Productive and unproductive types of word formation. The meaning of productive affixes in the dictionary of linguistic terms

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1. General concept of morphemics

In modern Russian there are 2 meanings of the term morphemics:

1. This is the totality of all morphemes of a language, taking into account their types and hierarchy, that is, the movement from simple to complex, from higher to lower.
2. This is a branch of the science of language, where the types and composition of morphemes (sound and letter), their meanings (grammatical and word-formative), their relationships with each other and with the word as a whole are studied.

Morphemics is a component of the discipline of linguistics, which arose in 1881, thanks to the research of the founder of the Kazan linguistic school, Ivan Aleksandrovich Baudouin de Courtenay, as well as thanks to the works of Vasily Alekseevich Bogoroditsky, Grigory Osipovich Vinokur, Elena Andreevna Zemskaya, Vladimir Vladimirovich Lopatin, Mikhail Viktorovich Panov, Alexander Nikolaevich and Tikhonova , Igor Stepanovich Ulukhanov and other domestic scientists.

Morphemics studies the system of minimal, indivisible units of language - morphemes, as well as the morphemic structure of words and their grammatical varieties (word forms).

Morphemics is a component of the branch of linguistics.

2. Morphemic tasks

1. Study of the meanings of morphemes and their functions, patterns of compatibility of morphemes in a word.
2. Practical application of theoretical principles in the study of morphemic analysis of words.

The basic units of morphemics are morpheme, morph.

3. Definition of morpheme

As a rule, when getting to know a language, the main attention is paid not only to the sound composition of the word, but to a greater extent to the morphemic structure of the language, i.e. into the shortest units that have semantic meaning.

K. G. Paustovsky loved to tell a curious story about a little boy who, seeing the “Antelope” sign, exclaimed: “I know what “anti” is, but I don’t know what “lop” means.”

This case convincingly shows that a person strives to reveal the meaning of unknown words by dividing them; we compare new words with known ones and try to highlight the familiar semantic parts of the word. This means that most of the words of the Russian language in our minds are divided into parts - morphemes.

Another example. Let's take a computer term archive, let’s say, its meaning is unknown to us, but we know what an archive is - 1. an institution where documents of the past are stored; 2. the collection of stored documents itself. As a result, we will understand that archiving a file means transferring it to storage, i.e. saving it.

Conclusion: by determining the meaning of individual parts of a word, you can understand the meaning of the whole word. A morpheme is the minimal significant part of a word.

4. How does a morpheme relate to other units of language?

Morpheme - can be considered in two ways, i.e. it has both form and content.

Form: consists of sounds, which are indicated by letters in writing; it also has content - it points to a specific object. By its biplane nature, a morpheme differs from a phoneme and a syllable, which have only a form.

As a rule, the morphemic division of a word (pod-sh-l-i) usually does not coincide with its division into syllables (po-do-shli).

Synonymy of words and morphemes is possible: the most beautiful - the most beautiful; russian - a specialist in the Russian language.

A morpheme is clearly distinguished from a word and a sentence. These are the differences:

1) a morpheme is a minimal unit, and a word and a sentence can be divided into smaller meaningful units;

2) the morpheme is deprived of independence and exists only in the word; Outside a word, it can be difficult to determine not only the meaning of a morpheme, but also its attribution to roots or affixes (plaintiff, radiant, taxi driver). The word acts as an independent element of the sentence;

3) the location of the morpheme in a word is strictly fixed (les-ok, not ok-les), but the word can move relatively freely within a sentence;

4) morpheme – a reproducible unit; the speaker takes them from the “inventory” of language units stored in memory, and sentences and some words (occasional and potential - prosessedannye - in V. Mayak., obrazovanshchina - Solzh.; potential words can be created by any speaker of the Russian language by analogy with already existing with the words: superstar - super success, super car, super fish.

Often, without thinking, we use morphemes: abbreviated by place of residence - Bakunets, Muscovite, Italian.

5. Morpheme, allomorph, variant of morpheme

A morpheme is a generalized unit that has varieties - morphs.

Morph is also related to morpheme, as sound is to phoneme.

Example: talk, say - two morphs of one horse morpheme, in the words buy, purchase, purchase - three morphs of one suffixal morpheme.

Different morphs representing the same morpheme are called allomorphs(Greek allos – other, morphe – form).

A morpheme is a series of alternating allomorphs in a strict position. In this case, allomorphs of one morpheme must have:

1) identity of meaning,

2) proximity of phonemic composition;

3) non-occurrence in one morphemic environment.

Example: allomorphs love - love- have the same meaning “to feel deep affection for someone, something.”, are close in phonemic composition, do not occur in the same morphemic environment: allomorph love - found only where in the history of the language the root b met the phoneme j: love , in love, falling in love. Replacement with the morph lyub is impossible in these words.

Another example: nose and porter, here the morphs are not defined as allomorphs, since they belong to different morphemes, because the morphs do not have the same meaning: nose - “part of a person’s face,” nose” (in the word porter) means to move something by picking it up.

Words go and go, here the morphs id- and sh- have the identical meaning of movement, but do not have similar phonemic composition, therefore they cannot be called allomorphs, these are different morphemes.

If we consider the endings of nouns in word forms doors, doors, then here the morphs are identical in meaning (indicate a noun in plural form, creative case), close in phonemic composition, but occur in the same morpheme position, at the end of the same part of the word. They are not called allomorphs, but options morphemes.

Conclusion: allomorphs and variants of morphemes have the same meaning and similarity in phonemic composition, but variants of morphemes occur in the same position, and allomorphs – in different.

6. Types of morphemes

There are 6 types of morphemes possible in a word: root, prefix (prefix), suffix, ending (inflection), connecting vowel (interfix), postfix.

Types of affixes differ according to their place in the word.

All significant parts of a word, except the root, are called affixes.

The part of a word without an ending is called the stem.

Root is the central morpheme in a word, carrying the main lexical meaning. The common part of related words called cognate.

Affix(lat. attached) – a morpheme that clarifies and specifies the lexical meaning of a word or performs grammatical functions in it.

The main differences between a root and an affix:

1) root - necessarily present in every word, there are no words without roots, affix - optional: there are words that do not have affixes (no, cinema, bezh, au, video);

2) the root necessarily has a meaning, the affix may not have it (five-year-old, high school student);

3) roots can be in any part of speech (good, kind, kind); affixes usually correspond to words of certain parts of speech: enj – suffix of abstract nouns(mood, achievement, procrastination), aish- adjective suffix in the form of superlatives (highest, deepest); -ut – verb ending(write, wave, carry).

The exception here is the suffixes of subjective assessment (uncle, old, modest);

4) there are significantly more roots in the Russian language than affixes.

Example: “Dictionary of morphemes of the Russian language” by A.I. Kuznetsova and T.F. Efremova has about 5000 morphemes, of which more than 4400 are roots and about 600 affixes);

5) roots are replenished with new morphemes, but new affixes almost never appear in the language;

6) in the text, root morphemes are found less frequently than affixes (So, in L.N. Tolstoy’s phrase “Where love ends, hate begins” - 6 root morphemes, at least 10 affixes);

7) root morphemes are longer than affixal ones;

8) affixes can be zero (brother said); roots cannot be zero.

Affixes are divided into educational and formative (inflectional) words.

Derivational affixes serve to form new words, to form their bases (to live, to live).

By using inflectional affixes form grammatical forms of words (zhi-t, zhiv-ut).

7. Productivity and regularity of affixes

When analyzing words in the Russian language, you can notice that not all affixes are equally used: some of them take an active part in the word formation process, others do not participate in word formation.

From this point of view, affixes are divided into productive And unproductive.

Productive are called morphemes that actively participate in word production and give new words.

In the formation of the names of male persons, there are over 50 suffixes: chiy (architect), -ak, -yak (countryman, fisherman), -ik (historian), -chik /-schik (scout, nuclear scientist), -ok (rider), -onok, -yonok (grandson, cook), -ar, -yar (ovchar, stolYar), -yor (boxer), -ir (banker)... The entire list of such suffixes can be found in the book by Zinovy ​​Aronovich Potikha “Modern Russian Word Formation” .

Unproductive affixes are called, with the help of which new words and forms are not currently formed.

For example: Herald, regular, spy, hodAtay - these are, perhaps, all the words in the language with the suffix -tai/-atai. The same applies to the suffixes - ev (brew, glow), -zn (life, fear, illness), -yash (nephew, curly).

The same applies to formative morphemes: all verbs in the 1st person singular. numbers of the present tense have the ending –у / -у, and only 2 verbs have the ending –m in this form: dam, eat.

In addition to productivity / unproductivity, affixes differ in regularity.

Regularity(Latin regula – law, rule) is a natural repetition, reproducibility of an affix as part of a number of words of a homogeneous structure. They form a certain word-forming or formative type.

Irregular affixes have limited (unique) compatibility - only with one specific root; such affixes are also called unifixes: -enek (hubby), -anek (kumanek), -avets (handsome, bastard), -unok (drawing), -yuh (groom).

The endings –umya, -ema, -мя are found only in the numerals two, three, four. The prefix ko- is only in the word nook, the prefix mu- only in the word garbage.

All irregular affixes are simultaneously unproductive, but not all regular affixes are productive. For example, the suffix –ot - (speed, cleanliness, kindness) in SRY is regular, i.e. There is a certain word-formation model: an abstract noun is formed from an adjective with the help of this suffix, but new words are not formed this way, so the suffix is ​​unproductive.

8. Brief description of types of morphemes

Root- a common indivisible part of related words, capable of attaching other morphemes.

Usually roots consist of 2 – 6 sounds (ber-u, dream-at, pogo-a), roots consisting of 1 sound are rare (sh-la, him, u-y-ti).

In morphemic analysis, the root is found when selecting and comparing related words.

Roots distinguish free and bound roots, based on the degree of morphemic and semantic independence.

Available roots - act independently, without combination with other significant morphemes. They themselves form the basis of the word: forest, kind, yesterday.

Related roots (radixoids) - used only in combination with other significant morphemes: o-de-t, na-de-t, about-at-t, once-at-t, v-do-bav-ok.

Prefix(prefix - Latin attached in front) - an affix that is located in front of the root and expresses word-formation or grammatical meaning.

Prefixes in verbs can mean a specific action: In-walk - out - word-formation meaning.

Write - na-write - verbs denote one action, but the unprefixed is an imperfective verb and is formative.

Usually the prefix is ​​located in front of the root, but it can also be in front of another prefix: without-dimensional, on-you-to-pull, on-to-think.

Most often, consoles are simple(without-/bes-, in-/vo-, o-/about-/about-), but there may also be composite(complex, derivative), formed as a result of a combination of 2 prefixes. There are a few such prefixes: bez-/obes-, under-, nebez-/nebes- (deprive, weaken, notorious, not useful, underfulfill, underdo).

Before verbs, prefixes usually play the role of additional meaning: to drive, to drive, to drive, to drive, to drive.

When mixed structures of complex prefixes (under-, obez-, obes-) with simple ones from the combination of which they are formed, difficulties may arise.

Example: under-looked – i.e. “did not take into account, did not notice, overlooked”; He was not saying something - i.e. “hid, withheld.”

