The definition of the environment must be based on the goals pursued by human society and enshrined in its worldview. A socialist society aims to satisfy the material and cultural needs of its members, and not just certain sections. The path to achieving this goal is to increase productivity and social efficiency of human labor. This is directly related to the more rational use of natural, material resources, that is, again, the immediate environment as part of the material world. Changes and transformations of the environment in a socialist society must be balanced, providing for both meeting the needs of society and the rational use of natural resources, and therefore protecting the environment from “wasting” and waste. In capitalist society, there is a clear predominance of forms of appropriation and consumption of the environment by the ruling class and layers of the population close to it.[...]
In the modern world, environmental problems have taken one of the first places in terms of their social significance, even pushing aside the danger of nuclear war. The rapid development of human economic activity has led to intense, often destructive, impacts on the environment. Human influence on nature occurs both through the transformation of natural systems that have developed over thousands of years, and as a result of pollution of soil, water, and air. This has led to a sharp deterioration in the state of nature, often with irreversible consequences. The environmental crisis is a real danger; In almost every region we are witnessing the rapid development of crisis situations.[...]
Let us finally consider the world around us with hidden surfaces. An open environment is projected into the eye of a moving observer as a continuous, fluid pattern, which is not the case with an environment that is filled with objects. The presence of overlapping edges leads to the fact that the surfaces either close or open, and the corresponding optical textures either decrease or increase. This type of change is neither a flow nor a transformation, because some elements of the previous structure are not reflected in the elements of the subsequent structure. Consequently, the invariants that determine the layout of the real environment are not simply invariants of projective transformations. We will talk about this in more detail in the third part of the book.[...]
The growth of the world's population, the rapid increase in its needs, the steady expansion of the use of Earth's resources, the introduction of new technologies and the expansion of production in energy, industry, agriculture, transport, the anthropogenic transformation of the world's landscapes, the complication and expansion of interethnic economic relations - these and many other factors led to an increasing anthropogenic load on the human environment, with increased interaction between the environment and society. In the 20th century, and especially in its second half, the anthropogenic load increased exponentially, becoming one of the most important factors in the existence of society.[...]
Significant changes occurring in the natural environment are causing serious concern to the general public around the world. In recent years, the human environment has become the subject of study, debate, and numerous publications. Every resident of a city or village, to one degree or another, feels the relevance of this problem, since the natural or human-transformed environment surrounds us at home, at work and at leisure. [...]
Radical organizational and economic transformations are aimed at protecting and scientifically based and rational use of the land, its subsoil, water and forest resources, flora and fauna, improving natural resources and the environment. Among natural resources, land is of particular importance as a universal means of production and the spatial basis for all spheres of human activity and the main means of production in agriculture. The Russian Federation has enormous land resources, the area of which, according to the State Land Cadastre, is 1,709.8 million hectares. Agricultural land occupies 221.2 million hectares, or 13% of the total area, and arable land - 126.5 million hectares, which is 8% of the total territory and 57% of the agricultural area.[...]
ACTIVITY is a specifically human form of relationship to the surrounding world, the content of which is its purposeful change and transformation. D. human operator - the process of achieving the goals set for the “man-machine” system, consisting of an ordered set of actions of a human operator. [...]
The concept of “nature conservation” includes not only the natural environment, but also the environment transformed by humans (cities, parks, gardens, recreational complexes, industrial zones, etc.), i.e. the entire environment as a set of biotic, abiotic and social environments, natural and man-made material world (Tetior A.N., 1992), the latter is sometimes understood as “second nature.”[...]
In the future, this should lead to the fact that a person’s attitude to the environment and to nature in general will be conscious, purposeful, and active. Scientific knowledge of the objective reality of the material world is carried out primarily in order to change it for the benefit of man, for the sake of ensuring life on Earth. Subjectivist theories, which rely when studying the material world, and especially the environment, on the feelings of individual individuals and on the attitude of an individual person to the environment, lead to the conclusion that a person cannot change the material objectivity around him. Guided by these theories, people come to pessimistic conclusions, disarm and demobilize themselves in the struggle to transform and improve the environment. At best, their arguments end with general calls for the protection of the environment and nature from the negative impacts and interference of human society. In contrast, the materialist worldview emphasizes the role of human society in creating an environment worthy of a developed socialist society.[...]
