Scientists of Ancient Rome Claudius Ptolemy Claudius Ptolemy (approximately 87 - 165 AD) - mathematician, astronomer, geographer. Among the sciences in which Claudius Ptolemy showed particular interest in his biography are astronomy, physics (in particular, optics), and geography. His main astronomical work is “The Great Construction” (or Almagest). In it, the scientist described a geocentric model of the world. Also, during his short biography, Ptolemy created a catalog of the starry sky from 48 constellations that he could observe in Alexandria.
Other works of Ptolemy, “Guide to Geography” (8 books), were also very famous (from 1475 to 1600, 42 editions of this work were published). It provides a complete, well-systematized summary of the geographical knowledge of the ancients.
He gave coordinates of 8000 points (in latitude - from Scandinavia to the headwaters of the Nile, and in longitude - from the Atlantic Ocean to Indochina), based, however, almost exclusively on information about the routes of merchants and travelers, and not on astronomical definitions. The treatise is accompanied by one general and 26 special maps of the earth's surface.
Astronomical observations dated back in ancient times to the reign of kings. In this regard, Ptolemy compiled the Chronological Canon of the Kings, which is an important source for chronology. The five-volume treatise on optics he wrote was considered completely lost. But in 1801, an almost complete Latin translation was found, made from Arabic. Of greatest interest in it are the theory of mirrors developed by Ptolemy, tables of angles of refraction when a light ray passes from air to water and glass, as well as the theory and table of astronomical refraction
Marin of Tire - Ancient Greek geographer, cartographer and mathematician, considered the founder of mathematical cartography Marin was born in the second half of the 1st century. n. e. in the city of Tire, which at that time belonged to the Roman province of Syria. The works of Marin of Tyre have not survived to this day; they are known from the references of Ptolemy in his work Geography
According to Ptolemy, Marinus of Tire revised the approach to drawing up nautical charts. His main merit is that he was the first to introduce the concept of latitude and longitude for each point on the map. He used the longitude of the mythical Isles of the Blessed as his prime meridian; latitude of the island. Rhodes served as zero latitude, or equator. Ptolemy mentioned several works of Marinus of Tire dating back to 114 AD. e. In these works Marinus estimated the length of the equator at 180,000 stadia. If we accept that Marinus operated on Greek stages, then the length of the equator will be 33,300 km, which is approximately 17% less than the present size.
For the first time for the Roman Empire, an image of China appears on Marinus maps. Marinus of Tire is considered the founder of the equidistant projection still used in maps. Some of Marin’s ideas are given by Ptolemy. Among them is the assumption that the surrounding ocean is divided by three continents: Europe, Asia, etc. Africa. Marin believed that people inhabit the Earth at latitudes between the island of Thule in the north (associated with the Shetland Islands), and the Tropic of South, respectively, in the south; in longitude - from the Isles of the Blessed to China. Marin of Tire first introduced the term Antarctica as the region opposite the Arctic.
Mark Terentius Varro (lat. Marcus Terentius Varro; 116 - 27 BC). Roman encyclopedist and writer of the 1st century BC. e., named Varro of Reatina after his place of birth. Varro's authority as a scientist and original writer was already undeniable during his lifetime.
Varro's philosophical views are eclectic; he is close to the Cynics, Stoics, and Pythagoreans. The highest good, in his opinion, must satisfy the needs of the soul and body. Virtue is defined as an art of living that leads to well-being and can be learned. Varro was a champion of old Roman morals, but he never acted as an unyielding defender of tradition. He valued genuine culture regardless of its external form.
Marcus Terentius Varro was born in 116 BC in Sabine Reata. In the civil service he held all positions up to praetorship. During the civil war in 49 BC. e. fought on the side of Pompey in Spain. At the end of the war, Caesar forgave him and appointed him head of the public library.
Having settled in Rome, Varro finally devoted himself to historical research and literary activity that had long interested him. However, for personal reasons, Mark Antony subjected him to proscription, and Varro lost part of his library and his land. From 1943 he began to engage only in scientific work and literary activities. He worked until a ripe old age. He wrote some of his works at the age of eighty.
The main literary work of Varro is considered to be the philosophical and moral “Menippean Satires” (lat. Saturae menippeae) in 150 books (each book corresponds to one satire; 591 short fragments from 96 books have survived; not a single complete satire of Varro could be reconstructed). They are named after their specific form, borrowed by the author from the Cynic writer Menippus, whom Varro highly valued. Actually, the name of the corresponding genre comes from Varro - Menippean satire. According to, written in adolescence.