A distinctive feature of the prefix is ​​its holistic, independent character; often words with this prefix without not are not used: underestimation, misunderstanding, malnutrition, underestimation, reticence, thoughtlessness, misunderstanding. Remember!

Complex prefix heaven-/heaven- is used to form adjectives and denotes incompleteness, a weak degree of quality: not harmless - not entirely harmful, not useful - somewhat useful, not unreasonable - having some grounds. Not unknown - known to some extent, not unknown - known, because. there is no complete denial of the unknown here.

Suffix- this is an affix located before the ending and serves to form new words or their grammatical forms.

Usually the suffix is ​​located after a root or another suffix: gost-i-t, sequence-ova-tel-nitsa.

Characteristic features of suffixes:

1. Merging a suffix with a specific ending. In linguistic literature, suffixes and inflections are often given as one whole: -nie, -ification, -stvo. Such combinations of suffix and ending are called formants.

2. The suffix has the ability, together with the ending, to attribute words to one or another part of speech: -nits(a) (inkwell, breadbox) - predetermines the attribution of the word to feminine nouns. The suffix -sk(iy) (urban, rural) - to adjectives, the suffix -nu- - to verbs of the first conjugation (push, shout).

3. It is necessary to distinguish suffixes from prefixes; suffixes are attached not to the word as a whole, but to the base of the word form: from the verb to be friends with the help of the suffix -b- the noun friendship is formed, from the noun length the adjective long is formed.

In the Russian language there are native Russian suffixes and borrowed suffixes.

Suffixes are divided into derivational And inflectional(formative).

Derivational suffixes change the lexical meaning of a derived word.

Example: the nouns wardrobe, newspaper have the meaning of objectivity, and formed from them with the help of the suffix -chik / -schik newspaperman, cloakroom worker already have the meaning of a person in relation to an object, an instrument of action.

In the Russian language, word-forming suffixes are predominantly used.

The following difficulties may arise in morpheme parsing:

1. In possessive adjectives such as foxes, the morpheme –i is a suffix, not an ending, therefore, in the form foxes, the zero ending, the letter ending appears in such an adjective when the form of the word changes: foxes, foxes. And the vowel is fluent in the suffix –i.

2. With the same graphic representation of suffixes and endings: sem-ey-y, golu-ey. Here, too, you need to compare the parsed form with others, and only after that decide what is in front of you: a suffix or an ending.

3. It can be difficult to distinguish one suffix from another (dreamer, insensitivity, predecessor): 1) highlight all this as one suffix, 2) highlight as many suffixes as possible.

In such cases, it is necessary to build a word-formation chain, decide what the given word is derived from, and motivate your decision.

Dreamer - a woman who is a dreamer, we can distinguish the suffix -nits-. A dreamer is someone who dreams; we can distinguish the suffix –tel. To dream - to have dreams in your head - highlight the suffix -a-.

The Russian language is distinguished by a wide variety of suffix systems, which contributes to the variety of shades of meaning and the subtlety of stylistic shades. Example: girl, girl, girl, girly, girly, girly, girly, girly, girly, girly, girly, girly.

There is another feature of suffixes in Russian: diminutive.

Diminutive suffixes are often used in colloquial speech, which are a manifestation of an informal style of speech.

For example: Bench is an official language, a label in a store, on a sales list, in legal usage. The diminutive “bench” is common, common literary and neutrally colloquial. A double diminutive“Stool” is emphatically colloquial, a sign of informal, friendly relations with the interlocutor.

Hence the double or even multiple diminutiveness of many words and a huge supply of suffixes: k, ik, ok, chik, check, ochk, echk, ichk, ushk, ishk, yshk, itsa, itse... The same word can be reduced by everything frets: room - little room - little room - little room; hand - pen - little hand - little hand - little hand...

Diminutive suffixes on adjectives take on a special flavor. They smooth out and, as it were, average those evaluative values: handsome, kind, smart, and now with diminutive suffixes: handsome, kind, smart. In a diminutive form, they begin to sound somewhat condescending, praise is moderated, and sometimes even turns into ridicule.

9. Postfix

Postfix(lat. attached) – an affix located after the ending at the absolute end of the word.

There are 5 postfixes in Russian: 2 verbs(-sya / -sya, -te: fight, fight, teach) and 3 pronominal(-that, -either, -someone: someone, some, someone's).

The above listed affixes are word-forming.

Thus, the postfix – xia gives the verbs correspond, quarrel the meaning of reciprocity, and pronouns and adverbs with postfixes – that, -or, -something (someone, somewhere, someday) have the meaning of uncertainty.

The postfix –sya/-sya performs an inflectional function: it is used to form forms of the passive voice. For example: Workers are building a house. - The house is being built by workers.

The inflectional postfix - those in the form of the imperative mood of the verb expresses the grammatical meaning of the plural: think - those, remember - those.

Postfixes combine the characteristics of prefixes and suffixes. Verbs remain verbs, pronouns remain pronouns (to begin - to begin, which - any).

10. Interfix

This word refers to related but not identical concepts:

1. connecting vowels in compound words;
2. intermorphemic spacers.

The main connecting vowels are –O-, -E-, also –I-, -EX-, -UH-, -U-: daredevil, four-story, two-story, penumbra.

Intermorpheme spacers - ensure the compatibility of morphemes and are often located at the border of the root and suffix. In morphemic analysis, in this case, we can distinguish the suffix –sh-, which is a variant of the suffix –n-, or we can distinguish the suffix –n- and the interfix –sh-.

For example: Kazan, Saratov, Oryol, Gorky.

11. End

End(inflection - lat. bending, transition) - a variable part of the word form that serves to express grammatical meaning and indicates the syntactic relationships of words in a sentence.

The ending occupies the final position in the word, the exception concerns only indefinite pronouns, reflexive verbs and complex numerals (for someone, I return, three hundred).

The ending is used to express the meaning of gender, number, case or person. For example: in the word form country -a expresses the meaning of zh.r., singular, im.p.; merry - the meaning of m., cf. r., units h., r. p.; look –im – plural meaning, 1st person, i.e. the ending is complex.

In some cases, the ending is also a word-forming device: godfather - godfather, spouse - wife, fox - fox, Alexander - Alexandra.

12. Affixoids

By function affixoids close to affixes. They are part of a complex or compound word, which regularly participate in word formation and thereby approach in their role to affixes - prefixes and suffixes.

Examples of prefixoids: bio- (biology, biochemistry, biotechnology), pseudo- (pseudo-democrat, pseudo-culture), suffixoids: -log (political scientist, geologist, philologist), -tek- (film library, card index, library).

13. Word stem

Base word- this is an obligatory and constant element of the morphemic structure of a word, which is a means of expressing its lexical meaning.

In the Russian language there are 2 main types of morphemic structure of the Russian word:

1. stem + inflection (city, country, said);
2. words equal to stem (fun, khaki, coat).

Rarely, when forming a word, different root (subpletive) stems are used: child - children, person - people, good - better, me - me.

The bases can be articulated or indivisible.

Artifactable are called stems consisting of at least 2 morphemes, 1 of which is root: degree-nick, na-so-n-th.

Indivisible the bases are equal to the root: red, go.

The basics can be simple, i.e. containing 1 root, and complex containing 2 or more roots (agricultural, Russian-German-French).

14. Historical changes in word structure

The morphemic structure of a word can change, including:

1) re-decomposition- a change in morphemic boundaries in a word, as a result of which the stem of the word is divided into morphemes differently than before. Example: the former division of living-ness was replaced by the division of living-ness, fishing rod: fishing rod (to fish); earlier: udi-l-ish-e (bit, cf.: bite the bit).

2) simplification- transformation of a articulated base into an indivisible one (in the word taste the prefix v- is no longer distinguished; previously this word was related to the words bite, piece).

3) complication– transformation of a previously non-derivative base into a derivative (book - book, leg - leg).

4) substitution- replacement of one morpheme with another without changing the general meaning of the word: solyanka - sol- originally had the form selyanka (rural food) - sel-.

15. Morphemic parsing

The order of school analysis by composition:

1. Determine the part of speech of the word being analyzed.
2. For modified words, change the form of the word, highlight its ending.
3. Build a word-formation chain, highlight suffixes and prefixes.
4. Select words with the same root and make sure that the remaining part is a root. Remember that there may be alternations at the root.

Sample school analysis of composition:

1) participated - verb,

2) participated, participated – ending –and,

3) participated - past form. vr. from the verb to participate - suffix prosh. vr. – l,

4) to participate is to take part in something - the suffix -vova-.

5) Participation, participant – root of participation.

The order of university morpheme analysis:

1. Part of speech– changeable (how it changes) / unchangeable.

2. Characteristics graduation:

• by the nature of the formal expression (materially expressed or zero),
• by the nature of the grammatical meaning.

3. Characteristics basics:

• articulated / indivisible,
• simple / complex,
• intermittent/continuous.

4. Characteristics root:

• by degree of independence (free/bound),
• by the nature of the meaning (objective / verbal / attribute: qualitative and quantitative attribute),
• by the presence of alternations.

5. Characteristics suffixes:

• by function (inflectional / word-formative),
• by value.

6. Characteristics consoles:

• by structure (derivative / non-derivative),
• by function (inflectional / word-formative),
• by value.

7. Characteristics postfixes:

• by function (inflectional / word-formative).

8. Characteristics interfix: a connecting vowel that contributes to the formation of a word / an insignificant spacer that ensures the compatibility of morphemes.

Sample morpheme parsing

1) co-worker - noun, changed in numbers and cases.

2) End zero, expresses gram. value of m. genus, units. numbers, them pad.

3) Warp employee articulated, simple, continuous.

4) Root– labor - free, objective, alternation d // w // zh (labor - I’m working - to bother).

5) Suffix- nickname - materially expressed, word-formative, meaning “the name of persons in relation to some object.”

6) Prefix co-non-derivative, word-formative, has the meaning of “togetherness”.

16. Subject and tasks of word formation. The relationship of word formation to other branches of linguistics

It is necessary to strictly distinguish derivational connections between modern language and real path of education words in the past, as well as consider word-formation means of the modern language in terms of their productivity.

Productive are the affixes used to form new words (using the suffixes –нij-, -chik-/-schik-, -ant, -k-: landing, starship, locator, informant, handball player).

Word formation has a special place in the system of linguistic disciplines; the connection between word formation and grammar and lexicology.

Word formation is considered as a special section of grammar, along with morphology and syntax.

Grammar is the structure of a language. A language has: a sound side (phonetics/graphics), a semantic side (lexis) and a structure (word formation, morphology, syntax).

Word formation– a separate section of linguistics, has its own subject of study: morphemic and word-formative; your tasks:

1. studying the minimally significant parts of a word - morphemes
2. learning how to form words
3. study of word-formation resources
4. study of the word-formation system of the Russian language, main development trends
5. mastering the methods of word formation.

Contact with morphology manifests itself in the fact that new words are usually formed according to existing models in the language, arranged according to grammatical categories of the language (part of speech, permanent and non-static features).

Word formation and syntax the connection is reflected in the word-formation possibilities and semantics of words derived from it. Let us consider this phenomenon using the example of the word “teach”.