According to ancient Greek thinkers, one of the four “elements” that made up the world was fire. They were the first to analyze the world around them, although their analysis depended too much on direct observation. They identified earth, air, water and also fire. Today, looking from the heights of modern chemical science, we understand that fire is simply a rapidly occurring chemical oxidation reaction, but nevertheless we continue to perceive fire as such. It can hardly be classified as an object, it is not a substance either, and it has a very unusual surface. Fire is an event occurring on land that has a beginning and an end and during which fuel is consumed and heat is released. Natural fire in a forest or on a plain inspired and still inspires fear in animals, but our ancestors very early learned to control fire - to start it (for example, through friction), maintain it (by throwing fuel), preserve it (in a separate slowly smoldering hearth) and extinguish it . Fire control is a wonderful human skill. Our primitive hunter ancestors mastered it perfectly. And when they looked at the fire, they became acquainted with the simplest example of constancy under change, invariance under transformation.[...]
Activity is a universal characteristic of living beings, their own dynamics as a source of transformation or maintenance of vital connections with the outside world.[...]
Behavior is the broadest concept that characterizes the interaction of living beings with the environment, mediated by their external (motor) and internal (mental) activity. The fundamental components of behavior are reactivity and activity. If reactivity makes it possible to basically adapt to the environment, then activity is to adapt the environment to oneself. The higher the level of organization of a living organism, the more important activity becomes compared to reactivity. In a person, the highest level of activity is the activity of the individual, which allows him to solve complex problems associated with the transformation of not only the objective material world, but also the ideal, spiritual, internal world.[...]
It is obvious that in the last definition the defining part is broader than the defined part: the words “natural environment” appear in it. The word “nature” refers more to the natural world, while “environment” implies not only the natural, but also the world created or transformed by man: it includes man-made landscapes, residential areas, and industrial complexes. Therefore, along with the concept of “nature conservation”, another term is now more often used - “environmental protection”.[...]
The hypothesis that information for the perception of a rigid, unchanging object is formed by invariance under optical transformations originates in experiments with moving shadows (Gibson and Gibson, 1957). This experiment gave results that were paradoxical for those times - the changing shape was perceived as constant, but its slope was perceived as changing. Trying to comprehend the results obtained, we assumed that unchanging objects correspond to certain invariants of the optical structure, which themselves are devoid of any form, and any movement of the object corresponds to its own special perturbation of the optical structure - a perspective transformation. The difference between physical and optical motion (that is, between events in the external world and in the optical system) needed to be fixed terminologically, but since none of the concepts known to us were suitable for these purposes, we had to introduce our own terminology. For the same reason, it was necessary to introduce some special terms to designate invariants both in the changing world and in the changing optical system - the geometric concept of form was not suitable for this. Apparently, the best solution to these terminological problems could be to use the terms constancy and change in relation to the surrounding world, and conservation and disturbance in relation to the optical system.[...]
As a result of human impact on nature, there is a redistribution of water resources on Earth, a change in the local climate, and a transformation of some relief features. The scale of pressure on the environment is also growing. The growing scale of anthropogenic impact on the natural environment does not pass without leaving its mark. For example, the entry of carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides and sulfur into the atmosphere, as well as excesses of their compounds in environmental components, is becoming a serious economic and social problem in the world.[...]
Scientific and technological progress and the associated enormous scale of human production activity have led to great positive transformations in the world - the creation of powerful industrial and agricultural potential, the widespread development of all types of transport, irrigation and reclamation of large land areas, and the creation of artificial climate systems. At the same time, the state of the environment has deteriorated sharply. Pollution of the atmosphere, water bodies and soil with solid, liquid and gaseous waste is reaching alarming proportions, and non-renewable natural resources are being depleted - primarily minerals and fresh water. Further deterioration of the ecosphere could lead to far-reaching negative consequences for humanity. Therefore, nature conservation and its protection from pollution has become one of the most important global problems.[...]
For our research, it is of great importance that a generally rigid and stationary environment may turn out to be partially non-rigid and mobile, that the world in some of its aspects is unchanged, and in some others changeable, but never completely freezes in one of the extremes and does not turns into chaos the next. This fact will become apparent later when we discuss the geometry of the surrounding world and its transformations.[...]
