Formation of the Entente.

Entente.

Military-political blocs during World War I.

Entente- a military-political bloc of Russia, England and France, created as a counterweight to the “Triple Alliance” ( A-Entente); formed mainly in 1904-1907 and completed the delimitation of the great powers on the eve of the First World War. The term arose in 1904, initially to designate the Anglo-French alliance, and the expression was used l'Entente cordiale(“cordial agreement”) in memory of the short-lived Anglo-French alliance in the 1840s, which bore the same name.

The creation of the Entente was a reaction to the creation of the Triple Alliance and the strengthening of Germany, an attempt to prevent its hegemony on the continent, initially from Russia (France initially took an anti-German position), and then from Great Britain. The latter, in the face of the threat of German hegemony, was forced to abandon the traditional policy of “brilliant isolation” and move to - however, also traditional - a policy of blocking against the strongest power on the continent. Particularly important incentives for this choice of Great Britain were the German naval program and the colonial claims of Germany. In Germany, in turn, this turn of events was declared an “encirclement” and served as a reason for new military preparations, positioned as purely defensive.

The confrontation between the Entente and the Triple Alliance led to the First World War, where the enemy of the Entente and its allies was the Central Powers bloc, in which Germany played a leading role.

The Triple Alliance is a military-political bloc of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy, formed in 1879-1882, which marked the beginning of the division of Europe into hostile camps and played an important role in the preparation and outbreak of the First World War (1914-1918).

The main organizer of the Triple Alliance was Germany, which concluded a military alliance with Austria-Hungary in 1879. After this, in 1882, Italy joined them. The core of an aggressive military group was created in Europe, directed against Russia and France.

On May 20, 1882, Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy signed the secret Treaty of the Triple Alliance ( Austro-German Treaty of 1879, also known as Dual alliance- Treaty of Alliance between Austria-Hungary and Germany; signed in Vienna on October 7, 1879.

Imprisoned for a period of 5 years, subsequently renewed several times. Article 1 established that if one of the contracting parties was attacked by Russia, then both parties were obliged to come to the aid of each other. Article 2 provided that in the event of an attack on one of the contracting parties by any other power, the other party undertakes to maintain at least benevolent neutrality. If the attacking side receives Russian support, then Article 1 comes into force.

The treaty, directed primarily against Russia and France, was one of the agreements that led to the creation of a military bloc led by Germany (Triple Alliance) and to the division of European countries into two hostile camps, which subsequently opposed each other in the 1st World War war).

They made a commitment (for a period of 5 years) not to take part in any alliances or agreements directed against one of these countries, to consult on issues of a political and economic nature and to provide mutual support. Germany and Austria-Hungary pledged to provide assistance to Italy in the event that it “would, without a direct challenge on its part, be attacked by France.” Italy was to do the same in the event of an unprovoked French attack on Germany. Austria-Hungary was assigned the role of a reserve in case Russia entered the war. The Allies took note of Italy's statement that if one of the powers that attacked its partners was Great Britain, then Italy would not provide them with military assistance (Italy was afraid of entering into conflict with Great Britain, since it could not withstand its strong navy). The parties pledged, in the event of common participation in the war, not to conclude a separate peace and to keep the Treaty of the Triple Alliance secret.

The treaty was renewed in 1887 and 1891 (with additions and clarifications made) and automatically extended in 1902 and 1912.

The policy of the countries participating in the Triple Alliance was characterized by increasing aggressiveness. In response to the creation of the Triple Alliance, a Franco-Russian alliance took shape in 1891-1894, an Anglo-French agreement was concluded in 1904, an Anglo-Russian agreement was concluded in 1907, and the Entente was formed.

Since the end of the 19th century, Italy, which was suffering losses from the customs war waged against it by France, began to change its political course. In 1902, she entered into an agreement with France, pledging to remain neutral in the event of a German attack on France.

After the conclusion of the London Pact, Italy entered World War I on the side of the Entente, and the Triple Alliance collapsed (1915). After Italy left the alliance, Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire joined Germany and Austria-Hungary to form the Quadruple Alliance.

The beginning of the last century was marked by a sharp aggravation of contradictions between the world's major powers. The main rivalry flared up between England and Germany, who headed the opposing military-political blocs: the Entente and the Triple Alliance.