* teach – is a predicate in a sentence

Accordingly, from this verb it is formed:

• name of action (teaching)
• name of the acting (teacher)
• name of the direct circumstance of the action (student)
• name of the indirect circumstance of the action (textbook)
• name of the place of action (school).

Word formation and phonetics

The phonetic and morphological structure of the Russian language are closely interconnected in the structure of the word. In the process of word formation and morphogenesis, the same morpheme can be modified in its sound composition and differ in morphs.

Morph- a specific representative of one morpheme in a word.

Word formation and derivation

Derivation– the very process of formation of linguistic units of any level (morphemes, syllables, words, etc.).

The science of word formation is called derivatology. This includes the processes of formation of language units as a whole (words, phrases, sentences).

Word formation studies the following sections:

1. morphemics – studies morphemes and their meaning
2. Russian word structure section (about the basics)
3. morphonology (considers morphs of various types)
4. etymology (origin of the derivational structure of a word)
5. word formation itself (methods, types, word-formation chains and nests)

17. Word formation in the market world

Knowledge about word formation is used everywhere in the modern world.

Philologist is a very “broad” specialty; a philologist can be found everywhere: not only in an educational institution, kindergarten and library, but also in a printing house, a company of any profile, city and regional administration - literate people are needed everywhere.

18. The concept of derivatives

Productivity- the basic concept of word formation, is formed between words of the same root, when the form and meaning of one word are directly predetermined (motivated) by the form and meaning of another word (river ← river, ChSPU ← Chelyabinsk State Pedagogical University).

All words in the Russian language are divided (from a word-formation point of view) into derivatives and non-derivatives.

Derivatives- words formed from other words: spring, stream. The words river, river, little river are derivative, and the word river for them is productive.

Derivative words (derivative) are the basic minimal unit of the word-formation system of a language. For example: Snowflake ← snow

Productivity happens the only one And multiple. With single derivation, there is only one option for motivating the derived word: student ← student, store manager ← store manager.

With multiple derivation (multiple motivations), a word can be equally correlated with several generators:

not fun ← fun redistribution ← distribution

← sad ← redistribute

Non-derivative are words that are not formed from other words. There are 2 groups of words. One includes variable words consisting of a word and an ending: spring, stream, sun.

The second group consists of unchangeable words such as sconce, coat, there, scat. The words of both groups have an indivisible base, which is equal to the root.

19. Motivating and motivated word. Derivative formant

The words “generating word” and “generating base” are close, but not identical.

Motivating word is the generating word from which the parsed word is actually formed. For example: for the word extortion, the word extortionist is productive and motivating: extortion is the action that the extortionist commits.

Motivated word is a derivative word, the meaning of which can be explained (motivated) with the help of a cognate word, simpler in composition.

Motivating and motivated words are connected by relations of word-formation motivation.

Motivating and motivated words form a word-forming pair. The motivated word in this pair is the one that is formally and semantically more complex than the word with the same root. For example: Baker - bakery. The word bake-ar-n-ya, for example, is formally longer (in suff. -n-) and semantically more complex: it includes the component “place”, which means that it is the word bakery that is motivated.

When interpreting derivative words, you can use standard definitions: the one who; what; the one that.

A motivated word always consists of 2 parts: the base of the generating word and the word-forming one. formant.

Derivative formant– this is the means by which the derived word differs from the producing one: author → co-author (co-), teach → learn (-sya). – this is the means by which the derived word differs from the producing one: author → co-author (co-), teach → learn (-sya).

In the Russian language, word-forming formants are:

a. affixes,

b. reduction of the production base (specialist → specialist),

c. addition or fusion into a single unit (instant, dining car),

d. a change in the system of grammatical forms of a word (when it moves from 1 part of speech to another: ice cream: adverb → noun), the gender of the participle was non-fixed. category: frozen meat, frozen fish, frozen zucchini; The creature became a fast. category - cf. r.

20. Word-formation meaning

Derived words express a wide range of word-formation meanings of different types. For example: meanings of a person (flatterer, pilot, conductor - highlight the formants that express this meaning), object meanings (engine, counter, boiler - formants), meaning of a place of action or container (locker room, winter hut, stable, sugar bowl, coffee pot), meanings femininity, immaturity, collectiveness or individuality (cashier, little fox, clientele, pea), various evaluative meanings: diminutive, magnifying, affectionate, derogatory (house, domina, little dog, little mind) and many other meanings.

21. Methodology for choosing a generating word and composing a word-forming pair

There is a certain method for choosing a generating word and composing a word-forming pair:

1. Determine the lexical meaning of the derived word.
2. Compose a motivational paraphrase (descriptive expression) for the derived word.
3. Make a word-forming pair, highlight the derivative and the generating stem.
4. Determine the word formant and its meaning.

For example: Charm is a characteristic of a charming person.

Charm ← charming.

The word-forming formant, the suffix -ost, gives the meaning of an abstract entity.

22. Word-formation nest

Word pair form a generating and a derivative word. They can form a word-formation chain: blue → turn blue → turn blue → turn blue.

All derivative words formed from the same root make up word-formation nest: Bor (pine and spruce forest) → borok

→ boron

→ boletus → boletus → boletus

Word-forming nests vary in size:

1) zero nest – represented by only 1 word

2) weakly deployed a nest including a top and 1 derivative: mayonnaise - mayonnaise;

3) highly developed nest of 3 or more words

23. Word-formation type

The word-formation type is the main complex unit of the word-formation system.

The word-formation type includes 3 components:

• commonality of part-speech belonging of producing words;
• commonality of part-speech belonging of derived words;
• commonality of word-formation formant and word-formation meaning.

For example, baby elephant, bear cub, little black man are created on the basis of a word-formation type (word-formation model), i.e.

1. Base noun. + -onok / yonok = noun. with value cub.

2. Greenish, bluish, pinkish are created on the basis of the word-formation type stem adj. + -ovat-/-evat- = adj. with value shade of color.

The word-formation type shows the structure of words existing in a language and gives a rule for the formation of some words from others.

24. Method of word formation

Method of word formation– 1 of the central concepts in word formation. It can be considered in terms of diachrony and in terms of synchrony.

From diachronic point of view, the method of word formation records the history of the birth of a word in one of the periods of its development. For example: goalkeeper ← gate (suff. method, through the formant -ar); now ← this hour (merging 2 significant words).

With synchronous point of view, the method of word formation determines the means by which the word-formation meaning of the word is expressed.

In many cases, the word-formation meaning of collectiveness is expressed in a suffixal way using the formants –j-, -в-, -н-, -еств-, -няк, -ат. For example: animals, foliage, relatives, students, birch forest, elder.

To determine the method of word formation, it is necessary to identify the generating stem and the word-forming formant.

Land← earth (morphol., adj.-suff.-postfix.).

25. Morphological methods of word formation

At morphological Methods of word formation use morphemes.

In such word formations, the structure of the derived word differs from the motivating base (the generating word or phrase): spring ← spring, snowdrop ← snow.

At non-morphological methods do not use affixes and are not accompanied by a change in the external appearance of the producing unit.

Pure affixation methods include prefixation, suffixation, postfixation.

Prefixation - word formation using prefixes: sing → sing, always → forever. Often used in relation to verbs.

Suffixation- word formation using suffixes, this is the most common method of Russian word formation, characteristic of different parts of speech, primarily for nouns and adjectives.

Blue → blue → blue

Zero suffixation - used in the field of verbal nouns (talk → talk, answer → answer, run → run, stroll → truant), nouns formed from adjectives (green → green, quiet → quiet, new → new), and evaluative nouns with the meaning of person (fuck up → suck up, bully → bully).

Postfix - affixal method, in which a postfix serves as a means of expressing word-formation meaning.

A postfix, like a prefix, is attached to the word as a whole and does not change the part of speech of the word being formed.

There are also combined affixal methods: prefix-suffixal, prefix-postfixal, suffixal-postfixal, prefix-postfixal-suffixal.

Let's consider these methods.

1. Prefix-suffix method . The word-building formant in this case is a combination of 2 affixes - a prefix and a suffix ((snow → snowdrop, Ural → Trans-Urals).
2. Prefixation with zero suffixation . Prefixation and zero suffixation are a method characteristic of the formation of adjectives motivated by nouns with the meaning of a part of the body or a detail of appearance: eyeless, legless, armless.
3. Prefix-postfix used mainly with verbs. A means of expressing word-formation meaning is a combination of a prefix and a postfix -sya, -sya: get through, get hungry, spill the beans. The formant is attached to a whole word - a verb.
4. Suffixal-postfixal mainly used with verbs. Nouns and adjectives serve as motivating words: vanity → fuss, proud → be proud, need → need.
5. Prefix-suffix-postfix method. It is used mainly with verbs; motivating words are nouns, adjectives and verbs: bankrupt → go bankrupt, generous → become generous, whisper → whisper.

Addition - one of the most common phenomena in word formation.

When adding, the basis is a stable order of components, a tendency towards a single stress, interfix.

Compound words have a special type of word-formation meaning - a connecting meaning associated with the unification of motivating bases that are different in semantics into 1 integral unit: north, east → northeast.

Addition includes several varieties.

1. Complex method– addition of independent words without the help of an interfix: restaurant car, raincoat, stop crane. Each word has an independent meaning.
2. Pure addition– the formation of a derivative word by combining, using an interfix, 1 or several stems with an independent significant word: forest-steppe, black and white. Words can be either equal or unequal semantic relationships (white-pink ← white and pink, waterproof ← waterproof).
3. Education difficult words with 1 immutable bound component international nature: air, television, bio, video, rock (airmail, TV show, dietary supplements, video duo, rock concert).
4. Complex suffix method. The word-formation meaning is expressed by a combination of addition and suffix. Interfix and suffix serve as word-forming formants. This method is common in the formation of nouns and adjectives: fire extinguisher, full moon, fifth grade, three-story, Western European, Far Eastern.
5. Complex prefix method: appease, blue-black.
6. Prefixal-complex-suffixal: everyday, ubiquitous, Black Sea region.

Truncation- reduction of the generating stem according to the type of abbreviations (regardless of the morphemic seam): specialist - specialist, deputy - deputy.

The stems of nouns and adjectives are truncated: specialist - special, manager - head, naive - naive, intensive - intensive. Truncations can also be motivated by the phrase: maternity leave - maternity leave, fictitious - fictitious marriage, synchronous - simultaneous translation.

Truncation can be complicated by suffixation: video, great, cartoon, comic.

Semantic inclusion(univerbation) - a way of forming a word based on the phrase: reading room → reader, grade book → record book.

This is a very common method of modern word formation, it forms colloquial words: minibus, public, devitietazhka, three-liter, hundred-meter, savings book, five hundred.

26. Morphonological phenomena in word formation

In morphological word formation, at the junction of the generating stem and the affix, various sound changes. For example, when combining the root ruk- with the suffix –n- in the root there is an alternation of phonemes k//ch, but when combining the same root with the suffix –ast- there is no alternation in the root: manual – rukasty.