Human ecology (anthropoecology) is a complex science (part of social ecology) that studies the interaction of humans as a biosocial being with a complex, multicomponent environment, with an ever-increasingly complex dynamic habitat. Its most important task is to reveal the patterns of production, economic, targeted development and transformation of natural landscapes under the influence of human activity. The term was introduced by American scientists R. Park and E. Burgess (1921). In our country, systematic research in the field of human ecology began in the 70s. this century. According to WHO estimates, three quarters of human diseases are caused by the ecologically unfavorable state of the environment, disruption of natural connections in nature due to its pollution by the products of civilization. Various diseases are associated with increased concentrations of various anthropogenic toxicants in the environment, in particular in Japan, such diseases as “Minamata” (excess of mercury compounds), “Itai-Itai” (excess of cadmium), Yusho (PCB poisoning), Chernobyl disease (radioisotope iodine-131), etc. Residents of large cities and industrial centers in many regions of the globe suffer especially from environmental pollution.[...]
Larger and more complex equipment is often installed by the manufacturer. Depending on the product, the installation phase may present the potential for environmental degradation. Examples include underground liquid storage tanks, liquid and gas pipelines, and the laying of intercontinental communications cables. The simplest recommendation in these situations is to minimize environmental disruption and not consider sensitive areas as sites for large projects, especially those that would result in significant emissions. The ideal solution to industrial ecology, however, remains the design of products or the design of social networks that avoid such transformations altogether. An example is the rapidly developing cellular telephone service. Using radio signals, designers are moving towards a world in which communication does not require wires and cables buried in the ground or raised above it.
Activity- this is a specifically human activity, regulated by consciousness, generated by needs and aimed at understanding and transforming the external world and the person himself.
The main feature of activity is that its content is not determined entirely by the need that gave rise to it. Need as a motive (motivation) gives impetus to activity, but the very forms and content of activity determined by public goals, requirements and experience.
Distinguish three main activities: play, learning and work. Purpose games is the “activity” itself, and not its results. Human activity aimed at acquiring knowledge, skills and abilities is called teaching. is an activity whose purpose is the production of socially necessary products.
Characteristics of activity
Activity is understood as a specifically human way of actively relating to the world - a process during which a person creatively transforms the world around him, turning himself into an active subject, and the phenomena being mastered into the object of his activity.
Under subject Here we mean the source of activity, the actor. Since it is, as a rule, a person who exhibits activity, most often it is he who is called the subject.
Object call the passive, passive, inert side of the relationship, on which activity is carried out. The object of activity can be a natural material or object (land in agricultural activities), another person (a student as an object of learning) or the subject himself (in the case of self-education, sports training).
To understand an activity, there are several important characteristics to consider.
Man and activity are inextricably linked. Activity is an indispensable condition of human life: it created man himself, preserved him in history and predetermined the progressive development of culture. Consequently, a person does not exist outside of activity. The opposite is also true: there is no activity without a person. Only man is capable of labor, spiritual and other transformative activities.
Activity is a transformation of the environment. Animals adapt to natural conditions. A person is capable of actively changing these conditions. For example, he is not limited to collecting plants for food, but grows them in the course of agricultural activities.
Activity acts as a creative, constructive activity: Man, in the process of his activity, goes beyond the boundaries of natural possibilities, creating something new that did not previously exist in nature.
Thus, in the process of activity, a person creatively transforms reality, himself and his social connections.
The essence of the activity is revealed in more detail during its structural analysis.
Basic forms of human activity
Human activity is carried out in (industrial, domestic, natural environment).
Activity- active interaction of a person with the environment, the result of which should be its usefulness, requiring from a person high mobility of nervous processes, fast and accurate movements, increased activity of perception, emotional stability.
The study of a person in the process is carried out by ergonomics, the purpose of which is to optimize work activity on the basis of rational consideration of human capabilities.
The whole variety of forms of human activity can be divided into two main groups according to the nature of the functions performed by a person - physical and mental labor.
Physical labor
Physical labor requires significant muscle activity, is characterized by a load on the musculoskeletal system and functional systems of the body (cardiovascular, respiratory, neuromuscular, etc.), and also requires increased energy costs from 17 to 25 mJ (4,000-6,000 kcal) and higher per day.
Mental work
Mental work(intellectual activity) is work that combines work related to the reception and processing of information, requiring intense attention, memory, and activation of thinking processes. Daily energy consumption during mental work is 10-11.7 mJ (2,000-2,400 kcal).
Structure of human activity
The structure of an activity is usually represented in a linear form, with each component following the other in time.