There is an incomplete catalog of Varro's works compiled by Jerome, on the basis of which it is established that Varro wrote over 70 works, with a total of over 600 books. He studied, in particular, grammar, jurisprudence, art, history, literary history, and music theory.
The treatise “On Agriculture” (“Res rusticae”) in 3 books, 5-10 books of the work “On the Latin Language” (“De lingua Latina”; there were 25 books in total) have been preserved. This work is based on the conclusions of his teacher Stilon.
Varro’s 9-volume encyclopedia “Disciplinae” (lost) was of great importance, responses to which can be found among outstanding scientists of late antiquity and the early Middle Ages, including Marcianus Capella, Cassiodorus, Isidore of Seville. According to tradition, Varro's encyclopedia consisted of grammar, dialectics, rhetoric, geometry, arithmetic, astronomy (astrology), music (i.e. music theory), medicine and architecture, from which it is concluded that Varro was the first to describe the liberal arts in in the form of a cycle (though with the addition of medicine and architecture).
It is now considered reliable that Varro is the author of at least treatises on music and land surveying (De mensuris, which is also interpreted as geometry); traces of the remaining treatises cannot be traced. Regardless of whether the Music was part of a 9-volume volume or was written as an independent treatise (the latter is more likely), Varro can be considered the first Roman music theorist.
His works are widely known under the general title “Logistorici”, consisting of 76 books in the form of philosophical dialogues, the main content of which consists of ethical reasoning with examples from mythology and history. The word logistoricus is a Varro neologism, its exact meaning is unknown. In one of the monographs “On Philosophy” (De philosophia), the author presents philosophy as a doctrine of the right way of life.
In historical research, “Human and Divine Antiquities” (“Antiquitates rerum humanarum et divinarum”) stand out in 41 books (the work is lost). This is an encyclopedia of the history of Roman culture. Thanks to Christian writers, primarily Augustine, the content of the second part of the study (books 26 - 41), which Varro dedicated to Caesar, is known. Censorinus also provides valuable quotations from Antiquities and Logistorians.
In the books “On the Origin of the Roman People” (De gente populi Romani) and “On the Life of the Roman People” (De vita populi Romani) (both in 4 volumes), Varro devoted the history of the Romans and the contribution of Rome to the history of civilization.
In the book “Images” (“Hebdomades vel de imaginibus”; 15 books), Varro presented 700 portraits of great personalities of Greece and Rome. In it, he argued for the equal status of Greek and Roman cultures.
Varro's role in the development of grammar and linguistics is great. Fragments of Varro’s works “History of the Alphabet” (“Historia litterarum”; 2 books), “On the Origin of the Latin Language” (“De origine linguae Latinae”; 3 books) and some other fragments have been preserved.
Roman science did not reach the scale of Greek science, because it was dependent on the specific needs of the growing Roman Empire. Mathematics, geography, natural science and other sciences among the Romans were of a narrowly applied nature. A noticeable mark in science was left by the works of Menelaus of Alexandria on spherical geometry and trigonometry, Ptolemy’s geocentric model of the world, works on optics, astronomy (a catalog of more than 1,600 stars was compiled), and experiments on animals in physiology were carried out. The doctor Galen came close to discovering the importance of nerves for motor reflexes and blood circulation. Construction technology developed, which made it possible to create the Flavian Colosseum, a one and a half kilometer bridge across the Danube under Trajan, etc. Mechanics were improved, lifting mechanisms were used. According to Seneca, “despicable slaves” invented something new every time: pipes through which steam flowed to heat rooms, special polishing of marble, mirror tiles to reflect the sun's rays. The art of mosaic spread: even in houses on the Rhine, glass was inserted into the windows. Both Menelaus and Ptolemy were Greek scientists working in Rome.
Astrology, which was studied by major astronomers, was very popular. Basically, Roman scholars comprehended and commented on the Greeks. “Philosophy and jurisprudence occupied a special place in the culture of the ancient Romans. Ancient Roman philosophy eclectically combined the principles of various teachings of Greek thinkers, especially the Hellenistic era. Philosophers adopted their scientific apparatus, terminology, and most important directions. The ideas of moral improvement of man and the mystical moods characteristic of the time acquired important significance for Roman philosophy. Among the philosophical trends, Stoicism and Epicureanism became most widespread in republican and later in imperial Rome.