Back in 1904, an agreement was reached between Paris and London, which discussed the elimination of controversial territorial issues between them - the delimitation of their spheres of interest in Africa. Although it did not say anything about Germany, the agreement was essentially directed against it, since Berlin began to openly declare the need to redivide the world. And this created a threat to the colonial possessions of London and Paris. German claims against England and France pushed Paris to strengthen ties with Russia and forced British diplomacy to achieve the same, especially since St. Petersburg's mediation was required in resolving controversial issues in the Asian region regarding the delimitation of spheres of influence.

SPLITTLE BETWEEN RUSSIA AND GERMANY

Other problems in the world have also worsened. Japan expressed complaints about the terms of the Portsmouth Peace. Austro-Hungarian and German capital broke through to Turkey. Berlin strove to undermine England's dominance in the seas and intensively strengthened the power of its naval forces. An arms race began.

In 1907, on the initiative of Russia, the second international Hague Conference was held, in which 44 states participated. It adopted 13 conventions, including: on the limitation of arms, on the introduction of arbitration for the peaceful resolution of international conflicts, on the laws and conditions of warfare, etc.

In the ruling circles of Russia, the assessment of current events (especially in relation to Germany) was contradictory. It should be noted that Berlin actively sought to draw Russia into the wake of its policies and split its international alliances. So, in 1905, during a meeting between Nicholas II and Wilhelm II in Bjerke, the Kaiser persuaded the Tsar to sign (secretly from the then Foreign Minister V.N. Lamzdorf) an agreement containing obligations of Russia and Germany on mutual assistance in the event of an attack on one of the contracting parties to any European power. Despite the extreme indignation of Wilhelm II, the Bjork Agreement, which was in conflict with the alliance treaty with France, did not have any practical results and was essentially annulled by Russia in the fall of 1905. The logic of the development of international relations ultimately pushed the autocracy towards the Entente.

Russia's transition to the camp of Germany's opponents became apparent, but not immediately. Appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs A.P. Izvolsky sought to achieve rapprochement with England without breaking relations with Germany. To do this, he planned to conclude agreements on the most pressing issues with both Germany and Austria-Hungary, and with England. At the same time, Izvolsky intended to regulate relations with Japan. This policy allowed Russia to gain the respite necessary to solve internal problems, restore its military potential, and was supposed to provide it with an advantageous position in the emerging Anglo-German conflict.

JAPAN'S CLAIMS

After the signing of the Portsmouth Peace, relations between Russia and Japan remained tense. Tokyo made a number of demands aimed at expanding its influence in the Far East to the detriment of Russian interests. Militarist circles in Japan believed that “peace was concluded prematurely” and sought new conquests in the Far East, primarily the complete annexation of Korea and Southern Manchuria. They began to increase the army and navy. There were also calls for revenge in Russia. And Germany fueled these sentiments and pushed both countries towards a new military conflict. At the same time, Berlin promised Russia its help and put forward the idea of ​​a German-Russian-American coalition against Japan. Having entered into negotiations with Russia, Tokyo presented it with demands to expand its sphere of influence along the Songhua River in Manchuria, up to the inclusion of the Chinese Eastern Railway in this sphere, as well as free navigation along the Amur, preferential transportation of goods through Siberia and virtually unlimited freedom of fishing along the Far Eastern coast of Russia.

In 1907, a Russian-Japanese agreement on political issues was signed. The parties agreed to maintain the “status quo” in the Far East. Northern Manchuria and Outer Mongolia were recognized as the sphere of influence of Russia, and Southern Manchuria and Korea were recognized as the sphere of influence of Japan.

BOSNIA CRISIS

In 1908, Izvolsky, during negotiations with the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Austria-Hungary A. Ehrenthal, agreed to the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, occupied by the Austrians after the Berlin Congress, to Austria-Hungary. In exchange, he received Aehrenthal's promise not to object to the opening of the Black Sea straits to Russian military vessels. However, England and France did not support the claims of tsarist diplomacy. Izvolsky's attempt to solve the problem of the straits failed. Austria-Hungary, meanwhile, announced the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Germany sent an ultimatum to Russia in March 1909, demanding recognition of this act. The tsarist government, realizing that it was not ready for a decisive objection, was forced to yield.

BALKAN WARS

The prologue to the First World War was the Balkan wars of 1912-1913. Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria and Greece, united as a result of the active efforts of Russian diplomacy, began a war against Turkey and defeated it. The winners soon quarreled with each other. Germany and Austria-Hungary, considering the formation of the Balkan Union as a success of Russian diplomacy, took steps aimed at its collapse and pushed Bulgaria to act against Serbia and Greece. During the Second Balkan War, Bulgaria, against which Romania and Türkiye also began hostilities, was defeated. All these events significantly aggravated Russian-German and Russian-Austrian contradictions. Türkiye became more and more subject to German influence.

