writer to comprehensively reveal a particular phenomenon. In them there is rather a simple addition of second sentences in which the logical
justification for the previous sentence. At the same time, the widespread use of these sentences in the author’s speech brings it closer to a living spoken language, imparting a certain emotional coloring and expressiveness to the author’s narration.
2. An equally large group consists of non-union explanatory sentences. They are used to explain the statements of the author or characters in the work. The first part of such sentences usually states a fact, and the second: a) reveals the content of the first, provides various kinds of additional information that clarify the content of the first part with some specific details. In terms of their intonation pattern, sentences of this type are adjacent to causal non-conjunctive sentences; b) contains an indication of the investigation, the result of what is reported in the first part. My wife Marusya and I talked to each other: what a deliverance and happiness it would be for them if this creature died! (Tuga and Zorka, 441). I remembered - with exactly the same look two years ago Donka looked into the summer dusk over the Gremyachiy Well (About One House, 144).
Basically, in non-union complex sentences with the meaning of cause, effect and explanation, a colon is placed. Thus, despite the fact that in allied complex sentences in the author’s speech, in the vast majority of cases, literary conjunctions with a neutral coloring are used, which somewhat distinguishes the language of the author’s presentation from the colloquial speech of the people, the presence of an exceptionally large number of non-union constructions in the author’s narration serves as a powerful means of bringing syntax closer together author's speech with folk colloquial syntax.
3. In a smaller number in the works of V. Veresaev (mainly in the speech of the characters) there are non-union complex sentences in which the conditional shade of meaning is combined with the temporary. For example: If you die, God, you won’t see anything! Even if I’m ready to scream in pain all my life, just to live (To Life, 55). Blow on the Milan Cathedral and it will fly into the air (To Life, 57). He has a position: if you provide a treat, you will have good work for the week (Two Ends, 277). In the last sentence, all three parts are connected by a non-union connection, the first is connected to the second by an explanatory connection, the second is connected to the third by a conditional connection.
4. Unconjunct complex sentences with similar parts are found mainly in works for combining simple sentences based on the sequence of actions performed, thereby giving the speech some smoothness, especially if several sentences are combined with a non-conjunctive connection. They are used most often in the author's narration when describing the environment in which the described events take place, as well as when sketching various genre paintings. Their characteristic feature is the parallelism of the syntactic structure of the parts included in the complex.
Anti-aircraft guns rumbled in the distance, their explosions flashed over the forest, blue beams of searchlights began to rummage across the dark sky, and ominous rumbles stretched through the clouds towards Moscow (Coward).
Sentences of this type do not allow any change in the order of the parts of a complex sentence. The sequence of actions in time is conveyed here by the writer not by conjunctions or main forms, but only by the order of sentences, therefore any rearrangement of sentences within a complex whole entails semantic shifts.
Thus, in the works of V. Veresaev, non-union complex sentences of different types are used. They are extremely unique in structure and in their stylistic use. They clearly demonstrate the closeness of the language of stories to living spoken language. The works of V. Veresaev in this regard oriented the reader towards the language of the broad masses, continuing the line of democratization of the Russian literary language and its enrichment.
Notes
1. Babaytseva V.V. One-part sentences in modern Russian. M.: Education, 1968. 2. Bondarenko A. G. Incomplete sentence as a unit of text: Author's abstract. diss. ...cand. Philol. Sci. Rostov n/d., 2002. 3. Valgina N. S. Syntax of the modern Russian language. M., 2000. 4. Veresaev V.V. Collected Works. In 5 volumes. M., 1961. 5. Ivanchikova A.I. Syntax of Dostoevsky’s artistic prose. M., 1979. 6. Omaeva Z. Ya. Syntactic constructions of expressive type as a means of expressing author’s intentions: based on the material of Nabokov’s artistic works: Abstract. diss. ...cand. Philol. Sci. Makhachkala, 2006. 7. Popov A. S. Changes in the use of nominative sentences // Development of the syntax of the modern Russian language. M., 1966. 8. Shapiro A. B. Fundamentals of Russian punctuation. M., 1955.
