All enemy wars of ancient Rome. Wars of Rome in the 5th century

The significance of the great Roman Empire, which once stretched over vast territories from foggy England to hot Syria, in the context of global history is unusually great. One can even say that it was the Roman Empire that was the forerunner of pan-European civilization, largely shaping its appearance, culture, science, law (medieval jurisprudence was based on Roman law), art, and education. And in our today's journey through time, we will go to ancient Rome, the eternal city, which became the center of the most grandiose empire in the history of mankind.

Where was the Roman Empire located?

At the time of its greatest power, the borders of the Roman Empire extended from the territories of modern England and Spain in the West to the territories of modern Iran and Syria in the East. In the south, all of North Africa was under the heel of Rome.

Map of the Roman Empire at its height.

Of course, the borders of the Roman Empire were not constant, and after the Sun of Roman civilization began to set, and the empire itself began to decline, its borders also decreased.

The Birth of the Roman Empire

But where did it all begin, how did the Roman Empire arise? The first settlements on the site of the future Rome appeared in the 1st millennium BC. e.. According to legend, the Romans trace their ancestry to Trojan refugees who, after the destruction of Troy and long wanderings, settled in the valley of the Tiber River, all this is beautifully described by the talented Roman poet Virgil in the epic poem “Aeneid”. And a little later, two brothers Romulus and Remus, descendants of Aeneas, founded the legendary city of Rome. However, the historical authenticity of the events of the Aeneid is a big question; in other words, most likely it is just a beautiful legend, which, however, also has a practical meaning - to give the Romans a heroic origin. Moreover, considering that Virgil himself, in fact, was the court poet of the Roman emperor Octavian Augustus, and with his “Aeneid” he fulfilled a kind of political order of the emperor.

As for the real history, Rome was, most likely, really founded by a certain Romulus and his brother Remus, but it is unlikely that they were the sons of a vestal (priestess) and the god of war Mars (as the legend says), rather the sons of some local leader. And at the time of the founding of the city, a dispute broke out between the brothers during which Romulus killed Remus. And again, where is the legend and myth, and where is the real history, it is difficult to make out, but be that as it may, ancient Rome was founded in 753 BC. e.

In its political structure, the earlier Roman state was in many ways similar to city-policies. At first, ancient Rome was led by kings, but during the reign of King Tarquin the Proud, a general uprising occurred, royal power was overthrown, and Rome itself turned into an aristocratic republic.

Early History of the Roman Empire - Roman Republic

Surely many science fiction fans will notice the similarity between the Roman Republic, which later transformed into the Roman Empire, with so many beloved Star Wars, where the galactic republic also turned into the galactic empire. Essentially, the creators of Star Wars borrowed their fictional galactic republic/empire from the real history of the real Roman Empire itself.

The structure of the Roman Republic, as we noted earlier, was similar to the Greek city-polises, but there were a number of differences: the entire population of ancient Rome was divided into two large groups:

• patricians, Roman aristocrats who occupied a dominant position,
• plebeians, consisting of ordinary citizens.

The main legislative body of the Roman Republic, the Senate, consisted exclusively of rich and noble patricians. The plebeians did not always like this state of affairs, and several times the young Roman Republic was shaken by plebeian uprisings, with demands for expanded rights for the plebeians.

From the very beginning of its history, the young Roman Republic was forced to fight for its place in the Sun with neighboring Italian tribes. The vanquished were forced to submit to the will of Rome, either as allies or as fully part of the ancient Roman state. Often the conquered population did not receive the rights of Roman citizens, and sometimes even turned into slaves.

The most dangerous opponents of ancient Rome were the Etruscans and Samnites, as well as some Greek colonies in southern Italy. Despite initially some hostile relations with the ancient Greeks, the Romans subsequently almost completely borrowed their culture and religion. The Romans even took the Greek gods for themselves, although they changed them in their own way, making Zeus Jupiter, Ares Mars, Hermes Mercury, Aphrodite Venus, and so on.

Wars of the Roman Empire

Although it would be more correct to call this sub-item “the war of the Roman Republic,” which, although it fought from the very beginning of its history, in addition to minor skirmishes with neighboring tribes, there were also really big wars that shook the then ancient world. Rome's first really big war was the clash with the Greek colonies. The Greek king Pyrrhus intervened in that war, and although he managed to defeat the Romans, his own army nevertheless suffered huge and irreparable losses. Since then, the expression “Pyrrhic victory” has become a common noun, meaning victory at too high a cost, a victory almost equal to defeat.