Morphemes can adapt to each other using the following word-forming means:

• insertion of interfixes, thanks to this it is possible to avoid difficult to pronounce combinations of phonemes on the morphemic seam (skyscraper, biennial);
• morpheme overlay– partial combination in the structure of the word of 2 neighboring morphs (taxi + ist → taxi driver; coat + ov → coatovy, roz-ov-yy + ovat → pinkish).
• truncation morpheme is a reduction of part of a root or affix under the influence of an attached affix (coat - paltetso, Italian - Italian);
• buildup- complication of the base of a word in the formation of derivatives or word forms from it: heaven - heaven, daughter - daughters, time - time, mother - maternal.
• alternation phonemes and combinations of phonemes.

The most important historical alternations

1. e // and (unlocked - unlock)

2. o // s (ambassador - send)

3. o // a (burn - burn)

4. e // o (to carry - cart)

5. I // y (tink - sound)

6. e // i // a // and (sit down - sit down - sit down - sit)

7. e // ǿ (day - day)

8. o // ǿ (sleep - sleep)

9. and // to her // ǿ (to pour - lei - pour)

10. s // oh (wash is mine)

11. ui // ov (sui - poke)

12. ui // ev (chew - chew)

13. I // them (understand - understand)

14. a // in (start - begin)

15. oro // ra (turn - rotate)

16. ere // re (tree - tree)

17. olo // la (cold - cool)

18. olo // le (milk - mammal)

19. g // f // z (friend - friend - friends)

20. k // h // c (face - personality - face)

21. g // f // h (to take care - to take care - to take care)

22. g // f // sch (can - can - power)

23. x // w (dry - dry)

24. s // w (wear - wear)

25. d // f // zh (walk - walk - walking)

26. t // h // sh (light - candle - lighting)

27. t // sch (eat - food)

28. st // sch (let - let in)

29. sk // sch (drag - drag)

30. d // s (led - lead)

31. t // s (weave - weave)

32. any acc. // ǿ (vedu – vel, meta – chalk)

33. b // bl (to love - I love)

34. p // pl (sculpt - sculpt)

35. m // ml (terrestrial - earth)

36. in // ow (catch - catch)

37. f // fl (graph - graph)

Reasons for the occurrence of morphonological phenomena

1. Historical processes in the field of phonetics (alternations with sibilants caused the laws of palatalization, fluency of vowels is a consequence of the fall of reduced ones): crumb - tiny, love - love, sleep - sleep.
2. The action of the principle of saving speech effort: truncation, overlap and haplology, example: brown - brownish, curious - curiosity, Chekhov - Chekhovian.
3. The desire to preserve the transparency of the word formation and morphemic structure of the word: airplane, Tyuzovsky.
4. The operation of the law of euphony.
5. The action of the law of analogy (truncation, overlap, haplology, interfixation): Orel - Orlovsky.

27. Non-morphological methods of formation

Non-morphological methods of formation are methods of forming derivative words that are not accompanied by a change in the external appearance of the producing unit.

Non-morphological methods are divided into lexical-semantic, lexical-syntactic and morphological-syntactic methods.

Lexico-syntactic method(merger, fusion) is the creation of a new word based on a phrase as a result of the merger of 2 or more words: today, crazy, instant, above.

1) adverb + adjective or participle: evergreen, instant, low-fiction books.

2) noun + adjective or participle: phosphorus-containing, nitrogen-containing, insane.

When a word is formed in a lexical-syntactic way, only 1 part changes: evergreen, evergreen, evergreen.

Compound nouns like dining car are formed by addition, because in many of them both parts are inflected: in the dining car, to the rematch, from the hairdressing salon, from the international journalist.

Morphological-syntactic method. Transition from one part of speech to another.

Often in Russian, words can go into all parts of speech. The productivity of these processes is not the same.

Productive processes include substantivization, adjectivation, adverbialization, predication, prepositionalization and interjectivization.

1) Substantivization(Latin substantivum - noun) - nouns are formed from adjectives and participles: confectionery, vacationers.

Substantivized adjectives and participles are diverse in semantics: these are designations of persons (sick, ordinary, scientist, counter), premises (bathroom, dining room, living room, reception room, operating room), abstract concepts (future, beautiful, main thing), dishes, dishes, medicines ( hot, roast, sleeping pills), money, payments (tips, travel allowances).

2) Adjectivation– transition of words into adjectives (first row – first student = best).

3) Pronominalization- transition of words into pronouns, adjectives(famous artist – a certain amount of freedom = some), numerals(plant one tree - In the old days there lived only some people = some, some), participles(the assignment given to me is to speak out on this issue = this).

4) Adverbialization– transition of words into adverbs, nouns turn into adverbs (to live very close = close).

5) Predication– transition of words into words of the state category. This phenomenon is subject to adverbs and short adjectives(to vaguely hint - the morning is foggy - In the morning it’s foggy) and nouns (Sad time! Ouch charm!).

6) Prepositionalization– transformation of words into prepositions. They turn into prepositions nouns(during the river - during the day), adverbs(stand around – stand around us) participles(thanks to a comrade - thanks to the help of comrades = because of).

7) Conjunctionalization– transition of words into conjunctions. They join unions adverbs(We followed the signs exactly. - The eyes sparkled like stars) and pronouns(I didn’t know what to take with me. - The thought involuntarily came to mind that the stars were rustling - Paust.).

8) Interjectivation- transition of words into interjections (bear guard - Guard! Rob).

Morphological word formation methods are used as word formants morphemes.

Morphological ways:

1. Affixals:

1) suffixal - eared - ears

2) zero suffixation - run - run

3) postfixal - learn - teach

5) prefix-suffixal - boletus - aspen

6) bailiff. - suff. - postfixal - become generous - generous

7) suffixal-postfixal - spike - ear

8) prefixal-postfixal - finish shouting - shout

9) prefixation with zero suffixation - rime - frost

2. Addition

1) pure addition - bakery, bread, factory

2) complex method - dining car, carriage, restaurant

3) addition with international elements. nature - dietary supplement, bio, supplement

4) addition + suffixation - puzzle ← puzzle

5) addition + prefixation - pacify, peace, create

6) addition + pref + suff - half a turn, half a turn

3. Abbreviation

1) alphabetic - CHGPU

2) sound - UN

3) syllabic - trade union committee

4) syllable-word - salary

5) mixed - IMLI

6) telescopic moped

4. Truncation

specialist ← specialist

5. Semantic inclusion

record book ← grade book

Word-formation analysis

During word-formation analysis, it is necessary to determine the direction of derivation and the establishment of a motivating word, to consider the relationship between the motivating and motivated words in formal and semantic terms.

In the process of analysis, the generating stem and word-formation formant are identified, the word-formation meaning of the derivative is revealed, which is expressed by the method of word formation.

For word-formation analysis, it is necessary to take only derived words, and only in the initial form.

Word-formation parsing scheme

1. Motivational word.
2. Motivation.
3. Producing basis.
4. Word formant.
5. Method of word formation.

Sample of university word-formation analysis

Call back ← call

1. The motivating word is to call.
2. Motivation: call back – call each other periodically.
3. Producing base - call.
4. Word-forming. formant – a combination of the prefix pere-, suffix –iva-, postfix. – (ORAL)
5. The method of word formation is morphological, pref.-suff.-postf.

Sample of school word-formation analysis

Plumbing ← conduct water (addition)

Snowdrop ← snow (prefix-suffix method).

Affix called a morpheme that is attached to a root and has the function of forming words. Essentially affix- this is a general concept for those well known to us consoles And suffixes and some other parts of the word.

Affixes existed many years ago, but this does not mean that the affixes of “that time” are still relevant in modern times. It also happens exactly the opposite: now, for example, the suffix is ​​quite popular in the formation of new words, but a couple of centuries ago it was not famous. Yes, suffix -ness is now highly productive(it forms abstract nouns - weak awn, old awn, intelligent awn ), and until the 17th century - in the Old Russian language - this affix in relation to word-formation connections was limited: it was combined only with non-derivative stems of adjectives.

-A– ending nominative plural– previously it was typical only neuter noun but over time it expanded the boundaries of its productivity and began to be used among masculine nouns: meadow A, city A, doctor A, professor A.

In other words, all affixes are divided into alive And dead.Living affixes- This affixes that form words and forms in modern language; they h clearly stand out as part of the word from the point of view of living connections and relationships in language. Dead affixes stand out as part of a word only through etymological analysis (hundred r th– suffix -r; su spring– prefix su- etc.). Dead affixes do not form new words and forms in the modern language, but they must be known as a fact of language.

For example, the word spouse formed from the root « spring» (« yank») using the attachment su-. Root " spring» (« yank") means " couple, mostly a pair of oxen in a team».

Living affixes are divided into three groups: affixes unproductive, productive And unproductive.

Unproductive affixes do not produce new words and forms, but stand out as part of the word (dead affixes, as a rule, are no longer “visible” in words - they have merged with other morphemes and the root).

Non-productive affixes include, for example, prefixes pra-, su-, pa-, po- etc.: great grandfather, su darkness, pa vodka, By vodir; suffixes -tuh, -tyr, -holes, -tizn-, -o etc.: pass duh, ne duh, put tyr, povo holes, yellow tizn a, count O t; graduation -m, -mi: Yes m, e m, horse mi, bone mi.

Productive affixes actively produce new words and forms and are easily distinguished as part of a word.

Productive affixes include prefixes before-, once-, upon- etc., suffixes -ik, -nik, -its(a), -chik, -schik, -stv(o), -yva, -iva, -well, -n, -sk, -chiv, as well as overwhelming most endings: spacing chick, Krasnore chiv oh, table IR, varnish stv O.

This group of affixes is the most extensive and most problematic: some affixes, as productive, are suitable only for certain models of word formation, and for all others they are regarded as unproductive or unproductive.

Yes, suffix -ets productive in education nouns meaning "belonging to" from nouns: Komsomol - Komsomol ec, party - party ec etc. This suffix is ​​unproductive in the formation of nouns, which faces matter, from verb stems: coupe ec, singing ec, gon ec.

Suffixes -yva, -iva productive only in relation to verbs with prefixes: about sizh willow yeah, By Hajj willow t etc.

End -s is productive masculine nouns in the genitive plural (factory ov, table ov ). The ending is unproductive in words neuter (shaft ov, clouds ov, points ov, hanger ov ).

Unproductive affixes rarely produce new words and forms, but stand out in words when word-formation analysis.

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The vocabulary of modern English is replenished mainly through word formation and borrowing. Productive ways of word formation in modern English are:

• 1) Compounding.
• 2) Affixation.
• 3) Abbreviations.
• 4) Conversion.
• 5) Formation of verbs by adding post-verb word-forming elements (Nikishina http://www.pglu.ru).

First, let's look at productive ways to form new words.

1. Compounding is one of the most ancient, universal and widespread methods of word formation in the English language. The process of word formation is a fusion of two bases - homonymous word forms, for example, “carryback” (transfer of losses to an earlier period), “think-tank” (collective brain).

In cases where words ending and beginning with the same vowel or consonant are connected, one of them is omitted:

“net” + “etiquette” = “netiquette” (unwritten generally accepted rules of communication or posting information on the Internet).

The number of complex derivative units is increasing. The main productive suffix is ​​the suffix - “er”: “page-turner” (extremely interesting book); “all-nighter” (something that lasts all night, such as studying during a session).

Among complex units, a significant proportion are words formed with the help of particles and adverbs, this is especially true for adjectives and verbs:

“laid-back” (relaxed), “buttoned-down” (conservative), traditional, “turned-on” (excited), “switched-off” (disconnected, feeling nothing).

