“The background radiation is normal” - this phrase is usually used when assessing situations related to the operation of nuclear power plants. Normal background radiation is up to 0.20 μSv/hour (20 μR/hour). The safety threshold for people is 0.30 μSv/hour (30 μR/hour). Sanitary norms and rules require not to exceed the annual effective radiation dose of 1 mSv when performing x-rays. But you will not find a standard value for natural radiation in any international or domestic regulatory document. Why?
Where does natural radiation come from?
The natural radiation background of the Earth is associated with its history and the evolution of the biosphere. Since the birth of our planet, it has been under the constant influence of cosmic radiation. A colossal amount of cosmogenic radionuclides was involved in the formation of the earth's crust. Scientists believe that tectonic processes, molten magma, and the formation of mountain systems owe their appearance to radioactive decay and heating of the subsoil. In places of faults, shifts and stretches of the earth's crust, and oceanic depressions, radionuclides came to the surface and places with powerful ionizing radiation appeared. The formation of supernovae also had an impact on the Earth - the level of cosmic radiation on it increased tens of times. True, supernovae were born approximately once every hundreds of millions of years. Gradually, the radioactivity of the Earth decreased.
Currently, the Earth's biosphere continues to be affected by cosmic radiation, radionuclides dispersed in solid earth rocks, oceans, seas, groundwater, air and living organisms. The totality of the listed components of background radiation (ionizing radiation) is usually called natural radioactive background. Natural radioactivity includes several components:
- cosmic radiation;
- radioactive substances in the earth's interior;
- radionuclides in water, food, air and building materials.
Natural radiation is an integral part of the natural environment. The honor of its discovery belongs to the French scientist A. Becquerel, who accidentally discovered the phenomenon of natural radioactivity in 1896. And in 1912, the Austrian physicist W. Hess discovered cosmic rays by comparing the ionization of air in the mountains and at sea level.
The power of cosmic radiation is non-uniform. Closer to the earth's surface it decreases due to the screening atmospheric layer. And, conversely, in the mountains it is stronger, since the protective screen of the atmosphere is weaker. For example, in an airplane flying in the sky at an altitude of 10,000 meters, the level of radiation exceeds ground-level radiation by almost 10 times. The strongest source of radioactive radiation is the Sun. And here the atmosphere serves as our protective screen.
Natural background radiation in various places around the world
The permissible background radiation varies significantly in different parts of the planet. In France, for example, the annual dose of natural radiation is 5 mSv, in Sweden - 6.3 mSv, and in our Krasnoyarsk only 2.3 mSv. On the golden beaches of Guarapari in Brazil, where more than 30,000 people vacation annually, the radiation level is 175 mSv/year due to the high thorium content in the sand. In the hot springs of the town of Ram Ser in Iran, radiation levels reach 400 mSv/year. The famous resort of Baden-Baden also has increased background radiation, as do some other popular resorts. Radiation levels in cities are controlled, but this is an average figure. How not to get into trouble if you don’t want to put your health to the test with an increased dose of natural radionuclides? The radioactivity indicator will become your reliable travel expert.
Check if there is a nuclear power plant, plant or nuclear research institute, radioactive waste or nuclear missile storage facility near you.
Nuclear power plants
Currently, there are 10 nuclear power plants in operation in Russia and two more are under construction (the Baltic NPP in the Kaliningrad region and the floating nuclear power plant “Akademik Lomonosov” in Chukotka). You can read more about them on the official website of Rosenergoatom.
At the same time, nuclear power plants in the former USSR cannot be considered numerous. As of 2017, there are 191 nuclear power plants in operation worldwide, including 60 in the United States, 58 in the European Union and Switzerland, and 21 in China and India. There are 16 Japanese and 6 South Korean nuclear power plants operating in close proximity to the Russian Far East. The entire list of operating, under construction and closed nuclear power plants, indicating their exact location and technical characteristics, can be found on Wikipedia.
Nuclear factories and research institutes
Radiation hazardous facilities (RHO), in addition to nuclear power plants, are enterprises and scientific organizations of the nuclear industry and ship repair yards specializing in the nuclear fleet.
Official information on radioactive waste in the regions of Russia is on the website of Roshydromet, as well as in the yearbook “Radiation situation in Russia and neighboring states” on the website of the NPO Typhoon.
Radioactive waste
Low- and intermediate-level radioactive waste is generated in industry, as well as in scientific and medical organizations throughout the country.
In Russia, their collection, transportation, processing and storage are carried out by Rosatom subsidiaries - RosRAO and Radon (in the Central region).
In addition, RosRAO is engaged in the disposal of radioactive waste and spent nuclear fuel from decommissioned nuclear submarines and naval ships, as well as the environmental rehabilitation of contaminated areas and radiation-hazardous sites (such as the former uranium processing plant in Kirovo-Chepetsk).
Information about their work in each region can be found in environmental reports published on the websites of Rosatom, branches of RosRAO, and the Radon enterprise.
Military nuclear facilities
Among military nuclear facilities, the most environmentally dangerous are, apparently, nuclear submarines.
Nuclear submarines (NPS) are so called because they run on atomic energy, which powers the boat's engines. Some of the nuclear submarines also carry missiles with nuclear warheads. However, major accidents on nuclear submarines known from open sources were associated with the operation of reactors or other causes (collision, fire, etc.), and not with nuclear warheads.
Nuclear power plants are also available on some surface ships of the Navy, such as the nuclear-powered cruiser Peter the Great. They also pose some environmental risks.
Information on the locations of nuclear submarines and nuclear ships of the Navy is shown on the map based on open source data.
The second type of military nuclear facilities are units of the Strategic Missile Forces armed with ballistic nuclear missiles. No cases of radiation accidents associated with nuclear ammunition have been found in open sources. The current location of Strategic Missile Forces formations is shown on the map according to information from the Ministry of Defense.
There are no nuclear storage sites on the map (missile warheads and aerial bombs), which can also pose an environmental threat.
Nuclear explosions
In 1949-1990, the USSR carried out an extensive program of 715 nuclear explosions for military and industrial purposes.