THE BEGINNING OF THE ENTENTE

The Russian government, realizing the country's unpreparedness for war and fearing (in case of defeat) a new revolution, sought to delay the armed conflict with Germany and Austria-Hungary. At the same time, in the face of a progressive deterioration in relations with its western neighbors, it tried to formalize allied relations with England. These attempts were unsuccessful, since London did not want to bind itself to any obligations. The allied relations between Russia and France by 1914, however, had strengthened significantly. In 1911-1913, at meetings of the chiefs of the Russian and French general staffs, decisions were made that provided for an increase in the number of troops deployed against Germany in the event of war. The naval headquarters of England and France concluded a naval convention that entrusted the protection of the Atlantic coast of France to the English fleet, and the protection of England's interests in the Mediterranean to the French. The Entente as a coalition of England, France and Russia, directed against the Triple Alliance, was becoming a threatening reality.

The latter, in the face of the threat of German hegemony, was forced to abandon the traditional policy of “brilliant isolation” and move to - however, also traditional - a policy of blocking against the strongest power on the continent. Particularly important incentives for this choice of Great Britain were the German naval program and the colonial claims of Germany. In Germany, in turn, this turn of events was declared an “encirclement” and served as a reason for new military preparations, positioned as purely defensive.

The confrontation between the Entente and the Triple Alliance led to the First World War, where the enemy of the Entente and its allies was the Central Powers bloc, in which Germany played a leading role.

Key dates [ | ]

The full composition of the anti-German coalition[ | ]

Some states did not declare war on the Central Powers, limiting themselves to breaking diplomatic relations.

After the victory over Germany in 1919, the Supreme Council of the Entente practically performed the functions of a “world government”, organizing the post-war order, but the failure of the Entente’s policy towards Russia and Turkey revealed the limit to its power, undermined by internal contradictions between the victorious powers. In this political capacity of "world government", the Entente ceased to exist after the formation of the League of Nations.

Entente intervention in Russia[ | ]

The October Revolution in Russia was initially significant for Russia's Entente allies, primarily in the sense of catastrophic military prospects for them (Russia's withdrawal from the war). Great Britain, France and Italy, believing that power in Russia was seized by a pro-German party, which concluded a truce and began peace negotiations with Germany on Russia’s withdrawal from the war, decided to support the forces that did not recognize the power of the new regime.

On December 22, a conference of representatives of the Entente countries in Paris recognized the need to maintain contact with the anti-Bolshevik governments of Ukraine, Siberia, the Caucasus and the 1918 Entente declared non-recognition of this agreement, but never began military action against the Soviet government, trying to negotiate with it. On March 6, a small English landing party, two companies of marines, landed in Murmansk to prevent the Germans from seizing a huge amount of military cargo delivered by the Allies to Russia, but did not take any hostile actions against the Soviet government (until June 30). In response to the killing of two Japanese citizens, two companies of Japanese and half a company of British landed in Vladivostok on April 5, but they were returned to their ships two weeks later.

The aggravation of relations between the Entente countries and the Bolsheviks began in May 1918. Then Germany demanded that Soviet Russia strictly comply with the conditions of the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty - in particular, to intern, that is, completely disarm and imprison in concentration camps, all military personnel of the Entente countries and its allies located on Soviet territory. This led to the uprising of the Czechoslovak corps, the landing of 2,000 British troops in Arkhangelsk in August 1918, and the advance of the Japanese in Primorye and Transbaikalia.

After the defeat of Germany in November 1918, the Entente is trying to fill the military-political vacuum created with the withdrawal of German (and Turkish - in Transcaucasia) troops, occupying Russian Black Sea cities: Odessa, Sevastopol, Nikolaev, as well as Transcaucasia. However, except for the battalion of Greeks that participated in the battles with the troops of Ataman Grigoriev near Odessa, the rest of the Entente troops, without taking part in the battle, were evacuated from Odessa and Crimea in April 1919.

Having landed its troops in Russia, the Entente intervention is less often considered as an armed attack, since during the civil war, power was held by the two sides on equal terms, and each side was supported by certain countries.

