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Purpose of the lesson: to identify the features of the development of Russian culture at the end of the 15th-17th centuries.
Lesson objectives:
- Educational. As a result of the lesson: students will get acquainted with the achievements of Russian culture of the late XV-XVII centuries; identify and characterize the features of the cultural rise of the period under study;
- Developmental. Students learn to: improve skills: independent work, selection of material on a given topic; work with documents and textbook text; formulate your own point of view; argue and defend your views; improve skills in systematizing the material covered: drawing up tables, diagrams; develop creative (aesthetic, artistic) abilities.
- Educational. Students: continue to develop their communication skills in the process of collective, group work; develop a sense of respect for the cultural past of their country; are convinced of the need to protect cultural monuments.
Lesson on learning a new topic. The form of the lesson is a virtual excursion. Accompanied by a multimedia presentation.
I.Org moment.(slides 1,2)
II. Preparation for the main stage of mastering educational material.
State the topic and purpose of the lesson.
III. Learning new knowledge.
Teacher: (slide 3) The historical monuments are silent. For centuries they have kept their secrets from those who do not know how to listen and peer into the past. But they will tell a lot to the curious and thoughtful. Today's lesson we will conduct in a virtual cultural museum. Welcome to the first room called “Architecture”.
Speech by the first group of student guides “Architecture”
Tour guide 1. (slide 4) Architecture in Rus' was temple, serf and civil. History has preserved to this day some religious monuments of the late XV-XVII centuries. One of the outstanding monuments serf architecture (slide 5) This period was built by the Kremlin, which turned the city into an impregnable fortress. By the 17th century, there were already hundreds of buildings in the Moscow Kremlin. The Kremlin was turning into a world-famous, unique architectural ensemble, a symbol of strength and unity of the Russian land. So let's take a look there!
Tour guide 2. The main square of the Kremlin is Sobornaya. (slide 6) Its ideological and architectural center was Uspensky The cathedral, built by the Italian architect Aristotle Fioravanti, “is remarkable for its majesty and height and lordship. And ringing. And space,” the chronicler tells us. The cathedral became the center of Russian statehood and church life, here Russian tsars and emperors were crowned kings, the most important state acts were proclaimed, and metropolitans and patriarchs were ordained.
Annunciation Cathedral At first they crowned 3 domes, then single-domed chapels were added to the corners of the cathedral. The pointed 9 chapters were richly gilded. Why was the cathedral nicknamed “Golden-Domed”. Church Robes of position, which became the home church of the Metropolitan, and then the Patriarch of All Rus'.
Built by Italian Aleviz Fryazin Arkhangelsk the cathedral, which became the family tomb of the family of great princes. In the 17th century, the Cathedral of the Twelve Apostles was built.
And between the Assumption and Archangel Cathedrals, Bon Fryazin created a new bell tower. Clearly visible from all over the city and famous for its ringing, the Ivanovo Bell Tower received the name Ivan the Great. Architects Petrok Maly Bazhen Ogurtsov added a belfry to the bell tower. All three belfries formed an unusually expressive architectural complex and gave Cathedral Square a special solemnity.
Tour guide 3. (slide 7) The French composer Hector Berlioz, who visited Kolomenskoye in the mid-19th century, wrote: “I saw a lot, admired a lot, amazed me a lot, but time, ancient time in Russia, which left its mark in this village, was for me a miracle of miracles... I saw some new kind of architecture. I saw a striving upward, and I stood stunned for a long time.” So he spoke about the Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye in honor of the birth of Ivan IV. And the new type of architecture that he admires tent The multifaceted pointed base of the temple ends with triple pointed kokoshniks. And above them rises a stone tent, crowning the entire building. The edges of the tent are intertwined with narrow stone garlands, similar to strings of precious pearls. And its top is covered with a small neat cupola with a gilded cross.
And the oldest surviving tent-roofed temple of wooden architecture is St. Nicholas Church in the village of Lyavlya, Arkhangelskaya areas. The tent style was recognized by Russian architects. The architects achieved extraordinary diversity, and not a single tented temple was the same as another.
Tour guide 4. (slide 8) The central temple of the Intercession Cathedral - the Church of the Intercession of the Virgin Mary on Red Square in memory of the capture of Kazan - is completed with a tent with a small dome. Consists of 8 asymmetrical pillar-shaped temples of different sizes. Each is dedicated to eight days in which the most important events of the campaign against Kazan took place.
Four decorative tents were used in the decoration of the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary in Putinki. By the way, this church became the last monument of hipped-roof architecture in Moscow, because in 1652, Patriarch Nikon “tent churches should not be built at all.”
Guide 1. 17th century brought with him new artistic trends. The architecture became more and more elegant, churches sometimes resembled fairy-tale towers. (slide 9) Appeared tiered, boxy And multi-headed temples. This is how the decorative, picturesque style came into architecture. The shapes of the buildings became more complex, their walls were covered with multi-colored ornaments and white stone carvings.
Tour guide 2. By the end of the century, the style of the Moscow, or Naryshkin, baroque, lush and majestic, ceremonial and exceptionally elegant. (slide 10) The most famous building of the late 17th century is the Church of the Intercession of the Virgin Mary in Fili - the estate church of L.K. Naryshkin.
Tour guide 3. There is a rise civil architecture. (slide 11) A true masterpiece of Russian architecture - Terem Palace of the Moscow Kremlin. The architects used tiered-step alternation of volumes, picturesque asymmetry of extensions, and pointed roofs. The façades were given splendor and elegance by window frames decorated with floral patterns, as well as relief blades and cornices with tiles.
A unique creation of Russian architecture of the 17th century. was woodenpalace in the village of Kolomenskoye near Moscow. Seven mansions on two or three floors. They were crowned with roofs of different shapes. The palace had 3 thousand windows, decorated with different frames. A projecting carved porch led to each entrance.
Tour guide 4. (slide 12) Palaces, administrative buildings, towers, residential buildings, and guest courtyards were erected. The picturesque composition of the log houses with numerous protruding porches and bright tint produced a festive impression.
So, (slide 13) At the end of the 15th-17th centuries, the following directions began to develop: temple, serf, and civil. Features of the development of architecture: architectural styles - tented, baroque.
Teacher: (slide 3) The talents of Russian people extend not only to wooden or white stone architecture. Painting was no exception. The exhibition presents to your attention a collection of paintings from the 15th-17th centuries.
Presentation by the second group of student guides
Tour guide 1. (slide 14) The main idea of art was service to the Lord. The leading direction in painting, of course, church. The heyday of icon painting was the 15th century, the peaks of its creation are associated with the names of Andrei Rublev and Dainil Cherny. Russian painting of the mid-15th century ceased to be the specialty of monks alone, and the artist-monk was replaced by the artist-layman. The most outstanding representative of the Rublev movement in the art of the second half of the 15th – early 16th centuries was Dionysius. The peculiarity of his style is the painting of hagiographic icons, consisting of a centerpiece with a figure and a number of marks, which tell about their lives. Dionysius’s icons are light and spacious, he decorated them with architectural and landscape sketches
Tour guide 2. (slide 15) The pinnacle of Dionysius's creativity is frescoes in the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary in the Ferapontov Monastery. They have their own uniqueness: they depicted martyrs, angels, Christ, evangelists, and the “Last Judgment.” Dionysius creates a painting glorifying the Mother of God. Mary is glorified as the intercessor of the human race. The entire painting is permeated by a mood of festivity, elegance, and bright joy. The works are distinguished by their sophisticated designs, refined and delicate colors.