One of the most commonly used multi-component models has recently become the model with the word line, which is on the verge of complex words and phrases:

“straight-line responsibility” (direct responsibility);

“dotted-line responsibility” (responsibility divided into two);

"bottom-line" (final);

“top-of-the-line” (the best).

This model is limited in its use in situations of informal communication by representatives of the business community.

Very often, with this method of formation, neologisms have a satirical connotation, especially in the press:

"... that they tasted the same in Peking as they did in London or New York, and so it was that world burgernomics was born by McDonald's"

(http://www.independent.co.uk).

In this case, the author of the article wants to draw the reader’s attention to the significant development of the McDonald’s restaurant chain and the fast food industry, which has its own laws and phenomena. And like other economic laws, they apply equally in different countries:

(... that in Beijing they taste the same as in London or New York, that's how McDonald's created the world hamburgernomics).

In general, multicomponent units used in informal communication are more typical for the American version, for example:

“to nickel-and-dime” (pay great attention to detail),

"meat-and-potatoes" (main),

"nuts-and-bolts" (basic),

“quick-and-dirty” (bar, cafe where you can have a quick snack).

2. Affixation is another productive way of forming new words in the English language. At different stages of development of society, language gives preference to different methods of word formation and, in particular, different affixes. The popularity of certain word-forming means is determined by the needs of society at a certain moment in its development.

For example, in the 80s and 90s of the XX century. In the English language, a huge number of words appeared, formed with the help of the suffixes -ist, -ism, which became unusually productive in the field of political correctness to designate different methods of verbal and non-verbal discrimination: “alphabetizm”, “sexist”.

The following suffixes have negative connotations:

eer (“profiteer” (speculator), “racketeer” (racketeer));

ster (“funster” (clown, playwright); “schoolster” (teacher, bad teacher));

nik (“neatnik” (clean), “noodnik” (bore));

hop (“to jobhop” (change jobs often));

er (“do-nothinger” (loafer, gimp)) (Zemskaya, 1992).

The suffix “ness” continues to be one of the most productive in modern English (“hawkishness” (aggressiveness)).

Affixes are characterized by the following general features:

All affixes are semantically relevant morphemes that have a more or less abstract meaning.

The affix must have the attribute of free identification, i.e. be perceived as part of a word.

Affixes must be used to form words from stems of different origins; Borrowed affixes must generate new words based on the language that borrowed them.

affixes must have a certain frequency of use; At the same time, data from dictionaries of neologisms can serve as evidence of their productivity and belonging specifically to the category of affixes (and not components of complex words).

3. Contraction is the most productive among the irregular ways of forming morphological neologisms, which reflect the tendency towards rationalization of language and saving linguistic effort. Despite the fact that abbreviations make up only a small percentage of the total number of neologisms, their number is growing.

Of the four types of abbreviations (abbreviations, acronyms, truncations, mergers), truncated words predominate, for example:

"anchor"< «anchorman» (обозреватель новостей, координирующий теле- или радиопрограммы).

The word is limited in use in the American version (in the British version it corresponds to “presenter”, “lib”< «liberation»).

The peculiarity of truncations is their limited use within colloquial speech. Truncation is most typical for various types of slang (school, sports, newspaper). Among the examples above, newspaper truncations predominate. Thus, “upmanship” often appears on the pages of English newspapers and is used in advertisements and in recommendations on how to achieve success:

“Upmanship is the art of being one up on all the others. Hospital management:

My Doc is better`n yours".

(Levashov, 2007).

Among abbreviations, abbreviations and acronyms occupy a large place. “VCR” (video-cassette recorder), “TM” (transcendental meditation), “PC” (personal computer), “MTV” (Music Television). As a rule, abbreviations are pronounced by letter. When an abbreviation occurs only in writing, it is read as a full word. What is new is the absence of periods after each letter of the abbreviations, which makes them closer to acronyms. Acronyms are pronounced as full words:

“IMHO” (in by humble opinion) youth slang;

"CAD" (computer-aided design) in medicine.

Acronyms used in the field of education deserve special attention: “TEFL” (Teaching English as a Foreign Language); everyone knows the international organization of teachers of English as a foreign language “IATEFL” (International Association of Teachers English as a Foreign Language) and the American organization “TESOL” (Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages); in the field of environmental protection: UNEP (United Nations Environmental Program).

4. Conversion is the transition of a word from one part of speech to another. For example, now on the Internet you can often see “E-mail me /us to...” Understanding the meaning of such a neologism is not difficult. The syntactic context makes it possible to determine whether a word belongs to transitive verbs, and knowing the meaning of the word “E-mail” (electronic mail), we translate: Send messages by e-mail to the address ...

Conversion as a way of creating new words has significantly reduced its activity and is inferior to all other types of word formation.

Among converted nouns, there is an increasing tendency to form from verbs with postpositions: “rip-off” (fraud) (from “to rip-off” (to cheat)). A significant number of new nouns are formed by conversion from adjectives, for example:

"collectibles" (collectible items, especially obsolete or rare ones);

“cool” (self-control, restraint) is often used in the phrases “to lose one`s cool”, “to keep one`s cool” (lose control, restrain).

The formation of nouns from adjectives ending in - “ic” is especially productive, for example: “acrylic”, “transuranic, tricyclic”. Nouns can be formed from verb phrases, for example: “work-to-rule” (speech by workers with demands to comply with all clauses of the employment contract).

When forming nouns from adjectives at the semantic level, the seme “quality” is muted and the seme “object” is added, which becomes the center of the meaning of the substantivized unit: “acrylic” (synthetic material).

Thus, during conversion the content of the concept is enriched.

In terms of territorial parameters, the new converted units are limited predominantly by the American version and to a lesser extent by the British version of the English language (Zemskaya, 1992).

Unproductive methods of forming the plural are those that are remnants of ancient paradigms or borrowed from other languages, for example: suppletive forms with alternating vowels (man - men, tooth - teeth), the archaic suffix -en (ox - oxen), some individual suffixes of singular and plural numbers from borrowed nouns (antenna - antennae, stratum - strata, nucleus - nuclei, etc.); in addition, in some nouns the plural form is homonymous to the singular (sheep, fish, deer, etc.). The singular number of nouns is in most cases unmarked (has a “zero exponent”).

There are a number of suffixes that are used in non-productive word formation:

• -hood - neighborhood, childhood
• -ment - judgment, development
• -ance - importance, appearance
• -ence - dependence, difference
• -ly - slowly, lively
• -ity - curiosity, clarity.

Non-productive prefixes include: -in- and its phonetic variants - im-, il-, ir-, which arose as a result of regressive assimilation with the initial consonant of the root. The prefix in is of Romance origin; found mainly in borrowed words; gives the meaning of negation:

“incorrect” (wrong, incorrect) - “correct” (correct); “improbable” (incredible, implausible) - “probable” (probable, plausible); “illegal” (illegal) - “legal” (legal);

“irregular” (non-standard) - “regular” (standard).

En is a prefix of Romance origin; in combination with the stems of nouns and adjectives it forms verbs:

“enlarge” (increase), “enslave” (enslave), “enrich” (enrich);

sometimes gives them the meaning of inclusion in something: “enchain” (to put on a chain, chain), “encircle” (to surround).

Some linguists identify so-called dead prefixes in the English language. These include the prefixes for- and a- of Germanic origin. In Old English, the prefixes for- and a- had the meaning: for- meaning destruction, cancellation, a- intensifying meaning. In modern English, the prefixes for- and a- have lost their meaning and merged with the root; for example, “forgive” (to forgive), “forbid” (to prohibit), “arise” (to arise, to appear), “awake” (to awaken, to awaken).

In some cases, they even partially retain the Latin forms of inflection (formula plural formulae, memorandum plural memoranda).

Also, unproductive methods include changing the stress at the root of a word. The verb is converted to a noun (See Appendix)

Conclusions

After analyzing the information provided, we can conclude that neologisms appear in the language constantly as a result of the development of science, technology, culture, social relations, etc.

New words appear in a language in two ways: they either come by borrowing or are formed in the language itself in productive ways.

It should be noted that new words are perceived as neologisms only until the concepts they express become familiar, after which they become firmly part of the vocabulary and are no longer perceived as new.

In English there are productive and unproductive ways of forming words.

Productive ways of word formation in modern English are: 1) Compounding. 2) Affixation. 3) Abbreviations. 4) Conversion. 5) Formation of verbs by adding post-verb word-forming elements.

Unproductive ways of word formation include:

1). Vowel alternations in the root. 2). Change of accent.