Need → Motive→ Goal→ Means→ Action→ Result
Let's consider all components of the activity one by one.
Need for Action
Need- this is need, dissatisfaction, a feeling of lack of something necessary for normal existence. In order for a person to begin to act, it is necessary to understand this need and its nature.
The most developed classification belongs to the American psychologist Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) and is known as the pyramid of needs (Fig. 2.2).
Maslow divided needs into primary, or innate, and secondary, or acquired. These in turn include the needs:
- physiological - in food, water, air, clothing, warmth, sleep, cleanliness, shelter, physical rest, etc.;
- existential— safety and security, inviolability of personal property, guaranteed employment, confidence in the future, etc.;
- social - the desire to belong and be involved in any social group, team, etc. The values of affection, friendship, love are based on these needs;
- prestigious - based on the desire for respect, recognition by others of personal achievements, on the values of self-affirmation and leadership;
- spiritual - focused on self-expression, self-actualization, creative development and use of one’s skills, abilities and knowledge.
- The hierarchy of needs has been changed many times and supplemented by various psychologists. Maslow himself, in the later stages of his research, added three additional groups of needs:
- educational- in knowledge, skill, understanding, research. This includes the desire to discover new things, curiosity, the desire for self-knowledge;
- aesthetic- desire for harmony, order, beauty;
- transcending- a selfless desire to help others in spiritual self-improvement, in their desire for self-expression.
According to Maslow, in order to satisfy higher, spiritual needs, it is necessary to first satisfy those needs that occupy a place in the pyramid below them. If the needs of any level are fully satisfied, a person has a natural need to satisfy the needs of a higher level.
Motives for activity
Motive - a need-based conscious impulse that justifies and justifies an activity. A need will become a motive if it is perceived not just as a need, but as a guide to action.
In the process of motive formation, not only needs, but also other motives are involved. As a rule, needs are mediated by interests, traditions, beliefs, social attitudes, etc.
Interest is a specific reason for action that determines. Although all people have the same needs, different social groups have their own interests. For example, the interests of workers and factory owners, men and women, young people and pensioners are different. So, innovations are more important for pensioners, traditions are more important for pensioners; Entrepreneurs have rather material interests, while artists have spiritual interests. Each person also has his own personal interests, based on individual inclinations and likes (people listen to different music, play different sports, etc.).
Traditions represent a social and cultural heritage passed on from generation to generation. We can talk about religious, professional, corporate, national (for example, French or Russian) traditions, etc. For the sake of some traditions (for example, military ones), a person can limit his primary needs (by replacing safety and security with activities in high-risk conditions).
Beliefs- strong, principled views on the world, based on a person’s ideological ideals and implying a person’s willingness to give up a number of needs (for example, comfort and money) for the sake of what he considers right (for the sake of preserving honor and dignity).
Settings— a person’s predominant orientation towards certain institutions of society, which overlap with needs. For example, a person may be focused on religious values, or material enrichment, or public opinion. Accordingly, he will act differently in each case.
In complex activities, it is usually possible to identify not one motive, but several. In this case, the main motive is identified, which is considered the driving one.
Activity goals
Target - This is a conscious idea of the result of an activity, an anticipation of the future. Any activity involves goal setting, i.e. ability to independently set goals. Animals, unlike humans, cannot set goals themselves: their program of activity is predetermined and expressed in instincts. A person is able to form his own programs, creating something that has never existed in nature. Since there is no goal-setting in the activity of animals, it is not an activity. Moreover, if an animal never imagines the results of its activity in advance, then a person, starting an activity, keeps in his mind the image of the expected object: before creating something in reality, he creates it in his mind.
However, the goal can be complex and sometimes requires a series of intermediate steps to achieve it. For example, to plant a tree, you need to purchase a seedling, find a suitable place, take a shovel, dig a hole, place the seedling in it, water it, etc. Ideas about intermediate results are called objectives. Thus, the goal is divided into specific tasks: if all these tasks are solved, then the overall goal will be achieved.
Tools used in activities
Means - these are techniques, methods of action, objects, etc. used in the course of activity. For example, to learn social studies, you need lectures, textbooks, and assignments. To be a good specialist, you need to receive professional education, have work experience, constantly practice in your activities, etc.
The means must correspond to the ends in two senses. First, the means must be proportionate to the ends. In other words, they cannot be insufficient (otherwise the activity will be fruitless) or excessive (otherwise energy and resources will be wasted). For example, you cannot build a house if there are not enough materials for it; It also makes no sense to buy materials several times more than are needed for its construction.