Tour guide 3. (slide 16) In the 16th century The subject matter of painting began to expand. Artists turn to the plots and images of the Old Testament, to the legendary-historical genre. The government of Ivan the Terrible attached great importance to the exaltation of its political ideas in art. This is evidenced by the icon - a 4-meter painting “Blessed is the army of the heavenly king,” dedicated to the capture of Kazan. It depicts the solemn procession of the victorious Russian army led by Ivan the Terrible from the city engulfed in flames.
Tour guide 4. 17th century... Painting loses its integrity. Artists show interest in the real, earthly world. The paintings of that time resemble elegant carpets. They contain a lot of real characters and everyday details. Unlike ancient icons, they do not contain the artist’s deep thoughts about good and evil, about the destinies of people and the meaning of life.
Two directions have emerged. (slide 17) Godunovskaya school (icon painters worked on orders from Tsar Boris and his relatives. They were opponents of all innovations and imitated the style of the great Rublev and Dionysius). Second direction - Stroganovskaya school. (according to orders from the Stroganov merchants, lovers of icon miniatures). Artists diligently decorated iconographic images with small decorative details, rich ornamentation, and exquisite calligraphy. One of the most famous masters of this school was Procopius Chirin. (“Nikita the Warrior”). The Stroganovites had no equal in their ability to convey landscape panoramas that had not previously been seen in Russian icon painting (the icon “John the Baptist in the Desert”).
Tour guide 1. The painter and graphic artist Simon Ushakov also strived for a truthful representation of real things; among Ushakov’s works there are icons of a special kind - political paintings - “Planting the Tree of the Russian State”: the Moscow Kremlin is depicted, with the Assumption Cathedral in the center. Near it, Ivan Kalita is planting a tree. Against the background of the tree’s foliage is an icon of Our Lady of Vladimir, and on the branches are medallions with portraits of Moscow saints and sovereigns. Simon Ushakov is one of the founders of Russian portraiture. In the 17th century they were called parsuns.
Mural painter Gury Nikitin. He painted the walls of the Church of Elijah the Prophet in Yaroslavl. In the frescoes, minor vital details of the biblical text are emphasized, religious spirituality disappears, giving way to a masterfully written colorful “story”. (harvest scene from the Acts of Elisha). Thus, from the 17th century, Old Russian icon painting ceased to exist as a dominant artistic system.
Tour guide 2. Features of realism are also noticeable in the portrait genre. If parsuns (portraits) of Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich, M.V. Skopin-Shuisky made in the usual manner, then the images of the middle and second half of the 17th century. They talk about the desire for portrait likeness and realistic writing. These are the portraits of Tsars Alexei Mikhailovich (S. Loputsky), Fyodor Alekseevich (I. Bogdanov), Patriarch Nikon (I. Deterson and D. Wouters). Realistic landscapes appear on the icons.
Tour guide 3. (slide 18) The art of decorating a book played no less a role and was no less original than icon painting. The main elements of the artistic design of books are miniatures, headpieces and initials. Painters mainly created miniatures related to spiritual and religious themes. Screensaver: in the XV-XVI centuries. screensavers are becoming widespread - book ornament. These are the Balkan and New Byzantine styles, then the Old Printed style. Initials often turned into complex drawings depicting strange animals, birds, monsters, fighting warriors, buffoons.
Tour guide 4. (slide 19) Thus, at the end of the 15th to the 17th century, the main directions in painting were church and artistic design of books. And also the features of painting. ( slide)
Teacher: (slide 3) The 16th century is the era of the formation of a new state, reforms of local and central government. They demanded more and more literate people. Welcome to the next room.
Tour guide 1. (slide 20) In 1563, Emperor Ivan IV ordered “set up a house from your royal treasury, let’s start building a printing business,” to "henceforth the holy books were set forth righteous". This house, later called the Printing Yard, was founded near the St. Nicholas Monastery. We found our own on the land of Moscow "some cunning masters of printing"- Ivana Fedorov and Pyotr Timofeev Mstislavets. WITH "Acts and Epistles of the Apostles," published on March 1, 1564, the book publishing activities of the Russian state began. The second book of the Printing House was Hourbook(1565): This is both a prayer book and a book for teaching literacy. The publication format is an eighth of a sheet. The pages are decorated with elegant headpieces. IN 1568 g. The printing house released Psalter. It was prepared by Nikifor Tarasiev and Nevezha Timofeev.
Tour guide 2. In 1649, the first book with illustrations made by intaglio engraving appeared in Moscow. It was "The doctrine and cunning of the military formation of infantry people." It contained 35 engraved tables.
Tour guide 3. The first library appeared in 1679, called the Printing House, to which books and manuscripts were handed over. Standard editions with amendments and notes from reference workers for future editions were also stored there. Gradually, the library grew so large that in 1670 a special position of book guardian was introduced.
(slide 24) So, the genres of secular literature: stories, legends, journalism, travel notes, “Chronograph”. Features: satirical stories and legends, new genres are born - secular story-drama, poems with their everyday, satirical, love motives
Tour guide 1. . (slide 25) The origins of the theater go back to folk art, and above all to rituals. The rituals were a kind of performance game. This playful element was picked up and developed by the first professional artists in Rus' - buffoons . Civil authorities (and especially church authorities) fought against buffoons. By decree of 1648, Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich banned the performances of buffoons.
A special form of theater was onnative drama ( dramas “Tsar Maximilian”, “Boat”. "Comedy about a master"). Another form - church theater, performances of which took place on church holidays. (Christmas dramatization “Cave Act”).
Tour guide 2. . Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich became interested in theatrical art.
There is reason to believe that Alexei Mikhailovich’s final decision to create a theater arose on May 30, 1672, during a feast in honor of the birth of his son Peter. The decree “commit comedy” was dated June 4 of the same year. A person capable of writing a play and staging a performance in Moscow was found in the German settlement, where foreigners who worked in Russia lived - Johann Gottfried Gregory, the pastor of the local Lutheran church, and a corpse of 60 foreigners. They took the matter seriously: a play was being written and the theater building was being built at the same time.
Tour guide 3. . The first play of the Russian theater was called “Artaxerxes Action”, after the name of the king about whom the biblical legend tells. The premiere was played on October 17, 1672 in the “comedy house” in the village of Preobrazhenskoye in one of the royal summer palaces. The king was very pleased with the “fun” and generously rewarded its author. Theatrical performances became regular at court. A stage was also built in the Kremlin and, in addition to the “Artaxerxes Action,” the plays “Judith,” “Temir-Aksakov Action,” and “Malaya Cool” were performed. (entertainment) Comedy about Joseph”, “Plainful Comedy about Adam and Eve”. Soon Russian people were also sent to study with Gregory.