When you start learning English, at first your eyes run wide from the countless rules, exceptions and constructions that you need to know, understand, and even use correctly. Only after some time do you realize that this language is not as terrible as it seemed at the very beginning, and you begin to distinguish stable expressions, phrasal verbs, etc. in the text.
It is for those who are just starting to learn English, who still have a mess in their heads and who want to isolate the so-called must have or in our case must know from all this grammatical chaos, that I wrote this article. Today I’ll tell you about the basic constructions and speech patterns that are important to know and that will help you express your thoughts.
1. There is/there are
The main purpose of this construction is to tell the interlocutor that something is located somewhere, is present. We use there is/there are when we talk about what attractions there are in our city, when we describe our room or house, when we tell what is in our bag or backpack.
Please note that sentences with this construction are translated from the end, and there is/there are doesn't translate at all. There is we use with singular number, and there are, respectively, with plural.
For example:
2. To be going to
Design to be going to translated as “to gather.” We use it when we say that we will definitely do something in the future. It is important to remember that this construction works in cases where the decision was made before the conversation, that is, you decided to learn Italian and after making the decision you talk to a friend and share your plan with him:
I am going to learn Italian.
Now let's look at how to implement it into a proposal. Verb to be as always changes to am/is/are/was/were/will be depending on pronoun and tense; going to remains unchanged and is translated as “getting ready,” and then there is always a verb that tells you what exactly you are going to do.
They are going to get married this winter. - They are going to get married this winter.
We are going to earn a lot of money next summer. - We're going to make a lot of money next summer.
I am going to leave for London tomorrow. - I'm going to leave for London tomorrow.
3. The way
This figure of speech is, in my opinion, the most interesting because it can be applied to many situations. The word itself way translated as “road” and “direction”. Very often, beginners in English cannot understand how the road relates, for example, to the description of a person. We will talk about such situations now.
Turnover the way can convey an image of action. For example, you can say that you like the way she dances or the way she looks. In this case, “how” is our turn the way:
I like the way you dance. - I like the way you dance.
He likes the way I cook. - He likes the way I cook.
Also turnover the way can be translated as "way". For example:
Working hard is the only way to get your goal. - Working hard is the only way to achieve your goal.
I would like to draw your attention to the fact that this is not the only meaning and possibility of use. the way. With this phrase there are both stable expressions and verbal constructions, but for the first time the meaning discussed above will be quite sufficient.
4. It takes
This design is also quite common and will definitely be useful to you when traveling abroad. This phrase is used when we say how long something takes. We can use it to ask how long a flight to a destination will take, or how long a taxi ride to a city center will take.
It takes me an hour to get to work. - The journey to work takes me one hour.
The flight to Moscow takes 3 hours. - The flight to Moscow takes three hours.
My morning exercises take me 15 min. - My morning exercises take me 15 minutes.
Let's summarize and repeat once again what situations each of these designs is suitable for:
- there is/there are we use it when we tell what objects are in the room, house, bag, city, and so on;
- to be going to we use it when we are going to do something;
- the way suitable for describing a course of action;
- it takes we use when we report how long something takes.
And finally, I would like to give a little advice for those who are just starting to learn English: do not try to understand all the rules at once. Accumulate knowledge step by step, learn simple words, rules and tenses first, and then move on to more complex ones. And, of course, be patient with yourself and with English.
1. To express the reason in the statement, constructions with derivative prepositions are used:
in view of (what?) In view of urgent departure from the city...
due to (what?) In force lack of funds...
due to Due to schedule changes...
for lack of (what?) For lack of funds to purchase equipment...
for a reason (what?) For the reason illness...
according to (what?) According to the approved plan...
in connection with (what?) Due to absence...