• AFFIX in the Dictionary of Linguistic Terms:
  (Latin affixus - attached). A service morpheme, i.e. a part of a word that modifies the lexical or grammatical meaning of the root (stem) or expresses ...
• SMELLY STINKER in the Encyclopedia Galactica of Science Fiction Literature:
  Particularly productive creatures are capable of generating up to 5000 stench (unit of odors) per second. She behaves this way whenever she is photographed. Kind of aimed...
• GUATTARI in the Dictionary of Postmodernism:
  (Guattari) Felix (1930-1992) - French psychoanalyst and philosopher. One of the creators of schizoanalysis. The main philosophical works of G. were written ...
• SCHIZOPHRENIA in the One-Volume Large Legal Dictionary:
  (from the gr. schizo - divide, split and phren - mind, thought) - mental illness; main manifestations: personality changes (decreased activity, ...
• SCHIZOPHRENIA (FROM GR. SCHIZO in the Big Legal Dictionary:
  - divide, split and phren - mind, thought) - mental illness; main manifestations: personality changes (decreased activity, emotional devastation, autism...
• JAPANESE
  For a long time it was believed that the Japanese language is not included in any of the known language families, occupying the genealogical classification of languages ​​...
• WRITING in the Encyclopedia Japan from A to Z:
  in Japan arose on the basis of Chinese a little over 1200 years ago. Various hypotheses about the original writings that allegedly existed among the Japanese...
• FORESTS in the Encyclopedia Japan from A to Z:
  Of the 37.8 million hectares of the entire territory of Japan, 25.15 million hectares are covered with forests, or 66.6% of the country's area. Only Finland (76.1%) and...
• SCHIZOPHRENIA in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
  (from the Greek schizo - divide, split and phren - heart, soul, mind) - mental illness. The main manifestations of Sh. are personality changes...
• SCHIZOPHRENIA
  An endogenous progressive mental illness, characterized by dissociation of mental functions and occurring with the obligatory development of a mental defect in the emotional-volitional sphere and a variety of...
• CONFUSION in the Explanatory Dictionary of Psychiatric Terms:
  A form of stupefaction in which individual elements of its various syndromes are combined - delirium, amentia - with a significant severity of amnestic disorders. ...
• RESIDUAL MENTAL DISORDERS in the Explanatory Dictionary of Psychiatric Terms:
  (Latin residuus - remaining, preserved). Individual productive psychopathological symptoms, most often hallucinations or delusions, preserved after acute psychotic...
• WERNICKE ADDUCTIVE AND CONTRACTIVE SYMPTOMS in the Explanatory Dictionary of Psychiatric Terms:
  (Wernicke S., 1900). Concepts identical to the terms productive and unproductive symptoms. Additive - symptoms that are additional to the content of the normal psyche...
• LATENT PSYCHOSIS in Medical terms:
  (psychosis latens) a type of schizophrenia, manifested by erased symptoms of personality changes, slowly progressing with periods of long-term stabilization; productive symptoms are absent or weak...
• JAPANESE LETTER
  mixed ideographic-syllabic writing, which combines hieroglyphs and syllabic signs (the so-called kana). The characters are borrowed from Chinese writing (from 5 ...
• SCHIZOPHRENIA in the Big Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  (from the Greek schizo - divide, split and phren - mind, thought), mental illness; main manifestations: personality changes (decreased activity, emotional...
• FOREST GREATNESS in the Big Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  (from Latin bonitas - good quality) an indicator of forest productivity. Depends on growing conditions. Determined by the average height of trees of the main species with ...
• AFFIX in the Big Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  (from Latin affixus - attached) part of a word, opposed to the root and expressing grammatical or word-formation meaning. By position relative to the root, the affixes ...
• LINGUISTICS
  linguistics, linguistics, science of language. The object of language is the structure, functioning and historical development of language, language in its entirety...
• SUMERIAN LANGUAGE in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
  language, the language of the Sumerians (extinct by the end of the 3rd millennium BC). Kinship Sh. I. Not installed with other languages. By …
• SCHIZOPHRENIA in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
  (from the Greek schizo - I split and phren - mind, mind, thought), the most common mental illness, which is characterized by various manifestations and ...
• SWEDEN
• CHUKOTKA-KAMCHATSK LANGUAGES in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
  languages, an isolated family of languages ​​spoken by small ethnic groups that make up the main indigenous population of Chukotka and Kamchatka. The total number of speakers...
• TEA in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
  (Thea), 1) a genus of tropical evergreen perennial plants of the tea family; Some taxonomists attribute tea to the genus Camellia. Kind of 2...
• BOAR in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
  knur, male pig, producer. Sexual instincts appear by 4-5 months. For the reproduction of chemicals on farms they begin to use no earlier than 10 months...
• HAUSA (LANGUAGE) in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
  language of the Hausa people. Distributed in Northern Nigeria and adjacent areas of Niger, as well as in Cameroon, Dahomey, Ghana and some ...
• AGRICULTURAL LAND in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
  agricultural, land plots (tracts) systematically and systematically used for agricultural production. products. To U. s. include: arable land, perennial plantings...
• TUNGUS COAL BASIN in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
  coal basin, one of the largest coal basins in the USSR, located mainly in the Krasnoyarsk Territory, partly in the Yakutsk region...
• TORPEDOING WELLS in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
  wells, blasting operations carried out in boreholes using special charges - torpedoes. Used in deep wells, drilled or...
• TAJIK SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLIC in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB.
• USSR. MINERAL RESOURCES in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
  resources The USSR ranks 1st in the world in explored reserves and production of iron and manganese ores, asbestos, oil production, ...
• WELL in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
  drilling, mining working of a circular cross-section with a depth of over 5 m and a diameter of usually 75-300 mm, carried out using a drilling rig. ...
• SYNTAX (GRAMMAR) in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
  a branch of grammar that studies the internal structure and general properties of a sentence. The founder of S. is considered to be the Greek grammarian A. Diskola (2 ...
• SELECTION in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
  (Latin selectio - choice, selection, from seligo - I choose, select), 1) the science of methods for creating varieties and hybrids of plants, breeds ...
• CROP ROTATION in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
  scientifically based rotation of agricultural crops in the fields and over time, contributing to the restoration and increase of soil fertility; the most important part of the system...
• PIG in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
  domestic, artiodactyl animal of the genus true pigs (Sus) of the pig family. Domestic S. originated from different subspecies of wild boar - European and Asian, ...
• PLACERS in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
  placer deposits, accumulations on the earth's surface of small fragments of rocks or minerals resulting from the destruction of primary mineral deposits or ...
• DEVELOPMENT OF MINERAL RESOURCES in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
  mineral deposits, a system of organizational and technical measures for the extraction of minerals from the bowels of the Earth. There are R. m. p. and. open and...
• POLYSYNTHETIC LANGUAGES in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
  languages, a type of synthetic language in which all grammatical meanings are usually conveyed as part of a word characterized by a long sequence of morphemes. ...
• NEGATION (IN GRAMMAR) in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
  in grammar, a word or affix indicating the absence of an object (“I don’t have a book”), qualitative characteristics of the object (“this person is not old”), ...
• ORIYA (LANGUAGE) in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
  Audrey, Utkali, one of the main languages ​​of India. Distributed in the state of Orissa (Eastern India). Number of speakers 19.7 million people. (1971, census). ...
• ANIMATION in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
  one of the categorical linguistic forms, characteristic mainly of nouns that denote the names of living beings, and constituting the universal semantic opposition of O. ...
• OIL in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
  Oil (through Turkish neft, from Persian oil) is a flammable oily liquid with a specific odor, widespread in the sedimentary shell of the Earth, which is ...
• KARACHAY-BALKAR LANGUAGE in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
  language, the language of the Karachais and Balkars living mainly in the Karachay-Cherkess Autonomous Okrug and the Kabardino-Balkarian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. Number of speakers of K.-B. I.: …
• FOREST GREATNESS in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
  forests (German Bonitat, from Latin bonitas - good quality), an indicator of forest productivity, depending on soil, ground and climatic conditions (habitat). Determined by average...
• AGGLUTINATION (IN LINGUISTICS) in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
  in linguistics, the formation of grammatical forms and derivative words in languages ​​by adding affixes to the root or stem of a word, ...
• LINGUISTICS in the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Euphron:
  linguistics, otherwise linguistics (from Latin lingua, language), glottika or glottology (from Greek ??????, ?????? - language) - in the narrow sense...
• LINGUISTICS in the Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedia:
  linguistics, otherwise linguistics (from Latin lingua, language), glottika or glottology (from Greek ??????, ?????? ? language) ? in a cramped...
• Türkiye: NATURE - SOIL WORLD in Collier's Dictionary:
  To the article TURKEY: NATURE The most fertile soils, containing minerals and humus necessary for plant growth, are confined to floodplains and ...

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………...…3

Unproductive ways of education……………………………..…..5

Productive ways of education…………………………………..10

Comparison of different methods of verbal word formation in English…………………………………………………………20

Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………….……24

References…………………………………………………….…….…..25

Introduction

Language as a social phenomenon is associated with various spheres of human activity. The vocabulary of a language directly reflects all the changes that occur in connection with the development of social production relations, science, culture and any other areas of human activity. Continuous replenishment of the vocabulary of a language with new words is carried out in various ways.

The vocabulary of any language, in other words, vocabulary is understood as the entire set of words that make up a language or dialect. The vocabulary is constantly changing, reflecting the continuous development of society and scientific and technological progress.

In the development of the vocabulary of a language, two processes constantly occur: it is replenished with new words and archaisms fall out of active use.

In the structural system of language, word formation occupies an important place; it is associated with the study of all aspects of the creation, functioning, structure and classification of derivatives and complex words. The full functioning of language, ensuring the process of naming all realities associated with the development of human society itself, is impossible without word formation.

The above allows us to define the object and subject of research as follows.

The object of the study is nominal parts of speech and verb

English language.

The subject of the study is to determine the general and specific characteristics of word-formation means in this language on the basis of a multifaceted comparative analysis.

The relevance of the research topic is determined by the importance of a comparative study of word formation methods in the English language and identifying nationally specific features in them, since it is the comparative aspect of the systematic study of word formation that is of great interest for the development of a general theory of word formation and for the study of the general and distinctive features of the language under study.

The relevance of the work is also related to the needs of teaching English in educational institutions.

The purpose of writing the work is to consider the ways of forming words in the English language.

In connection with this goal, the following tasks have been formed:

consider unproductive ways of word formation;

consider productive ways of word formation;

make comparisons of different methods of word formation in English.

Unproductive ways of education

Language is a product of a number of eras and has its own means, its own building material for the production of new words, therefore in the vocabulary of the language one can find both words created using such methods of word formation that operated in the early days of language development and have now become completely unproductive, as well as and words created using currently productive methods of word formation.

Thus, we can say that both productive and non-productive word formation are based on the same methods of word formation: affixal word production, compounding and abbreviation.

Affixation in verbal word formation is represented by the following methods, which have varying degrees of productivity: prefixation, infixation and suffixation.

The modern vocabulary of the English language contains a number of words that were once formed with the help of affixes, which subsequently fell completely out of use for one reason or another and therefore are now completely dead. By dead affixes we mean those that either do not stand out as a morpheme standing outside the root morpheme (for example, ancient verbal suffixes -l her r, nominal suffixes -d, -l(-le), -en, -ing, -kin, -osk, prefix and-), or are recognized as separate morphemes, but have lost their independent lexical meaning (prefixes with-, for-, a-, suffixes -red, - some and others).

The Old English prefix and- “against” (and-, anda-; dvn. ant-) is preserved in words such as answer (yes. аndswarian “to object”, “to answer”), along (yes. andlang “along”, lit. "against length") By the Middle English period, this prefix had already become completely dead, and in the few words in which it has survived to this day, it is phonetically transformed beyond recognition and is virtually indistinguishable from the root morpheme.

Verb suffix -l- (in modern spelling -le), etymologically unclear, gave the once formed verb the meaning of multiplicity, repetition of action, i.e., it carried a certain grammatical meaning. Verbs like to twinkle, to wrestle, to nestle come from the Old English period (yes. Twinclian “to twinkle”, wrestlian “to fight”, nestlian “to build a nest”); however, most of the existing verbs with this suffix were formed in the Middle English period, such astosparkle, torattle, topaddle, tocackle, to wriggle. New formations with this suffix are also noted in the Early New English period, for example, to muddle,togiggle, todrizzle, tofizzle, tocrackle, todribble, totrample, totumble, tomumble, tofondle etc.

Verb suffix -er(yes. -r-ian) can be found in a number of verbs expressing a continuous action consisting of repeated repetitions of the same movement or sound. Some of them were formed in Old English, such as, for example, to clatter (yes.c latrian “crackle”), toflutter(Yes. flotorian"clap"), towander(Yes. wandrian"wander")toflicker(Yes. flicorian"tremble"); however, the majority are a product of the Middle English period, where they were formed either from verbal stems (as to quaver, to patter, to chatter) or from onomatopoeic complexes (for example,totwitter, toblubber, tojabber), or from nominal stems

(for example, to slumber - from now only the dialect sloom “slumber”,toglimmer, Wed glimpse). In Early Modern English this suffix completely lost its productivity and is now the same as the suffix -le, completely merged with the root of the word.

Completely imperceptible, indistinguishable and completely merged with the root in the surviving words is the Old English nominal effective suffix -d, which gave the noun the meaning of “the product of an action that is expressed in the root”; it entered into connection with verbal stems, which, over the millennium separating us from the Old English era, were so transformed phonetically that their connection with the generating verb was completely destroyed. It was probably already unproductive in Old English. We undoubtedly now perceive nouns containing the formant -d as simple root words, as non-derivative stems.