After the death of Alexei Mikhailovich, performances in the royal chambers stopped, because the new tsar, Fyodor Alekseevich, did not like this kind of spectacle. But the idea of theater did not die. A long process of development of the Russian scene began.
Teacher: Our Nizhny Novgorod region is rich in cultural monuments of this period. We invite you to the hall “Culture of the Nizhny Novgorod region 15-17 centuries”.
Culture of Russian lands in the 15th century. In this century, Moscow becomes the center of all-Russian national culture. During this period, the role of the Russian language is strengthening, works are being created on the topic of state building, and interest in the history of the Fatherland is growing. In modern literature, Russian culture of this time is assessed as the “Russian Renaissance”. In all major cities of northeastern Rus', monastery schools and colleges are being restored and expanded, old handwritten books are being copied and new handwritten books are being created. Literacy is developing
various segments of the population, especially urban ones. In the field of literature, Moscow chronicles occupy a special place.
In 1408 ᴦ. At the Metropolitan's court, a tradition of compiling all-Russian chronicle collections was developing, the first of which was the Trinity Chronicle. By 1480 ᴦ. refers to the creation of the Moscow Chronicle, which became the ideological justification for the unification of lands around Moscow.
The victory on the Kulikovo Field gave a powerful impetus to the development of patriotic feelings of the Russian people and prompted the creation of a series of literary works, among which the most profound and significant is “Zadonshchina,” a poem written by Sophony Ryazanets shortly after the battle. Its characteristic feature is its connection with the Tale of Igor's Campaign. When creating his work, Zephanius borrowed literary images, stylistic turns and expressions, artistic techniques and even individual passages from the author of “The Word”. But this is not imitation, but a conscious comparison of events of the past and present, which allows us to express the main idea of the author - the key to victory in the unity and coordination of the actions of the Russian princes.
The rise of Russian culture and art was facilitated by the restoration and expansion of cultural ties with the countries of Europe and the East. Of particular importance was the partnership between Moscow and the fraternal peoples of Bulgaria and Serbia. Thus, hagiographic literature is permeated with South Slavic influence.
In the era of Ivan III, great importance was attached to the development of Moscow architecture, which was associated with the strengthening of the grand ducal power. During this period, a restructuring of the architectural appearance of the Moscow Kremlin was launched, carried out by Russian masters together with invited Italian architects. In 1479 ᴦ. Italian
Aristotle Fioravanti completed the construction of the main temple of the Russian state - the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin, then the Faceted Chamber, the Temple of Ivan Climacus, the Grand Duke's Palace, the Archangel Cathedral, as well as the Kremlin walls and towers were built. Along with Fioravanti, Italian architects Anton Fryazin, Marco Fryazin, Pietro Antonio Solari, Aleviz Fryazin and Aleviz Novy took part in their creation. In general, Italian craftsmen, artisans, and artists had a significant influence on the formation of Russian culture at this time. But domestic creations were no less skillful. For example, it was built by Pskov architects in 1489. The Grand Ducal Church of the Annunciation in the Kremlin.
During this period, church painting rose to the highest level of development. At the end of the XIV - beginning of the XV centuries. The painter Theophanes the Greek, who came from Byzantium, worked in Veliky Novgorod, Moscow, Serpukhov and Nizhny Novgorod. He created the painting of the Church of the Savior on Ilyin Street in Novgorod, together with Simeon Cherny - the painting of the Moscow Church of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary and the Archangel Cathedral. The great Russian artist of this era was Andrei Rublev. He participated in the painting of the old Annunciation Cathedral in the Kremlin together with Theophan the Greek and Prokhor from Gorodets, painted the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, the Trinity Cathedral in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery and the Spassky Cathedral of the Andronikov Monastery. His brush is the masterpiece of world painting, the Trinity icon.
At the end of the 15th century. The icon painter Dionysius made a huge contribution to the development of painting. Together with his sons Feodosius and Vladimir, as well as other students, he created frescoes of the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin, paintings of the temples of the Pafnutyevo-Borovsky, Joseph-Volokolamsky and Ferapontov monasteries. The famous icon “The Savior is in Power” belongs to his brush.
At the turn of the XV-XVI centuries. The formation of a unified Russian state and the completion of the formation of the Russian (Great Russian) nationality and a single Russian language, in which the Moscow dialect and the Vladimir-Suzdal dialect occupied the leading place, became the basis of the spoken and business language, played a significant role in the development of culture.
Culture of the Moscow State in the 16th-17th centuries. At the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century. The relationship between church and state began to play a special role in the development of Russian culture. It was their character that determined such an important factor in the history of the Russian Middle Ages as the influence of the church on spiritual life. Theocratic aspirations of the hierarchs of the Russian Orthodox Church at the end of the 15th century. entered into a contradiction with the grand ducal policy, incl. due to the secularization of church properties. The position of the church was also weakened by the internal struggle between the factions that existed within it, as well as the growth of heretical movements. From the beginning of the 16th century. a union of the state and the “Josephian” church gradually takes shape, which put forward the theory of the divine origin of the grand-ducal power, securing the support of the sovereign. The latter, having abandoned plans for secularization, received ideological support from the church. The further process of strengthening autocratic power was accompanied by an increase in church and religious influence on spiritual life. The Church sought to prevent the penetration of Western Catholicism and the spread of secular knowledge; it established strict canons for architecture, painting, and literature. The shocks of the oprichnina and the tragic events of the Time of Troubles significantly slowed down the formation of an all-Russian cultural space. The coming XVII century. became a turning point in Russian history not only politically, but also culturally. Beginning to take shape in the 16th century. the tendency towards the secularization of culture, the gradual destruction of medieval religious isolation and the appeal to reason in the 17th century. became the main content of the cultural-historical process.
Historical song is gradually becoming one of the most widespread genres of oral folk art.
The need of both the state and the church for literate people has increased significantly. At the Stoglavy Cathedral 1551 ᴦ. It was decided to create “book schools” in the cities. In addition to clergy, secular “masters of literacy” also acted as teachers, opening private two-year schools. Training was limited to the acquisition of basic literacy and opened up opportunities for further self-education. In the 16th century highly educated Russian people were no longer only in the spiritual, but also in the secular environment. Handwritten books became more widespread. Due to the increased need for it, the writing process has been simplified: cursive writing has become established not only in business correspondence, but also in book writing. Monasteries remained the main centers for the production and storage of books. Secular nobles also had significant book collections. But the owners of books often became townspeople and even peasants who bought books at the market.
A major event in the cultural life of the country was the beginning of printing. In 1553-1555. In Moscow, unknown masters published the “Gospel” and “Lenten Triodion”. But the organization of book printing in Russia is associated with the name of Ivan Fedorov. In 1564 ᴦ. In the Moscow printing house, created with funds from the treasury, he published the first Russian printed dated book “Apostle”. Ivan Fedorov was not only a publisher, but also an editor of the book. Under not entirely clear circumstances, he and his assistant Pyotr Mstislavets soon left for Lvov. At the same time, the printing of books in Moscow did not stop; it was continued by Fedorov’s students.