In a construction with a preposition according to The norm is to use the dative case: according to (what?) – according to the order, according to the agreement, according to the schedule. It is erroneous to use the genitive case, i.e. according to schedule, plan etc.
2. In order for the statement style to be concise, you must be able to express an idea using a simple sentence, for example:
Due to the fact that I have to urgently go on a business trip... - Due to an urgent departure on a business trip...
Due to the fact that I moved to a new apartment... - Due to the move for a new apartment...
Because I was away for a long time... - In connection with a long lack of...
3. The application should indicate accurate and specific data, for example: grant academic leave from October 1, 2013 for a period of 1 year; hire from February 1, 2013; A certificate from clinic No. 5 in Kemerovo is attached.
Application writing sample
To the Director of KemSPPK
G.N.Zhukov
student of group D-111
Ivanova G.N.
STATEMENT
I ask you to allow me to transfer to the correspondence department of the second year in the specialty "Design" in connection with getting a job in a branch of the company "Vostok" as a technical secretary and the inability to continue my studies during the daytime.
Autobiography- a description of your life, a biography written in your own hand. Autobiography like business paper left according to the following form.
1. The title of the document is placed in the middle of the line and written in capital letters: AUTOBIOGRAPHY. There is no period after the word "autobiography".
2. The text of the autobiography is written by hand.
The text of the autobiography consistently indicates the following data (information) about the author of the document:
1) last name, first name, patronymic;
2) citizenship;
3) date (day, month, year) of birth;
4) place of birth;
5) family composition: surnames, first names and patronymics of father and mother, years of their birth, where and by whom they work; the same information about siblings;
6) education (where and when did you study);
7) labor activity (where, when and by whom he worked, position held);
8) own family (husband, wife, children, as in paragraph 4).
3. Signature of the compiler (right).
4. Date of writing the autobiography (also on the right). The date, month and year are written in numbers.
In an autobiography as a business paper, epithets, lyrical digressions, and colloquial vocabulary are inappropriate. The autobiography must be strictly in a formal business style.
Language rules for registering place of birth, education, work
When writing an autobiography, we inevitably face the question of how to write correctly: born in Kemerovo or in the city of Kemerovo? Let's remember the following rules.
1. The names of cities, villages, hamlets, towns, expressed by an inflected noun, as a rule, agree in case with the word being defined, for example: in the city of Saratov, in the city of Gorky, in the village of Ivanovka, on the Korobovka farm, in the village of Ilinskoye.
2. Do not agree the above names, if expressed:
a) phrase: in the city of Krivoy Rog, in the village of Chisty Klyuch, in the village of Cold Spring, in the city of Nizhny Novgorod;
b) plural form: in the city of Mytishchi, in the village of Goryachiye Ugli, in the village of Serebryanye Prudy, in the city of Mineralnye Vody;
c) proper names, the gender of which does not coincide with the main concept: in the city of Rivne, in the village of Borodino, in the village of Uglich, in the village of Aprelevka;
d) proper names -ovo (-evo), -yno (ino): in the city of Belovo, Odintsovo, in the village of Pushkino, in the Sviblovo district, in the village of Malino.
3. The official names of the republics usually agree with the word republic, if they have a feminine form ending in -and I And -her: in the city N of the Republic of Slovakia, the Republic of Korea.
They do not agree if they have a masculine form or a feminine form ending in -A and without ending: in the Republic of Cuba, in the Republic of Vietnam, in the Republic of Belarus, in the Republic of Ukraine (born in the city of Nizhyn, Republic of Ukraine).
Autobiography sample
AUTOBIOGRAPHY
I, Yuri Petrovich Aleksandrov, citizen of the Russian Federation, was born on August 12, 1988 in Novocherkassk, Rostov region.