Opinions [ | ]

Emperor Wilhelm II in his memoirs states that in fact the Entente bloc took shape back in 1897, after the signing of a tripartite agreement between England, America and France, known as the “Gentleman’s Agreement”.

In the book "The problem of Japan" anonymous author, published in 1918 in The Hague, allegedly written by an ex-diplomat from the Far East, contains excerpts from the book of Roland Asher, a history professor at the University of Washington in St. Louis. Usher, just like his former colleague, John Bassett Moore, a professor at Columbia University in New York, was often engaged by the State Department in Washington as an adviser on foreign policy, for he was a great expert in international issues relating to the United States, which not much in America. Thanks to a book published in 1913 by Roland Usher, a professor of history at the University of Washington, the contents of a prisoner became known for the first time in the spring of 1897. "Agreement" or "Treat"(agreement or treaty) of a secret nature between England, America and France. This agreement established that if Germany, or Austria, or both together started a war in the interests of “pan-Germanism,” the United States would immediately side with England and France and provide all its funds to assist these powers. Professor Asher further cites all the reasons, including those of a colonial nature, that forced the United States to take part in the war against Germany, the imminence of which he predicted back in 1913. - Anonymous author "The problem of Japan" compiled a special table of points of the agreement concluded in 1897 between England, France and America, dividing them into separate headings, and thus depicting in a visual form the extent of mutual obligations. This chapter of his book is read with extreme interest and gives a good idea of ​​the events that preceded the world war, and of the preparations for it of the Entente countries, which, not yet acting under the name "Entente cordiale", already then united against Germany. The ex-diplomat notes: here we have an agreement concluded, according to Professor Usher, back in 1897 - an agreement that provides for all stages of the participation of England, France and America in future events, including the conquest of the Spanish colonies and control over Mexico and Central America, and the use of China, and the annexation of coal plants. However, Professor Usher wants to persuade us that these events were necessary only to save the world from “Pan-Germanism.” It is unnecessary to remind Professor Asher, the ex-diplomat continues, that even if we were to admit the existence of the specter of “pan-Germanism,” then in 1897, of course, no one had heard of it, because by that time Germany had not yet put forward its large naval program, which was made public only in 1898 Thus, if England, France, and the United States really cherished those general plans that Professor Usher ascribes to them, and if they entered into an alliance for the implementation of these plans, it will hardly be possible to explain both the origin of these plans and their execution on such a weak pretext like, like the successes of “pan-Germanism”. So says the ex-diplomat. This is truly amazing. The Gauls and Anglo-Saxons, with the goal of destroying Germany and Austria, and eliminating their competition in the world market in an atmosphere of complete peace, without the slightest remorse, conclude a real division agreement directed against Spain, Germany, etc., developed to the smallest detail. This treaty was concluded by the united Gallo-Anglo-Saxons 17 years before the outbreak of the World War, and its objectives were systematically developed during this period. Now we can understand the ease with which King Edward VII could carry out his policy of encirclement; The main actors had already sung and were ready for a long time. When he christened this union "Entente cordiale", this was unpleasant news for the world, especially for the Germans; for the other side, this was only an official recognition of a de facto fact that had long been known.

See also [ | ]

Notes [ | ]

Literature [ | ]

• Girault R. Diplomatie européenne et imperialisme (1871–1914). - P., 1997.
• Schmitt B. E. Triple entente and triple alliance. - N.Y., 1934