In the 17th century education covers ever wider sections of the population. Literacy among nobles and townspeople increased significantly. The first uniform textbooks appear and become widespread.
At the end of the 17th century. Almost every third or fourth city dweller could read and write. The bulk of the serf peasantry and the female part of the country's population remained illiterate. In 1665 ᴦ. At the Zaikonospassky monastery, a school of grammatical teaching was opened under the leadership of the enlightener Simeon of Polotsk, preparing clerks for orders. And in 1687 ᴦ. On the initiative of Sylvester Medvedev, the first higher educational institution in Russia began to operate - the Slavic-Greek-Latin School (from 1701 - academy), the program of which included both secular and spiritual sciences.
The growing education of the population led to an increase in demand for books. During the 17th century. The Moscow printing house (Pechatny Dvor) published about 500 titles of books, among which secular literature occupied a significant place. In the 1660s. The first bookstore opens in Moscow. The collections of private libraries are growing. In the 17th century With the pharmacy order, the first scientific library in Russia begins to operate. Since 1621 ᴦ. A handwritten newspaper, Kuranty, appears at the royal court, containing translations of foreign news.
In the XVI-XVII centuries. There is an active process of accumulation of scientific knowledge. New in the 17th century. the emergence of written manuals containing information on the practical application of geometry, mathematics, physics, and chemistry. Thus, the need to describe lands and measure them made it extremely important to create guidelines for calculating areas and determining the quality of land plots. In artillery and Pushkar business, in addition to mathematical calculations, knowledge of a number of physical phenomena and chemical properties of substances was required. In 1621 ᴦ. Οʜᴎsim Mikhailov (Rodyshevsky), on the basis of foreign and domestic experience, compiled the “Charter of military, cannon and other matters related to military science,” containing practical information in this area. Medical knowledge was also of an applied nature, based on the centuries-old experience of traditional medicine. In 1543 ᴦ. a translation of a unique German medical reference book “Vertograd” appeared. And in 1581 ᴦ. The first pharmacy opened in Moscow, serving the royal family. The needs of the general population for information from the field of medicine were satisfied by various “Herbal books” and “Healing books”. original and translated.
Thanks to Russian sailors and travelers, geographical knowledge is expanding, descriptions of countries, drawings and maps of Russian lands are being compiled. In the 17th century great Russian geographical discoveries were made that made a great contribution to world science. Russian pioneers and navigators were ahead of Western geographers in exploring Asia. Οʜᴎ compiled maps and descriptions of the territories of Siberia and the Far East. In 1633-1638. Cossacks Ilya Perfilyev and Ivan Rebrov discovered the Yana and Indigirka rivers. Following this, Mikhail Stadukhin reached Kolyma, and Kurbat Ivanov went to Lake Baikal. Explorers Semyon Dezhnev and Fyodor Alekseev in 1648. opened a strait between Asia and America. The expeditions of V. D. Poyarkov (1643-1646) and E. P. Khabarov opened the way along the Amur to the Sea of Okhotsk and the Pacific Ocean, and the Cossack Pentecostal V. V. Atlasov in 1697-1699. explored Kamchatka. A great contribution to the study of the geography of Asian countries was made by the article lists (reports) of Russian embassies. Rich information about China was collected during the embassies of Ivan Petlin (1618-1619) and Fyodor Baikov (1654). Detailed descriptions of this country compiled by Russian diplomats became famous not only in Russia, but also in Western Europe. Particularly interesting was the trip to Beijing of the Russian embassy led by Nicholas (Milescu) Spafari (1675-1678), which enriched world science with valuable information about the lands of Siberia and China. At the turn of the XVI-XVII centuries. a summary map of the Russian state was compiled ("Big Drawing"), which has not been preserved. In 1627 ᴦ. in the Discharge Order, the “Book for the Big Drawing” was created - an index and commentary on the summary map. In the second half of the century, drawings and descriptions of Siberia were being compiled. By 1701 ᴦ. Semyon Remezov completed work on the “Drawing Book of Siberia,” which became an important event in geography and ethnography.
The development of socio-political thought was facilitated by the atmosphere of intense ideological struggle in which the formation of the Russian state took place. The focus was on fundamental issues in the life of the country.
Ideas of expanding cultural ties with Western Europe are becoming widespread. These views were reflected in the writings of I. A. Khvorostinin and the ambassadorial clerk Grigory Kotoshikhin, who in 1664 ᴦ. fled to Sweden and compiled his description of the Moscow state there.
Development of literature in the XVI-XVII centuries. reflected the processes taking place in the socio-political life of the country. Official character in the 16th century. acquires a chronicle.
Architecture of Russia in the first half of the 16th century. is distinguished by the intensive construction of stone churches and fortresses, although in general Rus' - both urban and rural - remains wooden. The Renaissance features introduced by Italian architects had almost no continuation in Russian architecture. On the contrary, there is a return to national origins, which is manifested in the revival of the tent style, traditional for ancient Russian wooden architecture. Masterpieces of hipped-roof architecture are the Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye and the Intercession Cathedral (St. Basil's Cathedral), erected in Moscow by Russian masters Postnik Yakovlev and Barma in honor of the capture of Kazan. Many churches and temples were built at the expense of wealthy merchants. The construction of military engineering structures is actively underway. In 1500-1508. Pyotr Fryazin is building a stone Nizhny Novgorod Kremlin; the construction of fortresses was carried out at the beginning of the century in Pskov and Tula. Around 1516 ᴦ. The construction of the brick Moscow Kremlin is being completed, replacing the white stone Kremlin of the era of Dmitry Donskoy. In 1535-1538. In Moscow, a second line of fortifications was erected - Kitaigorod, and by the end of the century - a third line - White City. Many monasteries became powerful fortresses. The result of the development of this direction of architecture in the 16th century. became the grandiose Smolensk Kremlin (1595-1602, architect Fyodor Kon).
In the 17th century Decorativeness intensifies in Russian architecture. Despite the resistance of the church, secularism penetrates into religious construction. Vivid examples of the tent style are the Moscow churches of the Nativity of the Virgin in Puginki (1649-1652) and the Trinity in Nikitniki (1635-1653). Architects are increasingly using brick, but wood remains the main building material. The pinnacle of wooden architecture was the royal palace in Kolomenskoye (1667-1668), decorated with carvings and multi-color paintings. Buildings of government agencies, trade and industrial enterprises were mainly built from brick. The use of polychrome tiles of figured bricks and white stone details began, which gave the buildings a festive look.