The golden age of Roman science was characterized not so much by the increase in knowledge as by encyclopedism, the desire to master and systematically present the already accumulated achievements. The natural science theories of the Greeks in an eclectic, seemingly averaged form were accepted as once and for all given, without discussion. Along with this, a keen interest in scientific, rational knowledge of nature remained, and a whole galaxy of outstanding creative minds and wonderful scientists appeared. Pliny the Elder, based on two thousand works of Greek and Roman authors, compiled an encyclopedic “Natural History”, which included all areas of the then science - from the structure of the cosmos to fauna to flora, from descriptions of countries and peoples to mineralogy.
The most important cultural innovations of Roman antiquity are associated with the development of politics and law. Ancient Rome is the birthplace of jurisprudence.
If in the small Greek city-states with their diverse and often changing forms of government, many issues could be resolved on the basis of the direct will of the ruling elite or a general meeting of citizens, then the management of the huge Roman derma of state bodies, a clearly organized administrative structure, and legal laws regulating civil relations , legal proceedings, etc. The first legal document is the Law of 12 books, regulating criminal, financial, and trade relations. The constant expansion of territory leads to the emergence of other documents - private law for the Latins and public law regulating the relations between the Latins and the conquered peoples living in the provinces.
In the field of education, the Romans also acted as successors to the Hellenes. In Rome, back in the Republican period, three levels of education were formed: a primary school for children 7–12 years old, a grammar school for boys 12–16 years old, and a rhetoric school for young people 16–20 years old, which corresponded to higher education. In primary school they taught reading, writing and arithmetic. At the grammar school they studied Roman literature, the Latin language, as well as the Greek classics and the ancient Greek language as separate subjects. At the rhetoric school they studied eloquence, philosophy, history, and law. The schools were private and tuition was paid. Emperors provided financial support to rhetoric schools. In addition, during the period of the empire, the Alexandria Museum, the Athens Academy and the Lyceum continued to operate.
Roman science is usually assessed as decadent. This is only partly true. Rome became the birthplace of a new science - jurisprudence, which continued to improve during the imperial period. Gnaeus Flavius is called the father of jurisprudence. He came from a freedman's family. In 304 BC, as scribe to the college of pontiffs, he published the pontifical scrolls and fastas, making them the subject of free discussion and interpretation. Later, Gnaeus Flavius was elected tribune, praetor, and ended his career as a senator. In 509 BC, he introduced a new calendar from the establishment of the republic. In the 2nd century BC, the first treatises on law appeared, for example, “De iure civile” by Cato the Younger and Junius Brutus. In the 1st century AD, legal schools arose - Sabinian and Proculian, named after the most prominent jurists of that time - Sabinus and Proculus. In the 2nd–3rd centuries, classical Roman law was formed, in which Paul, Papinian, Gaius, Ulpian, and Modestine were recognized as the highest authorities. They are credited with developing private and public law, basic legal categories and concepts. In the 4th century, the writings of these jurists were endowed with normative force, like laws. In 426, a law on citation was passed, according to which references to specified authorities became the norm.
Political theory was developed. Here, the most significant are the works of Cicero and Polybius on the republic as a mixed form of government, which simultaneously had a division of powers.
In the natural sciences there is a significant degree of borrowing of Hellenic knowledge. Celsus summarized the achievements of Greek medicine. Galen continued the practice of anatomical dissections. The founder of Roman science proper is often called Varro, who compiled an encyclopedia of sciences; in addition to his extensive knowledge of natural science, he demonstrated a deep understanding of Roman religious and everyday traditions, Roman ancient monuments, Roman theater, the Latin language, etc. Pliny the Elder, the author of Natural History, was a universal encyclopedist. Virgil, who enjoyed the fame of the first poet of Ancient Rome, revealed extraordinary agronomic knowledge in his work “Georgics”. Theoretical and practical treatises on architecture (Vitruvius), on aqueducts (Frontinus), on botany (Dioscordius) were created, geographical works were created (Pomponius Mela, Claudius Ptolemy), road maps, for example, “Peitinger Tables”; the geometer Pappus continued to improve the calculations of areas and volumes; the mathematician Diophantus used alphabetic rather than numerical values when solving equations, anticipating the advent of algebra; the astronomer Sosigenes made calendar calculations, laying the foundations for the Julian calendar reform; The alchemist Zosima discovered the properties of sulfur, mercury, and acids. At the same time, we can note the retreat of Roman science during the empire into the realm of esotericism: astronomy turned into astrology, medicine into magic, mathematics and geometry into the mysticism of numbers and figures, chemical knowledge became alchemy, that is, a special symbolic chemistry.