However, the noun blood is genetically related to the verb to blow (yes. blawan “to blow”, “to breathe”), thread - with the verb to throw (yes. рrawan “to pull”), bread - with the verbtobrew(Yes. breowan"ferment"); Wedbrand- toburn(Yes. basrnan"burn"); flood - toflow(Yes. flowan"flow"), deed - todo (da. don"do").

Nouns preserved in the modern language, once formed through the diminutive suffixes -en, -kin and -ock, as a rule, now also appear in the form of non-derivative stems that have completely lost their meaning as a diminutive form. The element -en (Common German -ino-m; yes -en) is revealed in such words as chicken, maiden, kitten, which have come down to our time from Old English. The suffix -kin (D. -chin; German -chen; Flemish, and Dutch -kijn, -ken) was first noted only in Middle English (XIII century) and initially only in proper names (Janekin, Wilekin, etc.) ; later (from the 14th century) it also extended to common nouns.

Many of the words he formalized are long outdated; those that have survived to this day include bodkin, firkin, napkin, pipkin, bumpkin, jerkin. Their diminutive meaning has been lost due to the archaization of root morphemes and the elimination of the possibility of contrasting the diminutive form with the generating noun (with the exception of lambkin-lamb).

The suffix -ock (yes -oc, -uc) had a diminutive meaning in Old English, which to a certain extent is now felt only in the noun hillock, for this latter can be compared with the preserved original form hill. Apart from this noun, all that remains from Old English is now ruddock; from Middle English - nouns buttock, dunnock, pinnock, puttock, tussock, pollock.

The latest formations date back to the 16th century. At present, these words, of course, lack a diminutive connotation and have the appearance of non-derivative stems due to the parallel archaization of both the root and the affix.

The nominal gender suffix -ing (yes. -ing) can be found in a number of modern English words, formed either in the Old English era, like king (yes. cyning “king”),shilling(Yes. scilling"shilling"), herring(Yes. haering"herring"), as well as in surnames -Banting, Harding, Mannering; or much later, but not laterXVI c., how golding, sweeting, whiting, wilding. The transformation of this suffix into an indistinguishable morpheme in the New English language is associated with its complete loss of productivity and the obscuring of its lexical meaning; the latter is caused by the diversity of semantic spheres, which include the surviving words formalized by him (cf. botanical, zoological names, names of coins, patrenimio).

We can recognize the unproductive affixes listed above as truly dead, not only because they have long lost their word-forming power, but also because in the overwhelming majority of cases they are not recognized as morphemes. However, in the modern vocabulary of the English language we encounter words whose morphological structure is not so obscure. They also include now completely unproductive and semantically empty affixes, which, precisely due to the loss of the motivation of their presence in the word, if they do not merge with the root, turn into virtually inseparable morphemes.

Inseparable morphemes are those prefixes that still clearly demonstrate their separation from the root morpheme, although the lexical meaning of the affix itself is actually lost. This is the case, for example, with some unproductive verbal prefixes a-, for-, with- in cases where the language has other derivatives with this prefix (i.e., there is comparability along the affix line), or other words with given root (i.e., there is comparability along the root line).

Old English prefix a- “from”, “from”, “up” (reduction from or-, ar-; us-, ur-; modern German er-) has already lost productivity in Early Middle English and is now represented in only a few verbs: to arise (yes. Sffsan “to rise”), to awake (yes. awacan “to awaken”),toabide(Yes. abldan"expect"). The presence of the verbs to rise, to wake, to bide supports the awareness of the element a- in derived verbs as a special morpheme, although its semantic role is no longer clear. In the same way, we can evaluate the current state of the Old English prefix for-, which once had a negative and sometimes intensifying meaning (apparently through the meaning of “bringing an action to the limit”). The following verbs have been preserved from Old English: to forbear (yes. forberan “to abstain”), to forbid (yes. forbeodan “to prohibit”), to forgo (yes. forgan “to refuse”),toforgive (da. forgiefan"to forgive", lit. "let go"),toforsake(Yes. forsacan"resist"), toforswear (da. forswerian"renounce")

All these verbs have undergone de-etymologization due to the severance of semantic connections with generating verbs and are on the way to morphological simplification.

Productive Ways of Education

As noted above, productive methods of word formation include affixal word production, compounding and abbreviation.

Affixal word production is the way in which new words are created by adding word-forming affixes, i.e. prefixes and suffixes, to the basics of various parts of speech. Affixation has acted as a way of forming new words throughout the history of the English language and remains productive in modern English, as evidenced by the huge number of words that arise before our eyes with the help of derivational affixes.

Not all affixes identified in derived words at a certain stage of language development are equally vibrant and productive. In modern English there are productive, unproductive and unproductive affixes.

The number of productive affixes in modern English is small and, nevertheless, the formation of new words through affixation occupies a prominent place among other productive ways of replenishing the vocabulary of modern English.

Among the affixes that have constantly acted and continue to operate to one degree or another in the English language, we can name such prefixes asmis-, over-, under-, out-, up- and suffixes such as -ed, -ful, -ish, -less, -у in adjectives, -ер, -ness, -ing in nouns, -ly, -ward (-wards) in adverbs and a number of others.

The prefix mis- (Yes, Old Isl., Old Saxon, Old Frisian mis-; miss-; Old missa-, missi-, misse-) in Old English was a purely verbal prefix and had a negative and pejorative meaning ( that is, he imparted a disparaging connotation to the words he formed), and also had the ability to give the verb an evaluative meaning “wrong.”

The prefix out- was formed in Old English as a result of the prefixal use of an adverb (yes. ut, Qte; g. ut, uta; ancient -uz; ancient history lit, uti). He formed nouns (for example, outland< Qtland), глаголы, хотя в последних писался раздельно (например, to outride tooutcast, tooutburst, tooutdo, tooutstretch, tooutspread, noun outcry (most of the nouns appearing in Middle English with this prefix appear to be the result of conversion from a prefixed verb and are therefore not given here).

The prefix un- (yes. un-; German un-) also shows significant productivity and wide compatibility in all eras of the development of the English language. Its meaning in different parts of speech is not entirely identical. In verbs, it acts as an indicator of the annulment of an action expressed in the productive stem. Thus, the verbs to unfold (unfeoldan “unfold”), to unbind (unbindan “untie”) came from Old English; from Middle English -tounbutton, tounbuckle, tounsheathed, tounpin, tounshoe; from Early Modern English -touncage, tounburden, toundeceive, touncreate, tounclasp etc.

In nouns and adjectives the prefixun- has a purely negative meaning. A small number of such nouns and adjectives (the latter being qualitative participles) come from Old English, for example, unbelief, unknown, unborn, uncouth.

The prefix under- shows approximately the same picture of development and the same activity in English. And it was also formed from the prefixal use of the preposition under (yes. under “under”; g. undar; other isl. undir; dvn. unter). From Old English to modern times, several verbs formed by this prefix have been preserved, and in some it reveals the spatial meaning of “under”, for example, to underlie (yes.underliean"to lie under (something)"tounderlay(Yes. underlecgan “to put”), in others its meaning is partially or completely obscured due to the de-etymologization that has taken place, cf. to understand (da. understondan, “to understand”), to undergo (da. undergan “to be subject to”, “to be subjected”). In Middle English, the prefix under- appears with a quite tangible spatial meaning of “under” (for example, the verb to undermine; the adverb underfoot “underfoot”), although here too the process of de-etymologization can lead to the obscuring of the prefix’s own meaning (for example, to undertake “ undertake", "undertake some business").

The prefix over- arose in Old English from the prefixal use of the preposition ofer “above” and had the meaning “above”, from which the meaning “over-” (superiority, predominance) developed through generalization and abstraction.

From Old English came the verbs to oversee (yes. oferseon “to supervise”), to overdrive (yes. ofer-drlfan “to overcome”, “to overcome”). In Middle English, this prefix had the same meanings (cf. to overgild, to overbear) and, in addition, due to abstract rethinking, acquired a new meaning for it “beyond measure” (for example, to overabound, to overcharge, to overgrow).

The prefix up- (yes. adv. tip, uppe “up”, “on top”; dvn. uf; Old Norse uр, cf. iup) was already active in Old English word formation, although almost no derivatives remain from this period , designed by him (cf. to upbraid, upland). He was very productive in the field of verb and noun during the Middle English period, but most of the words now existing in the language go back to the 16th century. and later, Wed. verbs touphold, touplift (XIVB.), toupturn, touproot; nounsuproar, upshot, upstart, upgrowth; adverbs uphill, upstairs, upright (XVI-XVIIBB.). In New English its productivity is relatively small and is limited mainly to nouns, for example, upkeep, uptake, upheaval.

One of the most productive affixes in the English language, with a very wide compatibility, should be recognized as the noun suffix er- (yes. -ere; -areis; German –eretc.). In Old English, it could be combined with both verbal and nominal stems, conveying the meaning of an actor performing the action specified in the word stem or associated by the type of action performed with the object specified in it (cf. baker “baker”, fowler “bird catcher” ).

Currently, we are witnessing an extremely wide use of this suffix, on the one hand, flyer, finer, fitter, winder, photographer, dispatcher, etc.; - on the other hand, boiler, buffer, feeder (el.« feeder "), grader, receiver (" handset "), booster ( el . « amplifier "), transmitter etc . n .

Compounding is a method of word formation common to all Indo-European languages, in which a new word is formed by combining the stems of two or, less commonly, more words. Compounding is one of the ancient ways of forming words, which has retained its productivity in many languages, including English, even at the present stage of its development.

Compound words form various structural types, which are based on the morphological nature of the components of the compound word and the way they are combined into one word.

Compounding is one of the most productive types of word formation. Also I.I. Sreznevsky noted that “in the composition of words and in the formation of expressions, the creative power of each language is expressed most diversely.”

Compounding is rapidly developing in the modern era, characterized by the rapid growth of complex concepts in various areas of multifaceted human life. Compounding constantly replenishes the vocabulary of modern languages ​​in all areas: everyday, artistic and literary speech; the penetration of complex words into the sphere of social, journalistic and scientific speech is especially active.

Compound words make it possible to more fully express new concepts and constitute an essential part of the vocabulary of modern languages.

A complex word combines brevity and semantic richness. A compound word cannot be considered as a simple sum of two or more words. A new vocabulary unit appears, the semantic content of which is more capacious than the meaning of individual components. Here quantity seems to give a new quality. FOR. Potiha identifies the following features of a compound word:

a complex word is a formalized lexical formation consisting of two (or more) root morphemes. Completeness is the main criterion for distinguishing a compound word from a phrase;

for complex words it is necessary to have at least two lexically significant words;

the components of a complex word are arranged in a certain order, and their rearrangement is unacceptable;

being a single lexical unit, a complex word refers to a certain part of speech, is grammatically formatted, usually has one main stress and is indicated in writing by a continuous or hyphenated spelling;

Being fully formed, the complex provides the basis for the formation of other derivative words.

In English, complex words are most often either phrases or phrases lexicalized to the end (stone wall, blackbird, killjoy,ginger- colored, cowboy- booted, mouth- piercing etc.), those. In most cases, complex words in the English language, in terms of their structure, have parallels in the form of certain syntactic combinations of words. The structural relationships of their components, the bases of words, are close to the lexical-grammatical relationships of words included in syntactic phrases.