In the last quarter of the 17th century. A new architectural style emerges - Moscow (ʼʼNaryshkinskoeʼʼ) baroque, characteristic of small churches in the estates of Russian nobles. Its features were the secular, elegant appearance of the temples, the elegance of the decor and strict symmetry. In this style at the turn of the 18th century. The Churches of the Intercession in Fili, the Trinity in Troitsky-Lykovo and the Savior Not Made by Hands in Ubory were erected. An example of a civil structure built in this style was the famous Sukharev Tower in Moscow (1692-1701) by architect M.I. Choglokov.
Russian painting of the XVI-XVII centuries. characterized by a significant expansion of topics. Thus, in the painting of the Golden Chamber of the Kremlin (1547-1552), along with church subjects, events of Russian history are reflected. Genre scenes come to the fore of hagiographic icons. In the middle of the century, the icon “Church Militant” was created dedicated to the capture of Kazan, which depicts Ivan the Terrible, Alexander Nevsky, Dmitry Donskoy. In the 17th century The Kremlin Armory became the main artistic center where new realistic trends took shape. Her workshops carried out work for the royal court. At the head of the art school was the master of the Armory Chamber, Simon Ushakov, who for 30 years actually led icon painters throughout the country. The works of this artist are characterized by a departure from canonical images, an interest in depicting the human face (the icons “The Great Bishop” and “The Savior Not Made by Hands”, a picturesque portrait of Moscow rulers from Ivan Kalita to Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich and two princes “Planting the Tree of the Russian State”). Portraiture became the first secular genre of fine art. In the first half of the 17th century. portraits (ʼʼparsunsʼʼ) were painted in an iconographic manner, and they began to be painted with oil paint on canvas later. The latter include portraits of Prince B.I. Repnin, steward G.P. Godunov and other statesmen.
In the 17th century a clear tendency towards the secularization of Russian culture was manifested in the spread of secular musical and theatrical productions among the court environment. So, in 1672 ᴦ. At the Moscow court, an acting troupe was established under the direction of I. G. Gregory, who was discharged from Europe, plays were staged on ancient themes, for example, “Temir-Aksakov’s action” and “Artaxerxes’ action,” and in the house of Prince V. V. Golitsyn, Moliere’s comedies were played.
The most complex processes that took place in the culture of the Moscow state in the 17th century testified to the expansion of the creative range of Russian culture and the crisis of the church worldview, the overcoming of national isolation, and the introduction of a personal element into the spiritual life of society, which medieval culture had not previously known.
Ticket number 15. Russian culture XV-XVII centuries. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Ticket No. 15. Russian culture of the 15th-17th centuries." 2017, 2018.
Russian culture XIV – XVIIcenturies
The cultural development of Ancient Rus', which had accumulated extensive experience in the construction and improvement of cities, creating wonderful architectural monuments, frescoes, mosaics, and icon painting, was interrupted by the Mongol-Tatar invasion, which led the state to economic and cultural decline. The revival of Russian culture became possible only at the end XIII - beginning XIV centuries Moscow became the center of the struggle against the Mongol-Tatar yoke, which gradually turned into the political and cultural center of the Russian lands.
Shaping towards the end XV century, the centralized Russian state put forward the task of widely expanding the construction of fortifications in cities and monasteries, and in its capital, Moscow, to build temples and palaces that correspond to its significance (previously, the Mongols prohibited stone construction, fearing the construction of defensive structures). For this purpose, architects from other Russian cities, as well as Italian architects and engineers were invited to the capital (one of the outstanding Italian architects who worked in Rus' was Aristotle Fioravanti, who built the Assumption Cathedral and the Faceted Chamber of the Kremlin). The Moscow Kremlin, which housed the residences of the Grand Duke, Metropolitan, cathedrals, boyar courts, monasteries, was in the second half XV V. expanded to its current size. Red Square arose to the east of the Kremlin, and it itself was surrounded by a wall of white stone (later the white brick was replaced with red).
The new tasks of state building were directly reflected in the literature. Old Russian writing fully recorded the change in the people's consciousness, embodied in the desire for national unification. Numerous editions of stories about the Battle of Kulikovo (“The Tale of the Massacre of Mamayev”, “The Tale of Zadonshchina”, etc.) present it as a national feat. In many subsequent literary sources, Prince Dmitry Donskoy appears as a national hero, and his heirs, the Moscow princes, as national sovereigns. Ideology did not stand aside either. Its task was to search for new ideological forms of state building.
The definition of the vector of spiritual development became more concrete with the fall of the Byzantine Empire under the onslaught of the Turks. Rus', the most powerful country in the Orthodox world, began to strive for a dominant position among other Orthodox states, turning into an outpost of the true (Orthodox) Church. While the Turks destroyed all the Orthodox monarchies of the East and captured all the patriarchates, Moscow took upon itself the responsibility of preserving and supporting Orthodoxy both at home and throughout the East. The Moscow prince now became the head of the entire Orthodox world (especially after the marriage of Ivan III on the heiress of the last Byzantine emperor Sophia Paleologus). The Pskov monk (“elder”) Philotheus developed a theoretical justification for such aspirations, expressed in the formula “Moscow is the third Rome”: “as two Romes have fallen, and the third (Moscow) stands, but there will not be a fourth.” This attitude led the Moscow authorities to the decision to make the Moscow principality a “kingdom” through the official adoption by the Grand Duke of the title of “Caesar” - in our interpretation of “tsar”, to accept the coat of arms of the Roman and Byzantine empires (double-headed eagle).
Already in the first decades after the Mongol-Tatar invasion, painting was revived. The centers of its new development are Novgorod, Rostov, and Tver. The Novgorod and Pskov schools paid special attention to fresco painting. One of the brightest representatives of this trend was Theophanes the Greek. His images, embodying ascetic religious ideals, are distinguished by psychological tension, his writing technique is characterized by dynamics and originality of techniques, and his coloring is characterized by extreme restraint.
By the end of the XIV - beginning of the XV centuries The artistic role of Moscow is strengthening. Feofan the Greek, Andrei Rublev, and Daniil Cherny worked here. The school created by Feofan in Moscow stimulated the development of local craftsmen, who, however, developed a style different from Feofan’s. In 1408, Andrei Rublev and Daniil Cherny completed a new painting of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir. These frescoes in traditional iconographic images reveal the deep spiritual world and thoughts of contemporaries. The enlightened, benevolent faces of the apostles leading the people, the soft, harmonious colors of the painting are imbued with a feeling of peace. Rublev had the rare gift of embodying in art the bright sides of a person’s life and mental state. In his works, the internal turmoil of the ascetic detachment of Feofan’s images is replaced by the beauty of mental balance and the power of conscious moral rightness. Rublev's works, being the pinnacle of the Moscow school of painting, express ideas of a broader, national nature. In the wonderful icon “Trinity”, painted for the Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, Rublev created images that far outgrew the narrow framework of the theological plot he developed, embodying the ideas of love and spiritual unity. In the last third XV V. Dionysius begins his artistic activity. In the icons and frescoes of Dionysius and his school, there is a certain uniformity of techniques, the attention of the masters to artistic form, and features of festivity and decorativeness. The works of Dionysius are solemn and graceful, but psychologically inferior to Rublev.