Atmospheric nuclear weapons testing
From 1949 to 1962 The USSR carried out 214 tests in the atmosphere, including 32 ground tests (with the greatest environmental pollution), 177 air tests, 1 high-altitude test (at an altitude of more than 7 km) and 4 space tests.
In 1963, the USSR and the USA signed a treaty banning nuclear tests in air, water and space.
Semipalatinsk test site (Kazakhstan)- the site of testing the first Soviet nuclear bomb in 1949 and the first Soviet prototype thermonuclear bomb with a yield of 1.6 Mt in 1957 (it was also the largest test in the history of the test site). A total of 116 atmospheric tests were carried out here, including 30 ground and 86 air tests.
Test site on Novaya Zemlya- the site of an unprecedented series of super-powerful explosions in 1958 and 1961-1962. A total of 85 charges were tested, including the most powerful in world history - the Tsar Bomba with a capacity of 50 Mt (1961). For comparison, the power of the atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima did not exceed 20 kilotons. In addition, in the Chernaya Bay of the Novaya Zemlya test site, the damaging factors of a nuclear explosion on naval facilities were studied. For this, in 1955-1962. 1 ground, 2 surface and 3 underwater tests were carried out.
Missile test training ground "Kapustin Yar" in the Astrakhan region - an active training ground for the Russian army. In 1957-1962. 5 air, 1 high-altitude and 4 space rocket tests were carried out here. The maximum power of air explosions was 40 kt, high-altitude and space explosions - 300 kt. From here in 1956, a rocket with a nuclear charge of 0.3 kt was launched, which fell and exploded in the Karakum Desert near the city of Aralsk.
On Totsky training ground in 1954, military exercises were held, during which an atomic bomb with a yield of 40 kt was dropped. After the explosion, the military units had to “take” the bombed objects.
Besides the USSR, only China has carried out nuclear tests in the atmosphere in Eurasia. For this purpose, the Lopnor training ground was used in the north-west of the country, approximately at the longitude of Novosibirsk. In total, from 1964 to 1980. China has carried out 22 ground and air tests, including thermonuclear explosions with a yield of up to 4 Mt.
Underground nuclear explosions
The USSR carried out underground nuclear explosions from 1961 to 1990. Initially, they were aimed at the development of nuclear weapons in connection with the ban on atmospheric testing. Since 1967, the creation of nuclear explosive technologies for industrial purposes began.
In total, of the 496 underground explosions, 340 were carried out at the Semipalatinsk test site and 39 at Novaya Zemlya. Tests on Novaya Zemlya in 1964-1975. were distinguished by their high power, including a record (about 4 Mt) underground explosion in 1973. After 1976, the power did not exceed 150 kt. The last nuclear explosion at the Semipalatinsk test site was carried out in 1989, and at Novaya Zemlya in 1990.
Training ground "Azgir" in Kazakhstan (near the Russian city of Orenburg) it was used to test industrial technologies. With the help of nuclear explosions, cavities were created here in the rock salt layers, and with repeated explosions, radioactive isotopes were produced in them. A total of 17 explosions with a power of up to 100 kt were carried out.
Outside the ranges in 1965-1988. 100 underground nuclear explosions were carried out for industrial purposes, including 80 in Russia, 15 in Kazakhstan, 2 each in Uzbekistan and Ukraine, and 1 in Turkmenistan. Their goal was deep seismic sounding to search for minerals, creating underground cavities for storing natural gas and industrial waste, intensifying oil and gas production, moving large amounts of soil for the construction of canals and dams, and extinguishing gas fountains.
Other countries. China carried out 23 underground nuclear explosions at the Lop Nor test site in 1969-1996, India - 6 explosions in 1974 and 1998, Pakistan - 6 explosions in 1998, North Korea - 5 explosions in 2006-2016.
The US, UK and France conducted all their testing outside of Eurasia.
Literature
Much data about nuclear explosions in the USSR is open.
Official information about the power, purpose and geography of each explosion was published in 2000 in the book “Nuclear Tests of the USSR” by a team of authors of the Russian Ministry of Atomic Energy. It also provides a history and description of the Semipalatinsk and Novaya Zemlya test sites, the first tests of nuclear and thermonuclear bombs, the Tsar Bomba test, the nuclear explosion at the Totsk test site and other data.
A detailed description of the test site on Novaya Zemlya and the testing program there can be found in the article “Review of Soviet nuclear tests on Novaya Zemlya in 1955-1990”, and their environmental consequences in the book “
List of nuclear facilities compiled in 1998 by Itogi magazine, on the Kulichki.com website.
Estimated location of various objects on interactive maps
We are all exposed to radiation in one form or another every day. However, in twenty-five places, which we will tell you about below, the level of radiation is much higher, which is why they are included in the list of the 25 most radioactive places on Earth. If you decide to visit any of these places, don't be mad if you later discover an extra pair of eyes when you look in the mirror...(well, maybe that's an exaggeration...or maybe not).
25. Mining of alkaline earth metals | Karunagappally, India
Karunagappally is a municipality in Kollam district of the Indian state of Kerala, where rare metals are mined. Some of these metals, especially monazite, have become beach sand and alluvial sediments due to erosion. Thanks to this, radiation in some places on the beach reaches 70 mGy/year.
24. Fort d'Aubervilliers | Paris, France
Radiation tests revealed quite strong radiation at Fort D'Aubervilliers. Cesium-137 and radium-226 were found in 61 of the tanks stored there. In addition, 60 cubic meters of its territory were also contaminated with radiation.
23. Acerinox Scrap Metal Processing Plant | Los Barrios, Spain
In this case, the source of cesium-137 was undetected by monitoring devices at the Acherinox scrap metal yard. When melted, the source released a radioactive cloud with radiation levels 1,000 times normal. Contamination was later reported in Germany, France, Italy, Switzerland and Austria.
22. NASA Santa Susana Field Laboratory | Simi Valley, California
Simi Valley, California is home to NASA's Santa Susanna Field Laboratory, and over the years, approximately ten small nuclear reactors have suffered problems due to several fires involving radioactive metals. Cleanup operations are currently underway at this heavily contaminated site.