In terms of meaning, the relationships between the components of a complex word repeat the relationships between the words that are members of a syntactic phrase, differing from the latter in grammatical terms.

I.V. writes about the peculiarities of the formation of complex words in English. Arnold, who notes that “compound words and stable phrases close to them make up more than half of all neologisms in modern English.”

V.I. Zabotkina writes in her work “New Vocabulary of Modern English” that with the help of compounding and word production in modern English, according to R. Burchfield, on average 800 new words appear per year - more than in any other language.

In the process of word formation in each individual language, common features appear, due to genetic kinship with other languages, and features of the national identity of a particular language. In the English language, for example, the dominant way of forming complex words is the juxtaposition of stems. Words like statesman, dog's ear are not typical for this language, and it is unlikely to be fruitful to identify the “relationship of additions and adjuncts” in order to compare this factor of English composition with the composition of any other language.

Affixation and composition have always played a significant role in word formation. But in the 20th century. One of the most productive ways to expand the vocabulary of many languages, including English, has become abbreviation or abbreviation.

Abbreviation as a method of word formation differs from other methods in that the abbreviated word is not the only verbal designation of a given concept, but, as a rule, lives in the language along with the full word from which it originated.

Speaking about the role that abbreviation plays in the life of a language, one cannot help but share the opinion of those researchers, according to which this type or method of word formation is one of the most productive at the present time, as evidenced by the presence of many neologisms that have not yet been recorded in special dictionaries.

Many are fixed in the language as full-fledged communicative units, enriching its basic lexical composition, while others exist only in colloquial speech or disappear as quickly as they appear, depending on the needs of communication, as well as on their qualitative characteristics, i.e. . compliance or non-compliance with language norms: phonetic, structural, semantic, stylistic.

This is evidenced by facts collected as a result of studying linguistic literature on abbreviation as a method of word formation in Russian, German, French and English.

In the last two decades, with the expansion of the field of research into new words in the English language, even closer attention has been paid to ways of creating new words, including the formation of English neologisms through contraction.

A special place among abbreviations is occupied by the so-called wallet words (telescope words, bullion words, wallet words). At the same time, there is a tendency to increase the number of such formations in modern English.

According to their morphemic composition, ingot words can be actual telescopic words and partially telescopic words.

Telescope words themselves are words formed by condensing two truncated stems. Thus, the stems of both words, which are combined to form a new word, are truncated. In such words, the “telescope principle” works most transparently: like a telescope tube, these words are folded in shape, but retain the meaning of the basic units on the basis of which they are formed. The structure of such words is represented by the following models:

I + F, where I is the initial part of the first word, and F is the final part of the second word. For example, ginormous (from gigantic and enorm-ous); liger (from lion and tiger); Oxbridge (from Oxford and Cambridge); parkade (from parking and arcade);

I + I, where the initial parts of both words are preserved , and the final parts are cut off , For example , sitcom (from situation and comedy); yupcom (from Yuppie and comedy).

A comparative analysis of the representation of both models showed the widespread use of the first (I + F) and the singularity of formations built according to the second model (I + I).

Partially telescoped words are words that combine the full form of one base word and the truncated base of a second word. The morphemic structure of such words can be represented by the following models:

I + S, where I is the initial part of one word, and S is the fully represented second word , For example , permofrost (from permanent and frost); mobiletone (from mobile phone and tone); petrochemical (from petroleum and chemical); Vietnamasian (from Vietnamese and Asian);

S + F, Where S – this is the first word fully represented , A F – final part of the second word , For example , webzine (from web and magazine); ineptitude (from inept and aptitude), Jazzercise (from Jazz and exercise); Youthanasia (from youth and euthanasia);

S + I, where S is the fully represented first word, and I is the initial part of the second word, for example, kidvid (from kid and video).

It is often noted in the linguistic literature that the influx of neologisms, and among them telescopic words, is characteristic of such a terminology system as the terminology system of computer technologies. Words of this type are used very widely in the media and advertising. For example, the very name of the programInformationis a telescope word (frominformation And commercial).

A recent trend has been to use the final part -(g)lish of the word English, which is combined with the name of another language to denote a foreign version of English, for example,Chinglish (Chinese), Germlish (German), Hunglish (Hungarian), Japlish (Japanese), Konglish (Korean), Russian (Russian), Swenglish(Swedish), etc. All of the above words denote the corresponding hybrid language, which mixes the linguistic features of both languages. In Russian, for example, the following words are already familiar:

Life coach (psychotherapist, professional advisor);

Blogger (a specialist engaged in blogging, whose task is to place hidden advertising of the customer company in his diary);

Home manager (business organizer).

The given noun words, while maintaining the pronunciation and meaning of English words, are already declined according to the rules of the Russian language, forming the plural like many other nouns of the Russian language. It seems that it is precisely the layer of such words that is denoted by such a telescopic word as Russlish.

The linguistic phenomenon designated by the telescopic word Spanglish is observed in the Spanish language. At the same time, the merger of English and Spanish is happening at such a speed that the English-Spanish language used in the spoken and written speech of immigrants from South America is called a linguistic phenomenon that is becoming increasingly widespread thanks to the Internet boom. English words that had no equivalents in Spanish came into the Spanish language, and in a short time they acquired a paradigm for Spanish words.

In terms of the number of telescopic words in general, the English language occupies a leading place.

Comparison of different methods of verbal word formation in English

In the English language, the structure distinguishes between simple, derived, complex and compound verb types.

In the verbal word formation of the English language, a special group consists of onomatopoeic and sound-depicting verbs, formed according to the “ideophone + verb” model: pooh-pooh “to ridicule, speak with contempt.”

Compounding in various models occupies a dominant position in the verbal word formation of the English language. The most common examples of repetitions are alternating i-a, i-o: dilly-dally “hang around idle” (colloquial), tip-top “first-class”.

The main methods of verbal word formation are affixation, stem formation, complete and partial reduplication.

Affixation in verbal word formation is represented by the following methods, which have varying degrees of productivity: prefixation, infixation by suffixation.

In modern English, the development of the prefix system has led to a change in the function of the prefix in a number of cases. It began to be used more often to form words in which not only the lexical meaning is rearranged. In many cases, the prefix, along with the function of modification, acquired the function of forming a new lexeme, qualitatively different from the original word.

In English, prefixes with a negative meaning are productive. The prefixes un-, dis-, de- give verbs the meaning of the opposite action. The prefix mis- gives the meaning to the verb “to do something incorrectly, erroneously”: to apply “to apply” – to misapply “to apply incorrectly”.

The verb prefixes post- “after”, pre- “before, before, before”, re- “again, again” in English convey the semantics of time: to write “to write” – to re-write “to rewrite”, etc.

In English, the most productive way of verbal word formation is suffixation. Here, from nouns and adjectives, verbs are formed using the following suffixes: from the unproductive suffix -en (deep “deep” – to deepen “to deepen”, fast “strong” – to fasten “strengthen”); from the unproductive suffix -fy: (intense “strong” – to intensify “strengthen”, simple “simple” – simple “simplify”); from the unproductive suffix -ize (crystal “crystal” – to crystallize “crystallize”, real “real” – to realize “realize”).

Modern English contains words formed using the element -man, which, in combination with noun stems, denotes a person or character associated with an object, tool, etc.: penman “scribe, writer, calligrapher,” iceman “climber, ice cream maker”, etc. In combination with adjective stems, the element -man denotes a person living in a particular area indicated by the stem: Englishman "Englishman". In cases where the element -man is combined with verbal stems, it expresses the meaning of a person performing the action indicated by the stem: hangman “executioner”; watchman "guard, night watchman."

The infix in scientific literature is qualified as a unit placed in the middle of the root. This definition is true for the English language, but is not suitable for Dagestan, since it is impossible to break a nuclear root morpheme consisting of one consonant. Therefore, in our research we rely on the definition of infix given in the “Dictionary of Linguistic Terms” and corresponding to the morphological system of the English languages: “Infix is ​​an affix inserted inside the stem.”

Infixation is a rare phenomenon not only in many languages ​​of the world with developed morphology. Infixation, even with its limited productivity in word formation, is associated with inflection.

Some researchers of the English language (in particular L. Smith) believe that compounding is a relic that testifies to the amorphousness of thinking and dates back to the time “when the subject of speech had to appeal more to the imagination and feeling than to reason,” and therefore this phenomenon is on the decline in modern English.

The history of the English language demonstrates that compounding should be recognized as the second most important method of word formation after affixation, especially in the field of nouns and adjectives.

As for verbal word formation, in Old English compounding with an adverb as the first component was common in the sphere of verbs, but later it did not find a continuation, and already in the Middle English period it was not used when creating complex verbs (with rare exceptions).

The vocabulary of modern English contains a large number of complex verbs, but, as a rule, they are the result not of verbal composition, but of other word-formation processes.

Many English words, taken in their original form, can refer to different parts of speech, namely nouns, adjectives and verbs, without changing the spelling or pronunciation. It is possible to establish which part of speech a given word belongs to when used in a sentence only on the basis of its syntactic function and morphological features. This way of forming words is extremely productive in modern English: act “action” - (to) act “to act”, aim “goal” - (to) aim “to arm”, etc.

In modern English, a group of words that arose according to the method of conversion are verbs. So, for example, they can be formed from any noun:anecho (n.) – toecho (v.); acan – tocan; anail – tonail. Conversion verbs are formed from adjectives less often than from nouns, but, nevertheless, there are many of them in the language.

Conversion in English in “noun-verb” pairs is supported by the fact that in the system of forming a verb from a noun there are only three suffixes, while they all have their own characteristics and meanings, which do not give them the opportunity to participate in the formation of verbs with a common ( non-special) meaning. These three suffixes (-ate, -ize, -ify) form denominative verbs with scientific and technical meaning, and pairs with certain semantic relations of production are formed: fictionize “to invent”, terrorize “to terrorize”, carburize “to combine with coal, saturate with coal "

Reduplication. The sphere of verbal word formation in the English language includes reduplication.

In English, reduplication should be considered one of the rarer types of morphological word formation. Doubling here occurs, as a rule, in onomatopoeic words; it's emotional

colored and limited by the stylistic sphere of colloquial vocabulary.

Conclusion

There is no doubt that the vocabulary of any language undergoes constant changes, both in the direction of expanding its vocabulary and reducing it. However, these processes, which affect the qualitative and quantitative state of the vocabulary, are far from equivalent, since the first clearly prevails over the second. Therefore, the focus of linguists is on various problems associated with neologisms, rather than archaisms of any language.

A brief acquaintance with dictionaries of new words, their lists on the Internet, their occurrence in the media and texts of fiction confirms the opinion of linguists that languages ​​are replete with various kinds of new formations that constantly appear in our lives, which fully demonstrate the dynamic nature of language.

Speaking about the English language in particular, it can be determined, as with any other language in the world, that word formation occurs in productive and unproductive ways, and the line between these two directions is very thin - unproductive ways are the same productive ones, only having lost their relevance at this stage of language development.

As discussed in this work, there are such productive and unproductive ways of forming words as affix word production, compounding and abbreviation. Conversion and reduplication were also examined in general terms, and an analysis was carried out of the greatest prevalence of these methods of word formation and their role in the formation of the English language.

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