The revival of decorative and applied arts proceeded more slowly. This was explained by the fact that many craftsmen were captured and a number of craft skills were lost. But gradually Russian jewelry art is also reviving. Embossing, enamel, painting on ground enamel, casting and other techniques were mainly focused on plant and animal ornaments performed in a patterned oriental style. Excessive enthusiasm for the pomp of ornament, to XVII V. led to the loss of artistic measure, especially when decorating objects with precious stones and pearls, from which patterns were composed that were previously made of gold. Even in iron products there is a fascination with patterned forms (for example, Andrei Chokhov’s Tsar Cannon). In the monuments of bone and wood carving that have come down to us, plant and animal motifs also predominated. In addition, carvings were often colorfully painted. Sewing also had much in common with painting. IN XVII V. In Rus', golden lace with geometric mesh motifs or with floral elements is spreading. Sometimes pearls, silver plaques, and colored drilled stones were introduced into the patterns.
The Polish-Swedish intervention began XVII V. delayed the development of art, but by the middle of the century artistic creativity had noticeably revived. During this period, a new genre appeared in Russian art - portraiture. The first portraits were painted in the icon-painting traditions, but gradually Western European painting techniques appeared in them - an accurate depiction of facial features and three-dimensionality of the figure. The expansion of cultural areas associated with the technical achievements of that time was also reflected in such an area as book publishing.
Traditionally, in Rus' books were written by hand. At the same time, the text was decorated with ornaments and covered in a rich (often with gold and precious stones) cover. But beauty did not always compensate for the shortcomings of handwritten books, primarily the length of time it took to write and errors that appeared during repeated rewriting of texts. The Church Council of 1551 was even forced to develop a resolution to prevent the rewriting of books with distorted text. The need to correct and unify church texts not least influenced the opening of the first printing workshop in Moscow. Its founders were Clerk Ivan Fedorov and Peter Mstislavets. During the 12 years of the printing house’s existence (from 1553 to 1565), it printed 8 large books of not only a religious, but also a secular nature (for example, the Book of Hours, which became the first alphabet).
However, book printing did not receive proper development at that time, like many other areas of art and science characteristic of European culture. The reason for this lies in the desire for a peculiar isolation of Russian culture, especially manifested in XVI century. An explanation for these conservative tendencies should be sought primarily in the history of the formation of the Moscow state, which was continuously subjected to external aggression from both the West and the East. Cultural identity during critical periods of Russian history became perhaps the only saving and unifying factor. Over time, the cultivation of one’s own traditional culture took on hypertrophied forms and rather hampered its development, closing the possibility of the achievements of art and science from other countries penetrating into Russia. The obvious lag (primarily in the scientific and technical sphere) was overcome only by Peter I , and in a decisive and ambiguous way.
Russian culture of the 16th century mainly developed on the domestic traditions of the previous period. Russian medieval culture had a number of features of its formation; it was not just a regional variant of European culture. The roots of the specifics of Russian culture in the 16th century. in that it was based on Orthodoxy.
Russian literature of the 16th century. Literature developed mainly within the framework of traditional Russian genres.
Chronicle genre
In the first half of the 16th century. Several well-known chronicles were created that narrated Russian history from ancient times. In particular, the Nikon and Resurrection Chronicles, the Book of Degrees, and the Front Vault.
Journalism
XVI century - the time of the birth of Russian journalism. It is believed that in the works of Fyodor Karpov and Ivan Peresvetov the first, albeit timid, signs of rationalism are already noticeable, but already freed from the strict canons of a religious worldview. Publicists of the 16th century also include Maxim the Greek, Ermolai Erazm, and Prince Andrei Kurbsky.
He is considered one of the most original, undoubtedly gifted writers of his era. In letters to Andrei Kurbsky, Ivan the Terrible argued for the need for Russia to have a despotic monarchy - an order in which all state subjects, without exception, are actually slaves of the sovereign. Kurbsky defended the idea of centralizing the state in the spirit of the decisions of the Elected Rada and believed that the tsar was obliged to take into account the rights of his subjects. In the middle of the 16th century. under the leadership of Metropolitan Macarius, a collection of books of different genres was created, which were intended for reading (not worship) during the designated months and days of veneration of the saints. At the same time, with the participation of Sylvester, Typography was created
In the 16th century Book printing began in Russian lands. The first Russian book, “The Apostle,” was published in 1517 in Prague by Francis Skaryna. In Russia, the beginning of book printing dates back to the middle of the 16th century. In 1564, clerk Ivan Fedorov, together with Pyotr Mstislavets, published the first printed book. In 1574, in Lvov, Ivan Fedorov published the first Russian primer. At the same time, until the 18th century. Handwritten books dominated in Russia.
Architecture
In the architecture of the 16th century. National motives became very noticeable. This was due to the spread of the tent style in the 16th century, which came to stone construction from wooden architecture. The most famous works of architecture of that time were the Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye (1532), as well as St. Basil's Cathedral, built on Red Square in Moscow by Russian architects Barma and Postnik in honor of the capture of Kazan (1561).
In the 16th century Military fortifications are being intensively built. The walls of Kitay-Gorod were added to the Moscow Kremlin. Kremlins are being built in Nizhny Novgorod, Tula, Kolomna and other cities. The author of the powerful Kremlin in Smolensk was the outstanding architect Fyodor Kon. He was also the architect of the stone fortifications of the White City in Moscow (along the current Boulevard Ring). To protect the southern borders from Crimean raids in the middle of the 16th century. They built the Zasechnaya line, which passed through Tula and Ryazan. In the 17th century In Russian culture, not only religious but also secular elements are widespread (secularization of culture). The Church, which saw Western influence in this process, actively resisted it with the support of the tsarist government, but new ideas and customs penetrated the established life of Moscow Rus'. The country needed knowledgeable, educated people capable of engaging in diplomacy and understanding the innovations of military affairs, technology, and manufacturing. The expansion of political and cultural ties with the countries of Western Europe was facilitated by the reunification of Ukraine with Russia.
In the second half of the 17th century. Several public schools were established. Thanks to the invention of the printing press, it became possible to publish uniform manuals for teaching literacy and arithmetic in mass quantities, among which was the first “Grammar” by Meletius Smotritsky.
In 1687, the first higher educational institution was founded in Moscow -
Russian explorers made a great contribution to the development of geographical knowledge, for example, Semyon Dezhnev, who reached the strait between Asia and North America, or Erofey Khabarov, who compiled a map of the Amur lands. The central place in historical literature was occupied by historical stories that had a journalistic character, such as “The Temporary Book of Clerk Ivan Timofeev”, “The Legend of Abraham Palitsyn”, “Another Legend”. The genre of satirical stories, memoirs (“The Life of Archpriest Avvakum”) and love lyrics (books by Simeon of Polotsk) appeared.
In 1672, a court theater was created in Moscow, in which German actors performed. The “worldliness” of art manifested itself with particular force in Russian painting. The most important artist of the 17th century was Simon Ushakov. In his icon “The Savior Not Made by Hands,” new realistic features of painting are already noticeable: three-dimensionality in the depiction of the face, elements of direct perspective. Portraiture - "parsuns" - was spreading, in which real characters were depicted, albeit using a technique similar to icon painting.