The expression l’entente cordiale (“cordial agreement”) was also used in memory of the short-lived Anglo-French alliance in the 1840s. The creation of Austria was a reaction to the creation of the Triple Alliance in 1882 and the strengthening of Germany and an attempt to prevent German hegemony on the continent. The aggravation of Anglo-German contradictions at the beginning of the twentieth century. pushed into the background the colonial rivalry of Great Britain, France and Russia. Great Britain, forced to abandon the policy of “splendid isolation,” switched to a policy of blockade against the strongest power on the continent. An important incentive for this choice was the German naval program, as well as Germany's colonial claims. The formation of Austria was preceded by the conclusion of the Russian-French alliance in 1891-1893 in response to the creation of the Triple Alliance led by Germany. The Anglo-French Agreement of 1904 was signed. This agreement dealt with the delimitation of spheres of influence in Asia and Africa and did not say a word about an alliance against Germany. However, it was the first step towards Great Britain joining the Franco-Russian alliance. In 1907, a Russian-British agreement was concluded on the division of spheres of influence in Iran, Afghanistan and Tibet. North Persia fell into Russia's zone of influence, Afghanistan was declared outside the sphere of Russian influence, but Great Britain also pledged not to interfere in its internal affairs. The sovereignty of the Chinese Qing dynasty over Tibet, occupied by the British in 1904, was also recognized. In the face of growing contradictions between France and Germany (on the problems of the colonies and Alsace and Lorraine) and Great Britain and Germany (on the problems of colonies and markets), Russia did its best to delay the world war , because I felt unprepared for it. In addition, the Anglo-Russian rapprochement was facilitated by France, which used financial leverage (loan of April 1906). However, if Russia and France were bound by mutual military obligations, then the British government, despite the contacts established between the British and French general staffs and the naval command, did not accept certain military obligations. However, since 1912, Russia, previously burdened by the rigidity of the terms of the military convention with France, has, on its own initiative, begun to develop these obligations. Thus, in February, Russia agreed to a long-standing proposal to seal the minutes of meetings of the chiefs of general staffs of countries with the signatures of ministers, which gave them the character of government documents. In June, a maritime convention was signed, which provided for joint actions of the naval forces of states in all cases when ground forces were supposed to act together. Russia also stopped avoiding general political rapprochement with Great Britain and began to strive to enlist British support in the event of a pan-European conflict. Under pressure from France and in connection with the aggravation of the situation in the Balkans, Russian Foreign Minister Sazonov in September 1912 decided to visit England, where he managed to secure the consent of Foreign Minister E. Gray and King George V to conduct naval operations against the German fleet in the North Sea in case of war. From the end of 1913, Russia initiated the transformation of the Triple Entente into an open defensive alliance, in which Great Britain became a welcome ally. But Great Britain and France gave a negative response to this proposal. Moreover, France proposed to limit itself to a secret Russian-English treaty similar to the Russian-French one, and the British cabinet announced its intention to seek a revision of the terms of the 1907 convention. The Russian side was forced to accept the allied option. In April 1914, the Foreign Office handed over to the Russian Foreign Ministry a draft of a new convention on Tibet, which actually provided for the establishment of a British protectorate over it. In addition, Great Britain opposed the decision of the Russian government to increase the number of Cossack brigades in the “Russian zone” in northern Persia. In May-June 1914, maritime negotiations with Great Britain began, which stalled, but after Russia agreed to make concessions on the Tibetan and Afghan issues, a draft maritime agreement was developed in July. True, they did not have time to approve it. If a common line of behavior with France was finally established during the visit to Russia of President R. Poincaré and Prime Minister A. Viviani in July 1914, then with Great Britain it had to be clarified through diplomatic channels. In August 1914, the states of Armenia entered World War I against Germany and its allies. In September 1914, in London, an agreement was signed between Great Britain, France and Russia on the non-conclusion of a separate peace, which replaced the allied military treaty. In October 1915, Japan joined this agreement. From the first days of the war, Great Britain, France and Russia entered into secret negotiations on the redistribution of the post-war world: the Anglo-French-Russian agreement of 1915, which provided for the transfer of the Black Sea straits to tsarist Russia; The London Treaty of 1915 between Austria and Italy, which determined Italy’s territorial acquisitions in Austria, Turkey and Albania; Sykes-Picot Treaty of 1916 on the division of the Asian possessions of Turkey between Great Britain, France and Russia, etc. The political and military leadership of Azerbaijan was carried out by the Inter-Allied Conferences (1915-1918), the Supreme Council, the Inter-Allied Military Committee, the Supreme Commanders of the Allied Forces and their General Staffs. In addition, such forms of cooperation as bilateral and multilateral meetings and consultations, contacts between commanders-in-chief and general staffs through representatives of the allied armies and military missions were used. However, due to differences in military-political goals and the remoteness of the theaters of military operations, it was not possible to create a unified and permanent leadership of the bloc. By the end of World War I, the anti-German coalition united, not counting Russia, 28 states: Great Britain, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Haiti, Guatemala, Honduras, Greece, Italy, China, Cuba, Liberia, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Portugal, Romania, San Domingo, San Marino, Serbia, Siam, USA, France, Uruguay, Montenegro, Hijaz, Ecuador and Japan. Moreover, the United States, having entered the war in May 1917, did not enter the Entente, acting independently in the war against Germany. After October 1917 and the adoption of the decree on peace, Russia actually left Armenia, which was confirmed by the conclusion of the separate Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty of 1918. On December 22, 1917, a conference of representatives of the African countries in Paris supported the anti-Bolshevik governments of Ukraine, Cossack regions, Siberia, the Caucasus, and Finland; On December 23, an Anglo-French agreement was concluded on the division of spheres of influence in Russia. The Caucasus and Cossack regions were included in the English zone, and Bessarabia, Ukraine and Crimea were included in the French zone. Siberia and the Far East were assigned to the zone of influence of the United States and Japan. The Entente declared non-recognition of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, the troops of its states took part in the Intervention in the Civil War in Russia and other regions of the former Russian Empire, but did not take military action against the Soviet regime. After the victory over Germany in November 1918, the Supreme Council of Armenia actually performed the functions of a “world government.” The heads of Great Britain, France and the USA led the Paris Peace Congress of 1919. The results of the congress, enshrined in the Treaty of Versailles (see Versailles system), the failure of the Entente's policy towards Russia and Turkey led to an aggravation of contradictions between the participants of the “Concord of the Heart”. Belgium returned to a policy of neutrality, Italy, disappointed by the Treaty of Versailles, distanced itself from the policies of Great Britain and France. In the first half of the 20s, A. ceased to exist.