Then, continuing the wars with the Greek colonies, the Romans encountered another major power in Sicily - Carthage, a former colony. Over the course of many years, Carthage became Rome's main rival, and their rivalry resulted in three Punic Wars, in which Rome was victorious.

The First Punic War was fought over the island of Sicily; after the Roman victory in the naval battle of the Aegatian Islands, during which the Romans completely defeated the Carthaginian fleet, all of Sicily became part of the Roman state.

In an effort to take revenge from the Romans for their defeat in the First Punic War, the talented Carthaginian commander Hannibal Barca, during the Second Punic War, first landed on the Spanish coast, then, together with the allied Iberian and Gallic tribes, made the legendary crossing of the Alps, invading the territory of the Roman state itself. There he inflicted a series of crushing defeats on the Romans, most notably the Battle of Cannae. The fate of Rome hung in the balance, but Hannibal still failed to finish what he started. Hannibal was unable to take the heavily fortified city and was forced to leave the Apennine Peninsula. Since then, military luck changed the Carthaginians; Roman troops under the command of the equally talented commander Scipio Africanus inflicted a crushing defeat on Hannibal's army. The Second Punic War was again won by Rome, which after its victory turned into a real superstate of the ancient world.

And the third Punic War already represented the final crushing of Carthage, defeated and having lost all its possessions, by the all-powerful Rome.

Crisis and fall of the Roman Republic

Having conquered vast territories and defeated serious opponents, the Roman Republic gradually accumulated more and more power and wealth in its hands until it itself entered a period of unrest and crisis caused by several reasons. As a result of the victorious wars of Rome, more and more slaves poured into the country, free plebeians and peasants could not compete with the incoming mass of slaves, and their general discontent grew. The tribunes of the people, the brothers Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus, tried to solve the problem by carrying out a land use reform, which, on the one hand, would limit the possessions of rich Romans, and allow their surplus lands to be distributed among the poor plebeians. However, their initiative encountered resistance from conservative circles in the Senate, as a result Tiberius Gracchus was killed by political opponents, and his brother Gaius committed suicide.

All this led to the outbreak of a civil war in Rome, the patricians and plebeians clashed with each other. Order was restored by Lucius Cornelius Sulla, another outstanding Roman commander, who had previously defeated the troops of the Pontic king Mithridias Eupator. To restore order, Sulla established a real dictatorship in Rome, mercilessly dealing with objectionable and dissenting citizens with the help of his proscription lists. (Proscription - in ancient Rome meant being outside the law; a citizen included in Sulla’s proscription list was subject to immediate destruction, and his property was confiscated; for harboring an “outlaw citizen” - also execution and confiscation of property).

In fact, this was the end, the agony of the Roman Republic. Finally, it was destroyed and turned into an empire by the young and ambitious Roman commander Gaius Julius Caesar. In his youth, Caesar almost died during Sulla's reign of terror; only the intercession of influential relatives convinced Sulla not to include Caesar in the proscription lists. After a series of victorious wars in Gaul (modern France) and the conquest of the Gallic tribes, the authority of Caesar, the conqueror of the Gauls, grew, figuratively speaking, “to the skies.” And now he is already entering into battle with his political opponent and once ally Pompey, the troops loyal to him cross the Rubicon (a small river in Italy) and march on Rome. “The die is cast,” Caesar’s legendary phrase, meaning his intention to seize power in Rome. Thus the Roman Republic fell and the Roman Empire began.

Beginning of the Roman Empire

The beginning of the Roman Empire goes through a series of civil wars, first Caesar defeats his opponent Pompey, then he himself dies under the knives of the conspirators, among whom is his friend Brutus. (“And you Brutus?!” - Caesar’s last words).

Assassination of the first Roman emperor Julius Caesar.

The assassination of Caesar marked the beginning of a new civil war between supporters of the restoration of the republic on the one hand and Caesar's supporters Octavian Augustus and Mark Antony on the other. Having won the victory over the Republican conspirators, Octavian and Antony are already entering into a new struggle for power among themselves and civil war begins again.