21. Mayak plutonium production plant | Muslimovo, Soviet Union
Because of the Mayak plutonium extraction plant, built in 1948, residents of Muslimovo in the southern Ural Mountains suffer from the consequences of drinking drinking water contaminated with radiation, which has led to chronic illnesses and physical disabilities.
20. Church Rock Uranium Mill | Church Rock, New Mexico
During the infamous Church Rock uranium enrichment plant accident, more than a thousand tons of radioactive solid waste and 352,043 cubic meters of acid radioactive waste solution spilled into the Puerco River. As a result, radiation levels increased to 7,000 times normal. A study carried out in 2003 showed that the river's waters are still polluted.
19. Apartment | Kramatorsk, Ukraine 
In 1989, a small capsule containing highly radioactive cesium-137 was discovered inside the concrete wall of a residential building in Kramatorsk, Ukraine. The surface of this capsule had a dose of gamma radiation equal to 1800 R/year. As a result, six people died and 17 were injured.
18. Brick houses | Yangjiang, China
The urban district of Yangjiang is replete with houses made of sand and clay bricks. Unfortunately, the sand in this region comes from parts of the hills that contain monazite, which breaks down into radium, sea anemone and radon. The high levels of radiation from these elements explain the high incidence of cancer in the area.
17. Natural background radiation | Ramsar, Iran
This part of Iran has one of the highest levels of natural background radiation on Earth. Radiation levels at Ramsar reach 250 millisieverts per year.
16. Radioactive sand | Guarapari, Brazil
Due to erosion of the naturally occurring radioactive element monazite, the sands of Guarapari's beaches are radioactive, with radiation levels reaching 175 millisieverts, a far cry from the acceptable level of 20 millisieverts.
15. McClure Radioactive Site | Scarborough, Ontario
The McClure radioactive site, a housing development in Scarborough, Ontario, has been a radiation-contaminated site since the 1940s. The contamination was caused by radium recovered from scrap metal that was to be used for experiments.
14. Subterranean Springs of Paralana | Arkaroola, Australia
The underground Paralana Springs flow through rocks rich in uranium and, according to research, these hot springs have been bringing radioactive radon and uranium to the surface for more than a billion years.
13. Institute of Radiotherapy of Goiás (Instituto Goiano de Radioterapia) | Goias, Brazil
The radioactive contamination of Goiás, Brazil resulted from a radioactive radiation accident following the theft of a radiation therapy source from an abandoned hospital. Hundreds of thousands of people have died due to the pollution, and even today radiation is still rampant in several areas of Goiás.
12. Denver Federal Center | Denver, Colorado
The Denver Federal Center has been used as a disposal site for a variety of waste, including chemicals, contaminated materials, and road demolition debris. This waste was transported to various locations, resulting in radioactive contamination of several areas in Denver.
11. McGuire Air Force Base | Burlington County, New Jersey
In 2007, McGuire Air Force Base was identified by the United States Environmental Protection Agency as one of the most polluted air bases in the country. That same year, the US military ordered a cleanup of contaminants at the base, but contamination is still present there.
10. Hanford Nuclear Reservation Site | Hanford, Washington
An integral part of the American atomic bomb project, the Hanford complex produced plutonium for the atomic bomb that was eventually dropped on Nagasaki, Japan. Although the plutonium stockpile was written off, approximately two-thirds of the volume remained at Hanford, causing groundwater contamination.
9. In the middle of the sea | Mediterranean Sea
A syndicate controlled by the Italian mafia is believed to be using the Mediterranean Sea as a dumping ground for hazardous radioactive waste. It is believed that around 40 ships carrying toxic and radioactive waste are sailing through the Mediterranean Sea, leaving large amounts of radioactive waste in the oceans.
8. Coast of Somalia | Mogadishu, Somalia
Some claim that the soil of Somalia's unprotected coast has been used by the mafia to dump nuclear waste and toxic metals, which includes 600 barrels of toxic materials. This, unfortunately, turned out to be true when a tsunami hit the coast in 2004 and rusting barrels buried here several decades ago were discovered.
7. Production Association "Mayak" | Mayak, Russia
The lighthouse in Russia was for many decades the site of a huge nuclear power plant. It all started in 1957, when approximately 100 tons of radioactive waste were released into the environment in a disaster that resulted in an explosion that contaminated a huge area. However, nothing was reported about this explosion until 1980, when it was discovered that since the 50s, radioactive waste from the power plant had been dumped in the surrounding area, including into Lake Karachay. The contamination exposed more than 400,000 people to high levels of radiation.
6. Sellafield Power Plant | Sellafield, UK
Before it was converted into a commercial site, Sellafield in the UK was used to produce plutonium for atomic bombs. Today, about two thirds of the buildings that are located in Sellafield are considered radioactively contaminated. This facility releases about eight million liters of contaminated waste every day, polluting the environment and causing deaths for people living nearby.
5. Siberian Chemical Plant | Siberia, Russia
Just like Mayak, Siberia is also home to one of the largest chemical plants in the world. The Siberian chemical plant produces 125,000 tons of solid waste, polluting the groundwater of the surrounding area. The study also found that wind and rain carry this waste into the wild, causing high mortality rates among wildlife.
4. Polygon | Semipalatinsk Test Site, Kazakhstan
The test site in Kazakhstan is best known for its atomic bomb project. This deserted place was transformed into a facility where the Soviet Union detonated its first atomic bomb. The test site currently holds the record for the largest concentration of nuclear explosions in the world. Approximately 200 thousand people are currently suffering from the effects of this radiation.
3. Western Mining and Chemical Plant | Mailuu-Suu, Kyrgyzstan
Mailuu-Suu is considered one of the most polluted places in the world. Unlike other radioactive sites, this site receives its radiation not from nuclear bombs or power plants, but from large-scale uranium mining and processing activities, releasing approximately 1.96 million cubic meters of radioactive waste into the area.
2. Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant | Chernobyl, Ukraine 
Heavily contaminated with radiation, Chernobyl is the site of one of the world's worst nuclear accidents. Over the years, the radiation disaster at Chernobyl has affected six million people in the area and is predicted to result in an estimated 4,000 to 93,000 deaths. The Chernobyl nuclear disaster released 100 times more radiation into the atmosphere than was released by the nuclear bombs in Nagasaki and Hiroshima.