Father, Alexandrov Petr Dmitrievich, born in 1962, is a senior researcher, head. Laboratory of KuzGTU, Kemerovo. Mother, Elena Vasilievna Alexandrova, born in 1965 – chief accountant of the Salyut plant in Kemerovo. Brother, Oleg Petrovich Alexandrov, born in 1992, a student at gymnasium No. 15 in Kemerovo.
From 1995 to 1999 he studied at secondary school No. 3 in Belovo. From 1999 to 2006 he studied at secondary school No. 10 in Kemerovo. I have a certificate of complete secondary education and a silver medal.
In 2006 he entered the Kemerovo State Vocational Pedagogical College. Currently I am a first-year student at the Russian State University of Psychology and Education.
November 10, 2012 _________________ Yu. Alexandrov
Resume- this is a type of business paper that briefly sets out the information necessary for the employer about who is applying for a vacant position.
A well-written resume should give a complete picture of the applicant’s work experience; his education and business qualities so that a potential employer can judge his qualifications. Your chances of being hired largely depend on the clarity of your resume and the information contained in it. The international standard requires typing the text of a resume on a computer, printing it on good paper and formatting it beautifully. Of course, if you are sending papers to a foreign company, the text must be written in the company’s working foreign language (or English).
Resume drawn up in the following form:
1. Last name, first name, patronymic; address and telephone number (home and work).
2. Personal data: citizenship; date and place of birth, marital status; if there are children, indicate their date of birth.
3. Purpose of writing a resume: i.e. the position that the applicant wants to get.
4. Education (the list begins with the indication of the last educational institution that the applicant graduated from, then the list goes to reverse chronological order).
5. Work experience (where and by whom did you work, also in reverse chronological order).
6. Professional skills (knowledge of a foreign language, computer skills, etc.).
7. Personal qualities (for example: responsible, sociable, friendly).
8. Your hobbies (for example: I'm attracted to numismatics).
9. Date of compilation.
Attention! It is not customary to write the word “resume”; the title of the document is the surname, name, and patronymic of the author of the document, highlighted in font.
Page 1
A language construct that allows you to select among various sequences of actions using links and labels.
The main language construct used to describe the actions performed is the operator.
Let's consider individual language constructs that do not meet the reliability requirements for the software being developed. In most cases, the analysis will use constructs of the PL/1 language as the most commonly used for writing programs.
It is well known that any language construction, regardless of the context of application, must comply with the same syntax and semantics. Unfortunately, this simple requirement is not always implemented in programming languages. For example, the default device under normal conditions gives the programmer some (perhaps controversial) advantages. However, if the programmer considers it necessary to declare some of the previously silent features, then this can entail a fairly wide range of errors.
The commentary is not analyzed when deciphering language constructs; it improves the understanding of the corresponding constructs and is used only when preparing documentation.
COMMENT [ comment ] A language construct that allows programs to include certain texts without affecting the execution of the program. Texts serve to explain the program and make it easier to analyze.
This means that similar language constructs should produce similar results, so that moving from one system to another does not require complete relearning. This is called standardization of the base language.
Each QBE query has a corresponding SQL (Structured Query Language) query language construct, a structured query language.
If not, what other language construction should be used here.
To name various algorithmic objects, language constructs called identifiers are used.
In the CLU language, a cluster is a language construct for describing an abstract data type. The cluster defines the presentation of data and operations on it. This ensures program independence from data presentation. This ensures data protection and increases the modifiability and reliability of programs.
A method for organizing the development of programs based on graphical language constructs, allowing the construction of structured programs.
Using informally described high-level language constructs (both control structures and data structuring tools) as a kind of specification language, the authors show in great detail how these constructs can be implemented in Fortran.
The first section defines the content and rule for presenting language constructs in a normalized form. To record the names of information security structural units in this form, the alphabet and vocabulary of the natural language in which the enterprise is managed are used. A name record in a normalized form contains all the necessary characteristics and is formed in accordance with established rules that ensure the transition to a formalized type of CE name record.