Although Antony is supported by the Egyptian princess, the beautiful Cleopatra (by the way, Caesar's former mistress), he suffers a crushing defeat, and Octavian Augustus becomes the new emperor of the Roman Empire. From this moment on, the high imperial period in the history of the Roman Empire begins, emperors replace each other, imperial dynasties change, and the Roman Empire itself wages constant wars of conquest and reaches the pinnacle of its power.

Fall of the Roman Empire

Unfortunately, we cannot describe the activities of all Roman emperors and all the vicissitudes of their reign, otherwise our article would greatly risk becoming vast. Let us only note that after the death of the outstanding Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius, the philosopher-emperor, the empire itself began to decline. A whole series of so-called “soldier emperors”, former generals who, relying on their authority among the troops, usurped power, reigned on the Roman throne.

In the empire itself, there was a decline in morals, a kind of barbarization of Roman society was actively taking place - more and more barbarians penetrated the Roman army and occupied important government posts in the Roman state. There was also a demographic and economic crisis, all of which slowly led to the death of the once great Roman power.

Under Emperor Diocletian, the Roman Empire was divided into Western and Eastern. As we know, the Eastern Roman Empire over time transformed into. The Western Roman Empire was never able to survive the rapid invasion of the barbarians, and the fight against the ferocious nomads who came from the eastern steppes completely undermined the power of Rome. Soon Rome was sacked by the barbarian tribes of the Vandals, whose name also became a household name, for the senseless destruction that the Vandals caused to the “eternal city.”

Reasons for the fall of the Roman Empire:

• External enemies are, perhaps, one of the main reasons, if not for the “great migration of peoples” and the powerful barbarian onslaught, the Roman Empire could well have existed for a couple of centuries.
• Lack of a strong leader: the last talented Roman general Aetius, who stopped the advance of the Huns and won the Battle of the Catalunian Fields, was treacherously killed by the Roman Emperor Valentinian III, who feared rivalry from the outstanding general. Emperor Valentinian himself was a man of very dubious moral qualities; of course, with such a “leader” the fate of Rome was sealed.
• Barbarization, in fact, at the time of the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the barbarians had already enslaved it from the inside, since many government posts were occupied by them.
• The economic crisis that in the late Roman Empire was caused by the global crisis of the slave system. The slaves no longer wanted to work meekly from dawn to dusk for the benefit of the owner, here and there slave uprisings broke out, this led to military expenses, and to a rise in prices for agricultural items and a general decline in the economy.
• Demographic crisis, one of the big problems of the Roman Empire was high infant mortality and low birth rates.

Culture of Ancient Rome

The culture of the Roman Empire is an important and essential part of global culture, its integral part. We still use many of its fruits to this day, for example, sewerage and water supply, which came to us from ancient Rome. It was the Romans who first invented concrete and actively developed the art of urban planning. All European stone architecture has its origins in ancient Rome. It was the Romans who were the first to build stone multi-storey buildings (the so-called insula), sometimes reaching up to 5-6 floors (however, the first elevators were invented only 20 centuries later).

Also, the architecture of Christian churches is slightly more than completely borrowed from the architecture of the Roman basilica - places for public gatherings of the ancient Romans.

In the field of European jurisprudence, Roman law dominated for centuries - a code of law that was formed during the Roman Republic. Roman law was the legal system of both the Roman Empire and Byzantium, as well as many other medieval states based on the fragments of the Roman Empire already in the Middle Ages.

Throughout the Middle Ages, the Latin language of the Roman Empire would be the language of scientists, teachers and students.

The city of Rome itself turned into the greatest cultural, economic and political center of the ancient world, it was not for nothing that there was a proverb “all roads lead to Rome.” Goods, people, customs, traditions, ideas from all over the then ecumene (known part of the world) flocked to Rome. Even silk from distant China reached the rich Romans through merchant caravans.

Of course, not all the fun of the ancient Romans will be acceptable in our time. The same gladiator fights, which were held in the arena of the Colosseum to the applause of thousands of Roman crowds, were very popular among the Romans. It is curious that the enlightened emperor Marcus Aurelius even completely banned gladiator fights for a time, but after his death, gladiator fights resumed with the same force.

Gladiator fights.

Chariot racing, which was very dangerous and often accompanied by the death of unsuccessful charioteers, was also very popular among ordinary Romans.