1. Fukushima Daini Nuclear Power Plant | Fukushima, Japan
The aftermath of the Fukushima Prefecture earthquake in Japan is said to be the longest-lasting nuclear disaster in the world. The disaster, considered the worst nuclear accident since Chernobyl, caused the meltdown of three reactors, leading to a massive radiation leak that was detected 322 kilometers from the power plant.
In the broadest sense of the word, radiation(Latin “radiance”, “radiation”) is the process of energy propagation in space in the form of various waves and particles. These include: infrared (thermal), ultraviolet, visible light radiation, as well as various types of ionizing radiation. The greatest interest from the point of view of health and life safety is ionizing radiation, i.e. types of radiation that can cause ionization of the substance they affect. In particular, in living cells, ionizing radiation causes the formation of free radicals, the accumulation of which leads to the destruction of proteins, death or degeneration of cells, and ultimately can cause the death of a macroorganism (animals, plants, humans). That is why in most cases the term radiation usually means ionizing radiation. It is also worth understanding the differences between terms such as radiation and radioactivity. If the first can be applied to ionizing radiation located in free space, which will exist until it is absorbed by some object (substance), then radioactivity is the ability of substances and objects to emit ionizing radiation, i.e. be a source of radiation. Depending on the nature of the object and its origin, the terms are divided: natural radioactivity and artificial radioactivity. Natural radioactivity accompanies the spontaneous decay of the nuclei of matter in nature and is characteristic of “heavy” elements of the periodic table (with a serial number of more than 82). Artificial radioactivity is initiated by a person purposefully with the help of various nuclear reactions. In addition, it is worth highlighting the so-called "induced" radioactivity, when some substance, object or even an organism, after strong exposure to ionizing radiation, itself becomes a source of dangerous radiation due to the destabilization of atomic nuclei. A powerful source of radiation dangerous to human life and health can be any radioactive substance or object. Unlike many other types of danger, radiation is invisible without special equipment, which makes it even more frightening. The cause of radioactivity in a substance is the unstable nuclei that make up atoms, which, when decaying, release invisible radiation or particles into the environment. Depending on various properties (composition, penetrating ability, energy), today many types of ionizing radiation are distinguished, of which the most significant and widespread are: . Alpha radiation. The source of radiation in it are particles with a positive charge and a relatively large weight. Alpha particles (2 protons + 2 neutrons) are quite bulky and therefore are easily delayed even by minor obstacles: clothing, wallpaper, window curtains, etc. Even if alpha radiation hits a naked person, there is nothing to worry about; it will not pass beyond the superficial layers of the skin. However, despite its low penetrating ability, alpha radiation has powerful ionization, which is especially dangerous if substances that source alpha particles enter directly into the human body, for example, into the lungs or digestive tract. . Beta radiation. It is a stream of charged particles (positrons or electrons). Such radiation has a greater penetrating power than alpha particles; it can be blocked by a wooden door, window glass, car body, etc. It is dangerous for humans when exposed to unprotected skin, as well as when radioactive substances are ingested. . Gamma radiation and close to it X-ray radiation. Another type of ionizing radiation, which is related to light flux, but with better ability to penetrate into surrounding objects. By its nature, it is high-energy short-wave electromagnetic radiation. In order to delay gamma radiation, in some cases a wall of several meters of lead or several tens of meters of dense reinforced concrete may be required. For humans, such radiation is the most dangerous. The main source of this type of radiation in nature is the Sun, however, deadly rays do not reach humans due to the protective layer of the atmosphere. 
Scheme of the formation of various types of radiation
Natural radiation and radioactivity In our environment, regardless of whether it is urban or rural, there are natural sources of radiation. As a rule, naturally occurring ionizing radiation rarely poses a danger to humans; its values are usually within acceptable limits. Soil, water, atmosphere, some foods and things, and many space objects have natural radioactivity. The primary source of natural radiation in many cases is the radiation of the Sun and the decay energy of certain elements of the earth's crust. Even humans themselves have natural radioactivity. In the body of each of us there are substances such as rubidium-87 and potassium-40, which create a personal radiation background. The source of radiation can be a building, building materials, or household items that contain substances with unstable atomic nuclei. It is worth noting that the natural level of radiation is not the same everywhere. Thus, in some cities located high in the mountains, the level of radiation exceeds that at the height of the world's oceans by almost five times. There are also zones of the earth's surface where radiation is significantly higher due to the location of radioactive substances in the bowels of the earth. Artificial radiation and radioactivity Unlike natural, artificial radioactivity is a consequence of human activity. Sources of artificial radiation are: nuclear power plants, military and civilian equipment using nuclear reactors, mining sites with unstable atomic nuclei, nuclear testing areas, nuclear fuel burial and leakage sites, nuclear waste cemeteries, some diagnostic and therapeutic equipment, as well as radioactive isotopes in medicine. 
How to detect radiation and radioactivity? The only way available to an ordinary person to determine the level of radiation and radioactivity is to use a special device - a dosimeter (radiometer). The measurement principle is to record and estimate the number of radiation particles using a Geiger-Muller counter. 
Personal dosimeter No one is immune from the effects of radiation. Unfortunately, any object around us can be a source of deadly radiation: money, food, tools, building materials, clothing, furniture, transport, land, water, etc. In moderate doses, our body is able to withstand the effects of radiation without harmful consequences, but today rarely does anyone pay sufficient attention to radiation safety, daily exposing themselves and their family to mortal risk. How dangerous is radiation to humans? As is known, the effect of radiation on the human or animal body can be of two types: from the inside or from the outside. None of them add health. In addition, science knows that the internal influence of radiation substances is more dangerous than the external one. Most often, radiation substances enter our body along with contaminated water and food. In order to avoid internal exposure to radiation, it is enough to know which foods are its source. But with external radiation exposure everything is a little different. Sources of radiation Radiation background is classified into natural and man-made. It is almost impossible to avoid natural radiation on our planet, since its sources are the Sun and subsoil gas radon. This type of radiation has virtually no negative impact on the body of people and animals, since its level on the Earth’s surface is within the MPC. True, in space or even at an altitude of 10 km on board an airliner, solar radiation can pose a real danger. Thus, radiation and humans are in constant interaction. With man-made sources of radiation, everything is ambiguous. In some areas of industry and mining, workers wear special protective clothing against exposure to radiation. The background radiation level at such facilities can be much higher than permissible standards. 