In the humanities, the Romans also drew on Greek ideas. Scipio Aemilianus, the first Roman philosopher, spoke and wrote in Greek and adhered to the teachings of the Greek Stoics. Lucretius, the author of the philosophical poem “On the Nature of Things,” developed the doctrine of Epicurus; he rejected the idea of God, put forward a theory of progress, and introduced a three-part periodization of human development - the Stone, Copper and Iron Ages. Cicero's role in the development of Latin philosophical terminology is significant. The founder of Roman Stoicism was Seneca, the educator of the future emperor Nero, who is called the “uncle of Christianity”; he developed the doctrine of the inner dignity of man, which could make the slave superior to the free; taught about reward after death. Marcus Aurelius, the philosopher-emperor, was also a Stoic; he preached the renunciation of everything external, submission to fate.
During the period of the Principate, the Gnostic doctrine arose, the founder of which is considered to be Philo of Alexandria; he distinguished between the elect, who possessed spiritual knowledge (gnosis), and the mob, alien to spirituality. At the same time, Christian theology arose, sharply criticizing pagan science for false knowledge. One of the first theologians, Tertullian, proclaimed the principle of the superiority of faith over knowledge: “I believe because it is absurd” (credo quia absurdum est). During the Dominant period, Neoplatonism developed, the most prominent representative of which was Plotinus - the latest achievement of speculative knowledge of Roman and generally ancient culture.
Ennius (2nd century BC) is considered the founder of Roman historical science. Roman historiography reached its peak during the imperial period. The most brilliant historian was Titus Livius, who wrote “The History of Rome from the Founding of the City.” Of the representatives of the Greek intelligentsia who wrote in Latin, the most famous were Dionysius of Halicarnassus, who wrote the book “Roman Archeology” and argued about the kinship of the Romans and Greeks, and Plutarch, the author of the famous “Comparative Lives”. The pinnacle of Roman historical thought was Tacitus's History and Annals; he had a sharply negative attitude towards the empire and emperors, and was extremely sensitive to the degradation of Roman civil society.
Ancient Rome has a rich history and culture. There was a time when Ancient Rome was considered the most powerful empire among all other civilizations. At the peak of its power in the 1st and 2nd centuries. AD The Roman Empire occupied a vast territory of 6.5 million square kilometers. The population ranged from 50 to 90 million people. Among these people there were personalities who left a noticeable mark on history. These are emperors, tyrants, gladiators, and poets. Many of them are familiar to us from history textbooks, films and works of fiction.
The most famous and famous people of ancient Rome
Julius Caesar
Julius Caesar is the most famous and famous Roman commander and statesman. He was a great military leader who won many wars, which allowed him to gain power and become the sole ruler of Rome.
During his reign, he managed to conquer Gaul, invade Britain and repel countless raids by Germanic tribes.
Octavian Augustus
Octavian Augustus was the son of a wealthy Roman banker. Julius Caesar was his great-uncle. Augustus was adopted by Julius Caesar and appointed his heir. Octavian Augustus began an active struggle against Mark Antony, who seized power in Rome after the death of Julius Caesar. They subsequently came to a mutual agreement and agreed to share power over the Roman Republic. They also found and punished Caesar's murderers. When Octavian learned about the love affair between Mark Antony and the queen of Egypt Cleopatra, he considered it a threat to Rome and turned away from Antony. After the death of Mark Antony, Octavian Augustus became the first emperor of Rome.
Rome significantly expanded its territories during the reign of Octavian Augustus. He conquered the Iberian Peninsula and extended the borders of the Roman Empire north to the Danube River. He also regularly restored dilapidated buildings and built roads to the far borders of the empire.
After Octavian's death, Augustus was highly revered in Rome due to his successful reign.
Nero
Nero became Emperor of Rome in 54 AD. at a fairly young age - he was only 17 years old. He turned out to be a very cruel and merciless ruler who killed his own mother.