Secondly, the means must be moral: immoral means cannot be justified by the nobility of the end. If goals are immoral, then all activities are immoral (in this regard, the hero of F. M. Dostoevsky’s novel “The Brothers Karamazov” Ivan asked whether the kingdom of world harmony is worth one tear of a tortured child).
Action
Action - an element of activity that has a relatively independent and conscious task. An activity consists of individual actions. For example, teaching activities consist of preparing and delivering lectures, conducting seminars, preparing assignments, etc.
The German sociologist Max Weber (1865-1920) identified the following types of social actions:
- purposeful - actions aimed at achieving a reasonable goal. At the same time, a person clearly calculates all the means and possible obstacles (a general planning a battle; a businessman organizing an enterprise; a teacher preparing a lecture);
- value-rational- actions based on beliefs, principles, moral and aesthetic values (for example, a prisoner’s refusal to transfer valuable information to the enemy, saving a drowning man at the risk of his own life);
- affective - actions committed under the influence of strong feelings - hatred, fear (for example, flight from an enemy or spontaneous aggression);
- traditional- actions based on habit, often an automatic reaction developed on the basis of customs, beliefs, patterns, etc. (for example, following certain rituals in a wedding ceremony).
The basis of activity is the actions of the first two types, since only they have a conscious goal and are creative in nature. Affects and traditional actions are only capable of exerting some influence on the course of activity as auxiliary elements.
Special forms of action are: actions - actions that have value-rational, moral significance, and actions - actions that have a high positive social significance. For example, helping a person is an act, winning an important battle is an act. Drinking a glass of water is an ordinary action that is neither an act nor an act. The word "act" is often used in jurisprudence to denote an action or omission that violates legal norms. For example, in legislation “a crime is an unlawful, socially dangerous, guilty act.”
Result of activity
Result- this is the final result, the state in which the need is satisfied (in whole or in part). For example, the result of study can be knowledge, skills and abilities, the result - , the result of scientific activity - ideas and inventions. The result of the activity itself can be, since in the course of the activity it develops and changes.
This type of activity can transform various objects: nature, society, humans. The transformation of nature can be not only destructive, as some philosophers emphasize, not only the “remaking” of nature for oneself, but also “The life flow of nature is the movement for a person of the harmonics of all things, which he can disrupt, or can optimize.” During the transformation of society, which can act both in revolutionary destructive forms and in creative ones, social objects change: relationships, institutions, institutions, and the person himself changes. Transformative activities provide conditions for the general life of people and infrastructure corresponding to their quality of life. In terms of human transformative activity, I would like to dwell on the case when transformative activity is directed by an individual towards himself, towards his “I”, for the purpose of physical or spiritual improvement. “Human self-development is associated with the discovery of ever-deeper opportunities for understanding oneself and influencing (interacting) with ever-increasing volumes of reality.” The same person appears here both as an object and as a subject.
The main types of transformative activity, due to the difference in its subjects, are, firstly, activities that have an individual character (the work of an individual, sports, etc.), and secondly, activities directly carried out by one or another group (military, collective activity) , thirdly, the activities of society taken as a whole.
Transformative activity can be carried out at two levels, depending on the real or ideal change of the subject. In the first case, there is a real change in existing material existence (practice), in the second case, a change in the object occurs only in the imagination (in the words of K. Marx, “practical-spiritual”).
Transformative activity can act both in the form of production and in the form of consumption. In both cases, the subject takes possession of the object, only the ratio of the destructive and creative sides of human activity is different.
Another plane of differentiation reveals the difference between creative and mechanical activities (productive and reproductive). Creative activity can exist both in the material sphere and in the consciousness of a person, when he activates the physical capabilities of his body, develops spiritual powers, his capabilities. Consumption can also be creative, original, discovering new ways of using production products, and mechanical, passively reproducing existing forms of consumption.