Living in the modern world, it is important to know what radiation is and how it affects people, animals and vegetation. The degree of exposure to radiation on the human body is usually measured in Sievertach(abbreviated as Sv, 1 Sv = 1000 mSv = 1,000,000 µSv). This is done using special devices for measuring radiation - dosimeters. Under the influence of natural radiation, each of us is exposed to 2.4 mSv per year, and we do not feel this, since this indicator is absolutely safe for health. But with high doses of radiation, the consequences for the human or animal body can be the most severe. Among the known diseases that arise as a result of irradiation of the human body, there are such as leukemia, radiation sickness with all the ensuing consequences, all kinds of tumors, cataracts, infections, and infertility. And with strong exposure, radiation can even cause burns! An approximate picture of the effects of radiation at various doses is as follows: . with a dose of effective irradiation of the body of 1 Sv, the composition of the blood deteriorates; . with a dose of effective irradiation of the body of 2-5 Sv, baldness and leukemia occur (the so-called “radiation sickness”); . With an effective dose of radiation to the body of 3 Sv, about 50 percent of people die within one month. That is, radiation at a certain level of exposure poses an extremely serious danger to all living things. There is also a lot of talk about the fact that radiation exposure leads to mutation at the gene level. Some scientists consider radiation to be the main cause of mutations, while others argue that gene transformation is not at all associated with exposure to ionizing radiation. In any case, the question of the mutagenic effect of radiation remains open. But there are plenty of examples of radiation causing infertility. Is radiation contagious? Is it dangerous to come into contact with irradiated people? Contrary to what many people believe, radiation is not contagious. You can communicate with patients suffering from radiation sickness and other diseases caused by exposure to radiation without personal protective equipment. But only if they did not come into direct contact with radioactive substances and are not themselves sources of radiation! For whom is radiation most dangerous? Radiation has the greatest impact on the younger generation, that is, on children. Scientifically, this is explained by the fact that ionizing radiation has a stronger effect on cells that are in the stage of growth and division. Adults are much less affected because their cell division slows down or stops. But pregnant women need to be wary of radiation at all costs! At the stage of intrauterine development, the cells of the growing organism are especially sensitive to radiation, so even mild and short-term exposure to radiation can have an extremely negative impact on the development of the fetus. How to recognize radiation? It is almost impossible to detect radiation without special instruments before health problems appear. This is the main danger of radiation - it is invisible! The modern market of goods (food and non-food) is controlled by special services that check the compliance of products with established radiation radiation standards. However, the possibility of purchasing an item or even a food product whose background radiation does not meet the standards still exists. Typically, such goods are brought from contaminated areas illegally. Do you want to feed your child foods containing radiation substances? Obviously not. Then buy products only in trusted places. Better yet, buy a device that measures radiation and use it for your health! 
How to deal with radiation? The simplest and most obvious answer to the question “How to remove radiation from the body?” is the following: go to the gym! Physical activity leads to increased sweating, and radiation substances are excreted along with sweat. You can also reduce the effect of radiation on the human body by visiting a sauna. It has almost the same effect as physical activity - it leads to increased sweat production. Eating fresh vegetables and fruits can also reduce the impact of radiation on human health. You need to know that today an ideal means of protection against radiation has not yet been invented. The easiest and most effective way to protect yourself from the negative effects of deadly rays is to stay away from their source. If you know everything about radiation and know how to properly use instruments to measure it, you can almost completely avoid its negative effects. What could be the source of radiation? We have already said that it is almost impossible to completely protect yourself from the effects of radiation on our planet. Each of us is continuously exposed to radioactive radiation, natural and man-made. The source of radiation can be anything, from a seemingly harmless children's toy to a nearby enterprise. However, these items can be considered temporary sources of radiation from which you can protect yourself. In addition to them, there is also a general radiation background created by several sources that surround us. Background ionizing radiation can be created by gaseous, solid and liquid substances for various purposes. For example, the most widespread gaseous source of natural radiation is radon gas. It is constantly released in small quantities from the bowels of the Earth and accumulates in basements, lowlands, on the lower floors of premises, etc. Even the walls of premises cannot completely protect against radioactive gas. Moreover, in some cases, the walls of buildings themselves can be a source of radiation. Radiation conditions indoors Radiation in rooms created by the building materials from which walls are constructed can pose a serious threat to the life and health of people. To assess the quality of premises and buildings from the point of view of radioactivity, special services have been organized in our country. Their task is to periodically measure the level of radiation in homes and public buildings and compare the results obtained with existing standards. If the level of radiation from building materials in a room is within these standards, then the commission approves its further operation. Otherwise, the building may be required to undergo repairs, and in some cases, demolition with subsequent disposal of building materials. It should be noted that almost any structure creates a certain radiation background. Moreover, the older the building, the higher the level of radiation in it. With this in mind, when measuring the radiation level in a building, its age is also taken into account. 
Enterprises are man-made sources of radiation Household radiation There is a category of household items that emit radiation, although within acceptable standards. This is, for example, a watch or a compass, the hands of which are coated with radium salts, due to which they glow in the dark (phosphorus glow, familiar to everyone). We can also say with confidence that there is radiation in the room in which a TV or monitor based on a conventional CRT is installed. For the sake of the experiment, experts brought the dosimeter to a compass with phosphorus needles. We received a slight excess of the general background, although within normal limits. 
Radiation and medicine A person is exposed to radioactive radiation at all stages of his life, working in industrial enterprises, while at home and even undergoing treatment. A classic example of the use of radiation in medicine is FLG. According to the current rules, everyone is required to undergo fluorography at least once a year. During this examination procedure we are exposed to radiation, but the radiation dose in such cases is within safety limits. 