In the 14th–15th centuries, a centralized state with its capital in Moscow emerged in the northeast of Rus'. If in the West at this time society is freed from the influence of the church, then in Moscow, on the contrary, this influence increases, having a great impact on the life of the state and the everyday life of people. Religious asceticism in the name of Christ and society became the social ideal. Saint Sergius of Radonezh and Prince Dmitry Donskoy became the spiritual symbols of Moscow. Therefore, the medieval culture of Rus' is of a religious nature.
Since 1547, with the crowning of Ivan IV, Rus' began to be called Russia. In 1480, Moscow's dependence on the Golden Horde was eliminated. But the influence of eastern culture on Russian lands did not weaken. Ivan IV did not accept the European type of secular state. His ideal is an unlimited monarchy, where power is sanctioned by the church. The oprichnina served this purpose. It was the most unique cultural and psychological event in the history of Moscow Rus'. Oprichnina is a unique political system in world practice, atypical for Russia. The new power was based on the rule of force, and not on blood, moral or spiritual superiority.
A big event in the culture of the 16th century was the emergence of Russian printing. Its beginning is considered to be 1564, when the first dated book “The Apostle” was published. It was published by Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets. Over the entire century, 20 books were printed, so the handwritten book will still occupy a leading place in a hundred years.
There was a process of accumulation of theoretical and practical knowledge. Fortresses, temples, and churches were built, which required strict mathematical calculations. The first manuals on mathematics and geometry were written. Technology developed. The Russians were the first to invent pile drivers for drilling wells for salt extraction. Outstanding hydraulic structures were created in the Solovetsky Monastery. A system of canals connected dozens of lakes. Mills and hammers were driven by water, a stone dam with numerous bridges connected the islands.
Icon painting is receiving special development. Its heyday dates back to the 14th–15th centuries and begins in Novgorod. Theophan the Greek, invited from Byzantium, worked here. He painted the Church of the Savior on Ilyin. The Greek is a brilliant colorist, fluent in writing techniques and the mastery of tonal painting. His images were distinguished by special expressiveness, dynamics, sincerity, and impulse. Together with Andrei Rublev, he painted the iconostasis of the Annunciation Cathedral in Moscow. The highest rise of Russian icon painting is associated with the work of the brilliant Russian artist Andrei Rublev. He worked at the turn of the XIV-XV centuries. The famous “Trinity”, which became one of the pinnacles of world art, embodied the main features and principles of Rublev’s painting style. The art of medieval Rus' was of a religious nature, like all culture.
The history of medieval Russian culture ended in the 17th century. Elements of modern culture were emerging. It was characterized by the process of formation of secular culture. In literature, this was manifested in the formation of a democratic, secular trend; in architecture - in bringing together the appearance of religious and civil buildings; in science - in the growing interest in generalizing practical experience; in painting - in the destruction of iconographic canons and the emergence of realistic trends. The increasing complexity of city life, the growth of the state apparatus, and the development of international relations placed new demands on education. The literacy level in the 17th century increased significantly and in various strata it was: among landowners - 65%, merchants - 96%, peasants - 15%. In the middle of the 17th century, public and private schools were created where foreign languages and other subjects were studied. In 1687, the first higher educational institution in Russia, the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy, was opened in Moscow for the training of higher clergy and civil service officials. It was led by the Greek brothers Likhud, who graduated from the University of Padua in Italy. Representatives of various classes and nationalities studied here. Handwritten textbooks and self-instruction manuals appeared, and books on mathematics were printed.
In the practice of the 17th century, knowledge in the field of mechanics was widely used (in construction, in the first manufactories). Noticeable changes have occurred in medicine. Folk healing continues to develop, and the foundations of state medicine are laid. The first pharmacies and hospitals were opened. There have also been changes in the humanities. The layer of consumers and authors of historical works has grown. In the 17th century, old forms of historical writings (chronicles, chronographs) gradually lost their significance and disappeared. New types of works are appearing, in which more developed psychological characteristics of the rulers of Russia are given, and broader pictures of the historical past are created. This is the “Synopsis” of I. Gisel - the first textbook of Russian history.
4. Age of Enlightenment in Russia. The meaning and essence of Peter I’s reforms in the field of culture.
The 18th century opens a new stage in the development of Russian culture. This period is characterized by the formation of national schools in art (painting, music, architecture), which indicates the active formation of national culture. A distinctive feature of the new culture was secularism, especially in the artistic sphere, and openness to contacts with other peoples. In the 18th century, the ideological and artistic life of society became more complicated, and for the first time the government pursued a targeted policy in the field of education and enlightenment. The city becomes the center of the new culture, where sociocultural institutions such as schools, museums, theaters, and libraries emerge.
The beginning of the 18th century was marked by the reforms of Peter I, which were designed to bridge the gap in the level of development of Russia and Europe. The reforms affected almost all spheres of society. Their content was a decisive shift from the Middle Ages to modern times and the Europeanization of all areas of life:
1. Old government institutions were being broken down and replaced with new ones, a modern administrative-bureaucratic apparatus was taking shape: Peter created collegiums, prototypes of modern ministries, and instead of the Boyar Duma, he created the highest advisory body under the sovereign - the Senate, which includes 9 people. When appointing to the Senate, only business qualities were taken into account. A new class of society was also emerging, which determined the cultural image of Russia for 200 years: the nobility received privileges for public service and responsibilities to the Fatherland - activities for the benefit of the Motherland in the military, diplomatic or bureaucratic spheres.
2. An important place in the transformations of Peter I was occupied by church reform, as a result of which the previously relatively independent church came under the power of the state. By the end of the 17th century, the church acquired material wealth and even power (it owned vast lands with assigned peasants), but ceased to be the bearer of Orthodox principles in the state: rudeness, money-grubbing, and ignorance reigned among the priests; monasteries lost their educational significance. In addition, the church was against changes in the camp. Therefore, Peter I carries out secularization (reducing the power of the church over society). The church gradually submits to the state, and the clergy turns into an estate with state responsibilities and tasks. Thus, during sermons, priests had to defend the reforms carried out by the government, help in finding unreliable persons, violate the secret of confession (under penalty of death!) if a believer was plotting high treason, an attempt on the life of the Tsar, etc. The abolition of patriarchal control of the church and the creation of the Holy Synod (a body consisting of the most respected and eminent representatives of the clergy) finally confirmed the subordinate position of the church in Russia. The Synod was directly subordinate to the sovereign, who concentrated both secular and spiritual power in his hands.
3. Replacement of folk rituals and traditions with secular ones, including in the field of fashion, forms of communication, and household rules. These changes affected primarily the upper stratum of society. So, after several centuries of seclusion, Russian women became hostesses of balls and evenings, became acquainted with European art, and put on foreign dresses.