At first, Nero was a fairly good-natured and reasonable ruler. He was actively involved in issues of trade and culture in the empire. But over time, his actions became more and more cruel and unpredictable.
According to rumors, it was he who started the fire in Rome, which destroyed most of the city. He blamed the arson on Christians, whom he persecuted throughout his reign. In 68, Nero realized that he had no support left in the Senate, and he committed suicide.
Remus and Romulus
Remus and Romulus were twins who, according to legend, founded the city of Rome. According to legend, they were abandoned by their parents at an early age. They put them in a basket and sent it down the Tiber River. This basket was found by a she-wolf, who pulled it out of the river and took the twins to a shepherd, who took them in as foster care.
Time passed. The twins grew up and became men. They decided to build a city, but a dispute arose between them over the construction site. The dispute escalated into a fight, as a result of which Remus was killed by his brother Romulus. Romulus built the city and became the first king of Rome. He became a famous ruler and great commander.
Mark Brutus
Marcus Brutus was a Roman senator believed to have masterminded the assassination of Julius Caesar in a struggle for political power. March 15th, 44 BC Marcus Brutus and his associates attempted to assassinate Julius Caesar when he entered the Senate for a meeting. After this, power in Rome passed to the Senate, which appointed Brutus as governor of the eastern territories of the Roman Empire. He was subsequently defeated by Octavian Augustus and Mark Antony at the Battle of Philippi in 43, after which he committed suicide.
Adrian
Hadrian became Emperor of Rome in 117 AD. Adrian is especially famous for the fact that during his reign he was actively involved in construction. He completed the construction of the Roman Pantheon, built a stone wall in Britain to protect against foreigners. Adrian also traveled a lot and visited every corner of the empire. He admired Ancient Greece and even wanted to make Athens the cultural capital of the Roman Empire. He is rightfully considered one of the most peaceful rulers of Rome. Hadrian died in 138 AD.
Virgil
Virgil was the greatest poet of Rome. He was born in 70 BC. in northern Italy. He began his creative activity while studying in Rome and Naples. His most famous work is considered to be the unfinished epic "Aeneid". Taking Homer's "Odyssey" and "Iliad" as a basis, Virgil tells about the adventures of a Trojan hero named Aeneas, who traveled to the western lands and founded the city of Rome. In this epic poem, Virgil shows the greatness of Rome and his admiration for its rulers.
In his other poems, Virgil describes the life of Rome and its inhabitants. After his death, Virgil's fame spread throughout Rome. In Roman schools, students read his poems and studied his biography. Writers of the Middle Ages very often referred to Virgil in their works.
Guy Mari
Gaius Marius lived between 157 and 86. BC He was a famous military leader, statesman and was elected consul several times. Gaius Marius reorganized the Roman army and defeated many northern tribes. He is known for his love of recruiting poor people into the Roman army, promising to make them happy citizens proud of their country.
Cicero
Cicero (106-43 BC) was a great Roman philosopher, orator and writer. He was considered the most prominent translator from Greek into Latin. He was expelled from Rome by the first triumvirate, but was later allowed to return. He had oppositional views on politics, which is why he was killed in 43 BC. To this day, students around the world study the works of Cicero in Latin.
Constantine the Great
Constantine the Great (275-337 AD) became the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity. During his reign, Christians and other religious groups gained freedom from persecution. He rebuilt the ancient Greek city of Byzantium, calling it Constantinople and the Christian center of Ancient Rome.
Cleopatra
Cleopatra (69-30 BC) was the queen of Egypt during the period of Roman rule. She took great care of her appearance and always looked great. At the same time, she proved herself to be a ruthless ruler. She ascended to the Egyptian throne at the age of 18. She became best known for her connections with Julius Caesar and Mark Antony.
Pontius Pilate
Pontius Pilate was the Roman prefect of Judea, a Roman province. He became famous as a judge during the trial of Jesus Christ. He sentenced Jesus Christ to death for high treason because... Jesus proclaimed himself king of the Jews. The rulers of Judea considered him a dangerous person for the Roman Empire.
However, according to the Bible, Pontius Pilate claimed that he did not want Christ to be crucified.
We looked at only some of the most famous people of that time. There were other, less well-known figures. Together they created the history of Ancient Rome.