Contaminated products It is believed that the most dangerous source of radiation that can be encountered in everyday life is food, which is a source of radiation. Few people know where they came from, for example, potatoes or other fruits and vegetables, which now literally fill the shelves of grocery stores. But it is these products that can pose a serious threat to human health, containing radioactive isotopes in their composition. Radiation food has a stronger effect on the body than other sources of radiation, as it enters directly into it. Thus, most objects and substances emit a certain dose of radiation. Another thing is what the magnitude of this radiation dose is: is it dangerous to health or not. You can assess the danger of certain substances from a radiation point of view using a dosimeter. 
As is known, in small doses, radiation has virtually no effect on health. Everything that surrounds us creates a natural background radiation: plants, land, water, soil, sun rays. But this does not mean that one should not be afraid of ionizing radiation at all. Radiation is only safe when it is normal. So what standards are considered safe? General radiation safety standards for premises Premises from the point of view of background radiation are considered safe if the content of thorium and radon particles in them does not exceed 100 Bq per cubic meter. In addition, radiation safety can be assessed by the difference in the effective radiation dose indoors and outdoors. It should not go beyond 0.3 μSv per hour. Anyone can carry out such measurements - all you need to do is buy a personal dosimeter. The level of background radiation in premises is greatly influenced by the quality of materials used in the construction and renovation of buildings. That is why, before carrying out construction work, special sanitary services carry out appropriate measurements of the content of radionuclides in building materials (for example, they determine the specific effective activity of radionuclides). Depending on what category of object a particular building material is intended to be used for, permissible specific activity standards vary within fairly wide limits: . For building materials used in the construction of public and residential facilities ( I class) the effective specific activity should not exceed 370 Bq/kg. . In materials for buildings II class, that is, industrial, as well as for the construction of roads in populated areas, the threshold of permissible specific activity of radionuclides should be at 740 Bq/kg and below. . Roads outside populated areas related to III class must be constructed using materials whose specific activity of radionuclides does not exceed 1.5 kBq/kg. . For construction of objects IV class materials with a specific activity of radiation components of no more than 4 kBq/kg can be used. The site’s specialists found that today building materials with higher levels of radionuclide content are not allowed for use. 
What kind of water can you drink? Maximum permissible standards for radionuclide content have also been established for drinking water. Water is allowed for drinking and cooking if the specific activity of alpha radionuclides in it does not exceed 0.1 Bq/kg, and of beta radionuclides - 1 Bq/kg. Radiation absorption standards It is known that every object is capable of absorbing ionizing radiation when located in the area of influence of a radiation source. Humans are no exception - our body absorbs radiation no worse than water or earth. In accordance with this, standards for absorbed ion particles for humans have been developed: . For the general population, the permissible effective dose per year is 1 mSv (according to this, the quantity and quality of diagnostic medical procedures that have radiation effects on humans are limited). . For group A personnel, the average indicator may be higher, but per year should not exceed 20 mSv. . For group B working personnel, the permissible effective annual dose of ionizing radiation should be on average no more than 5 mSv. There are also standards for the equivalent radiation dose per year for individual organs of the human body: the lens of the eye (up to 150 mSv), skin (up to 500 mSv), hands, feet, etc. 
General radiation standards Natural radiation is not standardized, since depending on the geographical location and time, this indicator can vary over a very wide range. For example, recent measurements of background radiation on the streets of the Russian capital showed that the background level here ranges from 8 to 12 microroentgens per hour. On mountain peaks, where the protective properties of the atmosphere are lower than in settlements located closer to the level of the world's oceans, ionizing radiation levels can be even 5 times higher than Moscow values! Also, the background radiation level may be above average in places where the air is oversaturated with dust and sand with a high content of thorium and uranium. You can determine the quality of the conditions in which you live or are just going to live in terms of radiation safety using a household dosimeter-radiometer. This small device can be powered by batteries and allows you to assess the radiation safety of building materials, fertilizers, and food, which is important in an already poor environment in the world. 
Despite the high danger that almost any source of radiation poses, methods of radiation protection still exist. All methods of protection against radiation exposure can be divided into three types: time, distance and special screens. Time protection The point of this method of radiation protection is to minimize the time spent near the radiation source. The less time a person spends near a radiation source, the less harm it will cause to health. This method of protection was used, for example, during the liquidation of the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant. Liquidators of the consequences of an explosion at a nuclear power plant had only a few minutes to do their work in the affected area and return to safe territory. Exceeding the time led to an increase in the level of radiation and could be the beginning of the development of radiation sickness and other consequences that radiation can cause. Protection by distance If you find an object near you that is a source of radiation - one that can pose a danger to life and health, you must move away from it to a distance where background radiation and radiation are within acceptable limits. It is also possible to remove the radiation source to a safe area or for burial. Anti-radiation screens and protective clothing In some situations, it is simply necessary to carry out any activity in an area with increased background radiation. An example would be eliminating the consequences of an accident at nuclear power plants or working at industrial enterprises where there are sources of radioactive radiation. Being in such areas without using personal protective equipment is dangerous not only for health, but also for life. Personal radiation protection equipment has been developed especially for such cases. They are screens made of materials that block various types of radiation and special clothing. 
Protective suit against radiation What are radiation protection products made of? As you know, radiation is classified into several types depending on the nature and charge of the radiation particles. To resist certain types of radiation, protective equipment against it is made using various materials: . Protect people from radiation alpha, rubber gloves, a paper “barrier” or a regular respirator help. 
. If the contaminated area is dominated by beta radiation, then in order to protect the body from its harmful effects you will need a screen made of glass, a thin aluminum sheet or a material such as plexiglass. To protect against beta radiation of the respiratory system, a conventional respirator is no longer enough. You will need a gas mask here. 
. The hardest thing is to protect yourself from gamma radiation. Uniforms that have a shielding effect from this type of radiation are made of lead, cast iron, steel, tungsten and other high-mass metals. It was lead clothing that was used during work at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant after the accident. 
. All kinds of barriers made of polymers, polyethylene and even water effectively protect against harmful effects neutron particles.
Nutritional supplements against radiation Very often, food additives are used in conjunction with protective clothing and shields to provide protection against radiation. They are taken orally before or after entering an area with increased levels of radiation and in many cases can reduce the toxic effects of radionuclides on the body. In addition, certain foods can reduce the harmful effects of ionizing radiation. 