By improving and transforming the world around them, people are building a new reality, breaking through the horizons of existing existence. However, emphasizing the actively transformative beginning of human practical activity, it is necessary to remember that in a certain way it inscribes a person into the material reality that embraces him and always goes beyond the actual possibilities of its practical development. A person, with all the prospects and possibilities of his active transformative activity, remains within the limits of existence and cannot help but conform his activities to its objective laws. Creative constructive possibilities of transformative activity in the real world are always based on the use of objective laws. In other words, the true effectiveness of human activity is not only associated with the satisfaction of subjective interests or needs, but also involves solving problems determined by the internal laws of the reality to which this activity is aimed. Understanding the dialectic of human activity in relation to the surrounding world and a person’s dependence on this world, his incorporation into this world, his conditioning by the world is a necessary condition for understanding the responsibility of a person in his practical activity arising from this dialectic to the surrounding world and to himself.
§ 1 Features of practical and spiritual activity
From birth, a person actively transforms the world around him, that is, he is engaged in activity. Activity is the process of a person’s conscious and purposeful change of the world and himself. It is in it that a person can show his abilities and develop as a person.
The activities of people have changed the world around us, society beyond recognition, and improved humanity itself. It affects different spheres of society and is very diverse. Scientists identify several classifications of activities. According to the method of implementation, activities are divided into practical and spiritual.
In practical activity, the object of transformation is nature and society; it is divided into material-production and social-transformative. Activities whose object is nature and whose result is material wealth are called material production. And activity, the object of which is society, and the result is a change in social relations, is called socially transformative. Spiritual activity shapes human consciousness. Its subtypes include: cognitive (the result of which is knowledge), value-oriented (as a result of which a person’s worldview is formed) and prognostic (planning or anticipating possible changes in reality).
These activities are interconnected. For example, the results of spiritual activity (music, scientific achievements, etc.) are captured through practical activities (printing notes, publishing books). In turn, practical activity is impossible without initial spiritual activity - a certain idea.
§ 2 Work, play, learning as the main activities
Another classification of activities is based on the way a person is formed as an individual. Scientists who adhere to this typology include the following types of activities: work, play, learning, creativity, communication.
Labor is the interaction of a person with the outside world, aimed at producing a socially useful product. The components of labor are the knowledge and skills of a person, as well as his skill. Labor is carried out out of necessity, but at the same time transforms the world around us. It is aimed at obtaining a practically useful result, in contrast to a game in which the main thing is the process.
A game is an activity during which knowledge of the surrounding world is carried out through imitation of reality. The game is conditional in nature, that is, it offers a solution to an imaginary situation; it is based on the implementation of certain rules and regulations. In it, a person plays a predetermined role. This is the only type of activity that is characteristic not only of people, but also of animals.
The process of cognition is carried out not only during the game. To a greater extent, a person learns new things through training.
Learning is an activity aimed at acquiring various knowledge, skills and abilities. It uses specific means (textbooks, books, computers, etc.), it may not necessarily be purposeful, a person sometimes acquires them spontaneously. For example, new knowledge is acquired from books, films, television shows, and the Internet. Learning involves the interaction of two parties - the teacher and the student, and is reproductive in nature, since the student does not create knowledge, but masters what already exists. The latter does not exclude elements of creativity in teaching.
§ 3 Features of creativity and communication as types of activity
Creativity is an activity aimed at creating a qualitatively new result. It is distinguished by originality, uniqueness and originality of ideas. For creativity, important components are intuition (anticipation of the result), imagination and fantasy.
Creativity is included in almost all types of human activity, as well as communication - an activity aimed at exchanging information, emotions, feelings, assessments and specific actions. The features of this type of activity include the mandatory presence of a partner - an equal subject of communication, and the use of speech (language) in the process of this activity.
Communication forms an emotional community, mutual understanding of subjects that complement each other’s positions. Communication performs important social functions: communicative (exchange of information), regulatory (management of joint activities), compensatory (comforting) and educational (socialization of the individual).
Different types of activities cover the entire social reality. A person changes the world around him, his needs increase, and after this his transformative activity increases.
§ 4 Brief summary of the lesson topic
Human activity transforms the world around us. According to the method of implementation, activities are divided into practical and spiritual. In practical activities, the object of transformation is nature and society. Spiritual activity shapes human consciousness. The types of activities according to the way a person is formed include work, play, learning, creativity, and communication. Work is aimed at obtaining a practically useful result, in contrast to a game in which the main thing is the process. The game is conditional in nature, it is based on following rules, and is characteristic not only of people, but also of animals. Teaching involves interaction between teacher and student, is reproductive in nature, and can be carried out spontaneously. Almost all types of human activity include creativity and communication. The features of the latter include the mandatory presence of a partner - an equal subject of communication, the use of speech (language) in the process of activity.
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