4. The most significant reforms were in the field of education. A system of secular schools is being created. Pushkar, navigation, and medical schools were founded in Moscow. A maritime and engineering academies and a school of translators were established in St. Petersburg. In addition to the state and vocational schools, private, comprehensive schools are emerging, and the practice of training young people abroad is spreading. The disadvantage of the emerging education system was that peasants were not accepted into these schools. Studying was equated to service, students received food money (scholarship). The more the young man progressed in his studies, the more he received. Escaping from school was punishable by death. The Petrovsky school was created as a professional, technical school, with the goal of training personnel in those areas that were needed by the state at this stage. Peter himself knew 14 professions: bombardier (artilleryman), carpenter, sailor, blacksmith, dentist, etc. By the end of Peter's reign, almost every major city had two schools: theological (for the children of the clergy) and the secular (for clerks and soldiers). Home schooling predominates in noble families. Education in Russia is acquiring a class character; higher education is gradually becoming the privilege of the nobility.
5. A consequence of the development of education is a growing interest in scientific knowledge, especially technical knowledge. The penetration of Western educational and rationalistic concepts into Russia created the basis for the development of a qualitatively new natural science. Science is gradually becoming part of secular culture. A number of inventions and technical innovations appear. Thus, mechanic and inventor A.N. Nartov creates a number of instruments and machines, including the world's first screw-cutting lathe. V.P. Tatishchev makes improvements in mining, Ya.V. Bruce - in the military. A logical result of the development of science and technology is the opening of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg, which meant the formalization of science as a social institution, the creation of a base for theoretical, fundamental science in Russia.
6. Reform of the army and navy. The introduction of conscription, which required military service for 25 years, had a difficult impact on the lives of peasants, but made it possible to create an experienced, combat-ready army in which a simple soldier could become an officer and continue his career. During the 25 years of Peter's reign, 48 battleships and 800 galleys were built, which made Russia a maritime power.
7. The results of Peter I's reforms were contradictory and ambiguous. As a result of all the transformations in the political system of the Russian state, the formation of an absolute monarchy was completed: centralized power was strengthened, a regular army was created, the church was included in the state apparatus, and a bureaucracy was created. The absolutist state needed secular culture. The periodical press was a powerful means of educating the people. The first printed newspaper in Russia was Vedomosti, published in 1703. The growth of printing contributed to the development of the book trade. In 1714, the first library was opened, which became the basis of the library of the Academy of Sciences. It was available for free visiting. In 1719, the first Russian museum, the Kunstkamera, opened. The logical result of reforms in the field of education and science was the opening of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg in 1725. Instead of the old chronology - “from the Creation of the world” - from January 1, 1700, the chronology “from the Nativity of Christ” was introduced. A custom arose to celebrate the New Year: to arrange fireworks and decorate Christmas trees. Assemblies (balls, receptions) became a new form of communication.
8. An important feature of the culture of modern times has been its openness and ability to contact the cultures of other peoples, which was the result of a policy aimed at undermining national and religious isolation. Relations with Western countries are expanding. Contacts with Europe contributed to the penetration of humanistic and rationalist teachings into Russia. The ideology of absolutism began to be reinforced by the ideas of rationalism and the European Enlightenment. The modern era is characterized by such processes as accelerating the pace of development and increasing complexity of social development as a whole. The process of differentiation begins, the emergence of new branches of culture: science, theater, portraiture, poetry, journalism. A distinctive feature of this period is the emergence of authorship, although much of the culture still continued to remain anonymous.
9. The most decisive turn towards the Europeanization of Russian culture occurred during the reign of Catherine II. Her reign marked the beginning of the era of enlightened absolutism, which lasted until 1815. The era was characterized by an attempt to carry out liberal reforms while maintaining unlimited autocracy. The ideology of “enlightened absolutism” was formed as a system of socio-political views based on the belief in a “sage on the throne” who rules the country according to reasonable, fair laws and strives for the good of his subjects. Catherine decided to pay special attention to the education of “new people”, morally perfect, who would raise their children in the same spirit, which would lead to changes in society. It was assumed that the new person would be raised in an exclusively Western spirit. Much attention was paid to humanitarian education. Orphanages appeared in Moscow and St. Petersburg, closed institutes, and cadet corps. Main public schools are opening in 25 provincial cities. For a long time, all schools and gymnasiums used the book “On the Positions of Man and Citizen,” published by order of Catherine II, as a textbook, which was a code of moral and social rules of human behavior.
Particularly striking evidence of the turnaround in the value system of the 18th century is the architecture of St. Petersburg and portraiture. In their works, the masters sought to convey a commitment to the orderly, admiration for the power of the mind. Architects reflect this in the appearance of the city, artists - in the image of a person. The new capital was founded in May 1703. In the field of urban planning, there was a transition from the medieval radial-ring construction scheme (as in Moscow) to a regular layout, which was characterized by geometric correctness and symmetry in the development of streets. Foreign architects were invited to successfully solve problems in the field of urban planning. By the beginning of the 19th century, the city acquired a “strict, slender appearance.” This is a great merit of foreign architects - J.-B. Leblon, D. Trezzini, D. Quarenghi and representatives of the Russian architectural school V. Bazhenov, I. Starov, M. Kazakov, V. Rastrelli.
In the 18th century, the prerequisites were created for the formation of the Russian national language, there is a rapprochement between the literary language and the spoken language, and the process of formation of new dialects stops. The Russian colloquial language is being formed. The Moscow dialect serves as a model. In the 90s, N. Karamzin carried out a reform of the literary language. This made it possible to attract a wide range of people to reading. In the middle of the 18th century, classicism became the dominant trend in all artistic culture. The first national tragedies and comedies appear (A. Sumarokov, D. Fonvizin). The most striking poetic works were created by G. Derzhavin. At the turn of the 18th-19th centuries, a new direction in literature was formed - sentimentalism, associated with the work of N. Karamzin and A. Radishchev. Cultural ties with other countries are expanding. A more active lifestyle and the popularity of travel led to the development of such literary genres as writing, travel writing, memoirs, and diary entries.
The country's social and scientific thought intensified. In the 60-70s. In the 18th century, satirical journalism became widespread. Works “serving to correct morals” were published on the pages of magazines, i.e. aimed at educating worthy members of society. During the same period of time, natural science was rapidly developing in Russia, academic expeditions led by prominent scientists were carried out. The materials on zoology, botany, ethnography, and archeology collected during these expeditions contributed to the scientific understanding of the nature and culture of our country. Published in 1745 “Atlas of the Russian Empire”"was of global importance: by the middle of the 18th century, only France had such an atlas. By the end of the century, geographical knowledge was spreading.
A peculiar phenomenon of the cultural life of Russia in the second half of the 18th century was the serf theater. Some of the serf theaters (for example, Count N.P. Sheremetyev in Ostankino, Prince N.B. Yusupov in Arkhangelsk, Count Kamensky in Orel) were widely known among theater lovers. Many talented actors and musicians performed on their stage; P.I. was famous for her performance in the theater. Kovalev-Zhemchugova, the famous actor Shchepkin was a serf for many years.