Eleutherococcus reduces the effect of radiation on the body 1) Food products that reduce the effect of radiation. Even nuts, white bread, wheat, and radishes can to a small extent reduce the effects of radiation exposure on humans. The fact is that they contain selenium, which prevents the formation of tumors that can be caused by radiation exposure. Bioadditives based on algae (kelp, chlorella) are also very good in the fight against radiation. Even onions and garlic can partially rid the body of radioactive nuclides that have penetrated into it. 
ASD - a drug for protection against radiation 2) Pharmaceutical herbal preparations against radiation. The drug “Ginseng Root”, which can be bought at any pharmacy, has an effective effect against radiation. It is used in two doses before meals in the amount of 40-50 drops at a time. Also, to reduce the concentration of radionuclides in the body, it is recommended to consume Eleutherococcus extract in the amount of a quarter to half a teaspoon per day along with tea drunk in the morning and at lunchtime. Leuzea, zamanika, and lungwort also belong to the category of radioprotective drugs, and they can be purchased at pharmacies. 
Personal first aid kit with drugs to protect against radiation But, we repeat, no drug can completely resist the effects of radiation. The best way to protect against radiation is to have no contact with contaminated objects at all and not to be in places with high background radiation. 
Dosimeters are measuring instruments for numerically estimating the dose of radioactive radiation or the rate of this dose per unit of time. The measurement is made using a built-in or separately connected Geiger-Muller counter: it measures the radiation dose by counting the number of ionizing particles passing through its working chamber. It is this sensitive element that is the main part of any dosimeter. The data obtained during measurements is converted and amplified by the electronics built into the dosimeter, and the readings are displayed on a dial or numeric, often liquid crystal, indicator. Based on the dose of ionizing radiation, which is usually measured by household dosimeters in the range from 0.1 to 100 μSv/h (microsievert per hour), the degree of radiation safety of a territory or object can be assessed. To test substances (both liquid and solid) for compliance with radiation standards, you need a device that allows you to measure a quantity such as micro-roentgen. Most modern dosimeters can measure this value in the range from 10 to 10,000 μR/h, and that is why such devices are often called dosimeters-radiometers. Types of dosimeters All dosimeters are classified into professional and individual (for use in domestic conditions). The difference between them lies mainly in the measurement range and the magnitude of the error. Unlike household dosimeters, professional dosimeters have a wider measurement range (usually from 0.05 to 999 μSv/h), while personal dosimeters for the most part are not capable of determining doses greater than 100 μSv per hour. Also, professional devices differ from household ones in the error value: for household devices the measurement error can reach 30%, and for professional ones it cannot be more than 7%. 
A modern dosimeter can be carried with you everywhere! The functions of both professional and household dosimeters may include an audible alarm, which turns on at a certain threshold of the measured radiation dose. The value at which the alarm is triggered can be set by the user in some devices. This feature makes it easy to find potentially dangerous objects. Purpose of professional and household dosimeters: 1. Professional dosimeters are intended for use at industrial facilities, nuclear submarines and other similar places where there is a risk of receiving a high radiation dose (this explains the fact that professional dosimeters generally have a wider measurement range). 2. Household dosimeters can be used by the population to assess background radiation in an apartment or house. Also, with the help of such dosimeters, you can check building materials for the level of radiation and the territory on which the building is planned to be built, check the “purity” of purchased fruits, vegetables, berries, mushrooms, fertilizers, etc. 
Compact professional dosimeter with two Geiger-Muller counters. The household dosimeter is small in size and weight. Operates, as a rule, from batteries or batteries. You can take it with you everywhere, for example, when going to the forest to pick mushrooms or even to the grocery store. The radiometry function, which is found in almost all household dosimeters, allows you to quickly and effectively assess the condition of products and their suitability for human consumption. 
Dosimeters of past years were inconvenient and cumbersome. Almost everyone can buy a dosimeter today. Not so long ago, they were available only to special services; they had a high cost and large dimensions, which made them much more difficult for the population to use. Modern advances in electronics have made it possible to significantly reduce the size of household dosimeters and make them more affordable. The updated instruments soon gained recognition throughout the world and today are the only effective solution for assessing the dose of ionizing radiation. 
No one is safe from collisions with radiation sources. You can find out that the radiation level has been exceeded only by the dosimeter readings or by a special warning sign. Typically, such signs are installed near man-made sources of radiation: factories, nuclear power plants, radioactive waste disposal sites, etc. Of course, you won’t find such signs at the market or in a store. But this does not mean that there cannot be sources of radiation in such places. There are known cases where the source of radiation was food, fruits, vegetables and even medications. How radionuclides can end up in consumer goods is another question. The main thing is to know how to behave correctly if radiation sources are detected. Where can you find a radioactive item? Since at industrial facilities of a certain category the likelihood of encountering a radiation source and receiving a dose is especially high, dosimeters are issued to almost all personnel. In addition, workers undergo a special training course, which explains to people how to behave in the event of a radiation threat or when a dangerous object is discovered. Also, many enterprises working with radioactive substances are equipped with light and sound alarms, which, when triggered, promptly evacuate the entire staff of the enterprise. In general, industry workers are well aware of how to respond to radiation threats. Things are completely different when radiation sources are found at home or on the street. Many of us simply do not know how to act in such situations and what to do. 
Radioactivity warning sign How to behave when a radiation source is detected? When an object of radiation is detected, it is important to know how to behave so that the radiation find does not harm either you or others. Please note: if you have a dosimeter in your hands, this does not give you any right to try to independently eliminate the detected source of radiation. The best thing you can do in such a situation is to move away to a safe distance from the object and warn passers-by about the danger. All other work on disposal of the object should be entrusted to the relevant authorities, for example, the police. 
The search and disposal of radiation items is carried out by the relevant services. We have already said more than once that a source of radiation can be detected even in a grocery store. In such situations, you also cannot remain silent or try to “sort out” the sellers yourself. It is better to politely warn the store administration and contact the Sanitary and Epidemiological Supervision Service. If you have not made a dangerous purchase, this does not mean that someone else will not buy the radiation item!
There are places on the globe where radiation pollution levels are literally off scale, so it is extremely dangerous for a person to be there.