Russian Historical Encyclopedia

Formation of the Triple Alliance and the Entente.

Since the collective security system ceased to exist, each country began to look for an ally. France was the first to begin this search. After the Franco-Prussian War, on its eastern border there were now not several dozen German monarchies independent from each other, but a single empire, surpassing France in population and economic power. In addition, France was forced to transfer its territories to the enemy: the province of Alsace and a third of the province of Lorraine. This gave Germany a strategic advantage: it had access to the plain of Northern France in its hands. From this moment, realizing the impossibility of a one-on-one fight, France itself begins an active search for allies to balance the power of the new Germany.

German Chancellor Bismarck, who did more than anyone else to unify the country, saw the main goal of his diplomacy in preventing an alliance of France with other great powers. He understood how vulnerable the position of the German Empire was, which, unlike France, was surrounded on three sides by great powers: Austria-Hungary, Russia and France itself. An alliance of the latter with any of the remaining two exposed Germany to the prospect of a war on two fronts, which Bismarck considered a direct road to defeat.

Triple Alliance

A way out of this situation was found along the lines of rapprochement with Austria-Hungary. The latter, in turn, entering into increasingly intense rivalry with Russia in the Balkans, needed an ally.

Consolidating this rapprochement, Germany and Austria-Hungary signed a treaty in 1879, under which they pledged to support each other in the event of an attack by the Russian Empire. Italy joined the alliance of these states, which was looking for support in the conflict with France over control of North Africa.

In 1882 the Triple Alliance was created. Germany and Italy assumed obligations of mutual assistance in the event of an attack by France, and Italy, in addition, promised Austria-Hungary neutrality in the event of a conflict with Russia. Bismarck also hoped that Russia would refrain from conflict with Germany due to close economic, dynastic and traditional political ties with it and the reluctance of the Russian emperor to enter into an alliance with republican, democratic France.

In 1904, they settled all mutual claims that arose in connection with the colonial division of the world and established “cordial agreement” among themselves. In French it sounds “Entente Cordial”, hence the Russian name for this alliance - Entente. Russia signed a military convention with France back in 1893. In 1907, she settled all her differences with England and actually joined the Entente.

Features of new unions

This is how unexpected and strange alliances developed. France and England have been enemies since the Hundred Years' War, Russia and France - since the revolution of 1789. The Entente united the two most democratic states in Europe - England and France - with autocratic Russia.

Two traditional allies of Russia - Austria and Germany - found themselves in the camp of its enemies. The alliance of Italy with its yesterday's oppressor and the main enemy of the unification - Austria-Hungary, on whose territory the Italian population also remained, also looked strange. The Austrian Habsburgs and the Prussian Hohenzollerns, who had been vying for control of Germany for centuries, found themselves in the same coalition, while blood relatives, cousins, William II on the one hand, Nicholas II and King Edward VII of Great Britain, his wife, were in opposing alliances.

Thus, at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, two opposing coalitions emerged in Europe - the Triple Alliance and the Entente. The rivalry between them was accompanied by an arms race.

The creation of coalitions in itself was not unusual in European politics. Let us remember, for example, that the largest wars of the 18th century - the Northern and the Seven Years - were fought by coalitions, as were the wars against Napoleonic France in the 19th century.