Radiation is destructive for all life on earth, but at the same time humanity does not stop using nuclear power plants, developing bombs, and so on. There are already several striking examples in the world of what the careless use of this enormous power can lead to. Let's look at the places with the highest levels of radioactive background.
1. Ramsar, Iran
The city in northern Iran has the highest levels of natural background radiation on Earth. Experiments determined the values to be 25 mSv. per year at a rate of 1-10 millisieverts.
2. Sellafield, UK
This is not a city, but a nuclear complex used to produce weapons-grade plutonium for atomic bombs. It was founded in 1940, and 17 years later there was a fire that triggered the release of plutonium. This terrible tragedy claimed the lives of many people who subsequently died for a long time from cancer.
3. Church Rock, New Mexico
In this city there is a uranium enrichment plant where a serious accident occurred, as a result of which more than 1 thousand tons of solid radioactive waste and 352 thousand m3 of acid radioactive waste solution ended up in the Puerco River. All this has led to the fact that the level of radiation has increased significantly: the levels are 7 thousand times higher than the norm.
4. Coast of Somalia
Radiation in this place appeared completely unexpectedly, and responsibility for the terrible consequences lies with European companies located in Switzerland and Italy. Their leadership took advantage of the unstable situation in the republic and brazenly dumped radioactive waste on the shores of Somalia. As a result, innocent people suffered.
5. Los Barrios, Spain
At the Acherinox scrap metal processing plant, due to an error in control devices, a source of cesium-137 melted, which led to the release of a radioactive cloud with a radiation level that exceeded normal levels by 1 thousand times. Over time, the pollution spread to Germany, France, Italy and other countries.
6. Denver, America
Research has shown that Denver itself has high levels of radiation compared to other regions. There is an assumption: the whole point is that the city is located at an altitude of one mile above sea level, and in such regions the atmospheric background is thinner, which means that the protection from solar radiation is not so strong. In addition, Denver has large uranium deposits.
7. Guarapari, Brazil
Brazil's beautiful beaches can be hazardous to health, including holiday destinations in Guarapari, where the naturally occurring radioactive element monazite in the sand is eroding. If compared with the established norm of 10 mSv, the values when measuring sand turned out to be much higher - 175 mSv.
8. Arkarula, Australia
For hundreds of years, the distributors of radiation have been the Paralana underground springs, which flow through uranium-rich rocks. Studies have shown that these hot springs bring radon and uranium to the surface of the earth. It is unclear when the situation will change.
9. Washington, America
The Hanford complex is a nuclear complex and was founded in 1943 by the American government. Its main task was to generate nuclear energy for the manufacture of weapons. At the moment it has been taken out of service, but radiation continues to emanate from it, and will continue to do so for a long time.
10. Karunagappalli, India
In the Indian state of Kerala, in the Kollam district, there is a municipality called Karunagappalli, where they mine rare metals, some of which, such as monazite, have become sand-like as a result of erosion. Because of this, in some places on the beaches, radiation levels reach 70 mSv/year.
11. Goias, Brazil
In 1987, a tragic incident occurred in the state of Goiás, located in the central-west region of Brazil. Scrap metal collectors decided to take a radiation therapy machine from a local abandoned hospital. Because of it, the entire region was in danger, since unprotected contact with the device led to the spread of radiation.
12. Scarborough, Canada
Since 1940, a housing block in Scarborough has been radioactive, and this site is called McClure. The contamination was caused by radium extracted from the metal, which was planned to be used for experiments.
13. New Jersey, America
Burlington County is home to McGuire Air Force Base, which has been listed by the Environmental Protection Agency as one of the most polluted airbases in America. Operations to clean up the area were carried out in this place, but elevated levels of radiation are still recorded here.
14. Bank of the Irtysh River, Kazakhstan
During the Cold War, the Semipalatinsk Test Site was created on the territory of the USSR, where nuclear weapons were tested. 468 tests were carried out here, the consequences of which affected the residents of the surrounding area. Data show that approximately 200 thousand people were affected.
15. Paris, France
Even in one of the most famous and beautiful European capitals there is a place contaminated with radiation. Large levels of radioactive background were discovered in Fort D'Aubervilliers. The thing is that there are 61 tanks with cesium and radium, and the territory itself of 60 m3 is contaminated.
16. Fukushima, Japan
In March 2011, a terrible nuclear disaster occurred at a nuclear power plant located in Japan. As a result of the accident, the area around this station became like a desert, as approximately 165 thousand local residents fled their homes. The place was recognized as an exclusion zone.
17. Siberia, Russia
This place is home to one of the largest chemical plants in the world. It produces up to 125 thousand tons of solid waste, which pollutes groundwater in nearby areas. In addition, experiments have shown that precipitation spreads radiation to wildlife, causing animals to suffer.
18. Yangjiang, China
In Yangjiang County, bricks and clay were used to build houses, but apparently no one thought or knew that this building material was not suitable for building houses. This is due to the fact that sand is supplied to the region from parts of the hills that contain large amounts of monazite, a mineral that breaks down into radium, actinium and radon. It turns out that people are constantly exposed to radiation, so the rate of cancer is very high.
19. Mailuu-Suu, Kyrgyzstan
This is one of the most polluted places in the world, and it's not all about nuclear energy, but about extensive uranium mining and processing activities, which result in the release of about 1.96 million m3 of radioactive waste.
20. Simi Valley, California
In a small city in California there is a NASA field laboratory called Santa Susanna. Over the years of its existence, there were many problems associated with ten low-power nuclear reactors, which led to the release of radioactive metals. Currently, operations are being carried out in this place to clean up the area.
21. Ozersk, Russia
In the Chelyabinsk region there is the Mayak production association, which was built back in 1948. The company is engaged in the production of nuclear weapons components, isotopes, storage and regeneration of spent nuclear fuel. There were several accidents here, which led to contamination of drinking water, and this increased the number of chronic diseases among local residents.
22. Chernobyl, Ukraine
The disaster that occurred in 1986 affected not only residents of Ukraine, but also other countries. Statistics have shown that the incidence of chronic diseases and cancer has increased significantly. Surprisingly, it was officially recognized that only 56 people died from the accident.