Theater had great development in ancient Rome; moreover, one of the Roman emperors, Nero, had a very strong passion for theatrical art, which he himself often played on stage and recited poetry. Moreover, according to the description of the Roman historian Suetonius, he did this very skillfully, so that special people even watched the audience so that they under no circumstances slept or left the theater during the emperor’s speech.

Rich patricians taught their children literacy and various sciences (rhetoric, grammar, mathematics, oratory) either with special teachers (often the teacher could be some enlightened slave) or in special schools. The Roman mob, the poor plebeians, were, as a rule, illiterate.

Art of Ancient Rome

Many wonderful works of art left by talented Roman artists, sculptors, and architects have reached us.

The Romans achieved the greatest mastery in the art of sculpture, which was greatly facilitated by the so-called Roman “cult of emperors”, according to which the Roman emperors were the viceroys of the gods, and it was simply necessary to make a first-class sculpture for each emperor.

Roman frescoes have also entered the history of art for centuries, many of which are clearly erotic in nature, such as this image of lovers.

Many works of art of the Roman Empire have come down to us in the form of grandiose architectural structures, such as the Colosseum, Emperor Hadrian's Villa, etc.

Villa of the Roman Emperor Hadrian.

Religion of ancient Rome

The state religion of the Roman Empire can be divided into two periods, pagan and Christian. That is, initially the Romans borrowed the pagan religion of ancient Greece, taking for themselves their mythology and gods, who were only named in their own way. Along with this, in the Roman Empire there was a “cult of emperors”, according to which the Roman emperors were to be given “divine honors”.

And since the territory of the Roman Empire was truly gigantic in size, a variety of cults and religions were concentrated in it: from beliefs to Jews professing Judaism. But everything changed with the advent of a new religion - Christianity, which had a very difficult relationship with the Roman Empire.

Christianity in the Roman Empire

At first, the Romans considered Christians to be one of the many Jewish sects, but when the new religion began to gain more and more popularity, and Christians themselves appeared in Rome itself, the Roman emperors were somewhat concerned about this. The Romans (especially the Roman nobility) were especially outraged by the categorical refusal of Christians to render divine honors to the emperor, which, according to Christian teaching, was idolatry.

As a result, the Roman Emperor Nero, already mentioned by us, in addition to his passion for acting, acquired another passion - for persecuting Christians and feeding them to hungry lions in the arena of the Colosseum. The formal reason for the persecution of the carriers of the new faith was a grandiose fire in Rome, which was allegedly started by Christians (in fact, the fire was most likely started on the orders of Nero himself).

Subsequently, periods of persecution of Christians were followed by periods of relative calm; some Roman emperors treated Christians quite favorably. For example, the emperor sympathized with Christians, and some historians even suspect that he was a secret Christian, although during his reign the Roman Empire was not yet ready to become Christian.

The last great persecution of Christians in the Roman state occurred during the reign of Emperor Diocletian, and what is interesting is that for the first time during his reign he treated Christians quite tolerantly, moreover, even some close relatives of the emperor himself accepted Christianity and the priests were already thinking about converting to Christianity and the emperor himself. But suddenly the emperor seemed to have been replaced, and in Christians he saw his worst enemies. Throughout the empire, Christians were ordered to be persecuted, forced to renounce through torture, and, if they refused, killed. What caused such a drastic change and such sudden hatred of the emperor towards Christians, unfortunately, is not known.

The darkest night before the heyday, so it became with Christians, the most severe persecution of Emperor Diocletian was also the last, subsequently Emperor Constantine reigned on the throne, not only abolished all persecution of Christians, but also made Christianity the new state religion of the Roman Empire.

Roman Empire, video

And in conclusion, a small educational film about ancient Rome.

October 9th, 2015

Recently we discussed an interesting article -. I suggest you continue this topic...

The so-called “mythological” period exists in the history of every ancient civilization, and the events of those times often do not have factual confirmation. However, chroniclers and poets dress them in beautiful outfits of heroic pathos, tragic destinies and vivid artistic images. For example, the Trojan War is known to us from Homer's greatest epic, while tales of the war were clearly widespread long before the creation of the poem: Achilles, Hector and Odysseus should have been familiar to the reader by default. However, finding the roots of these legends, and even more so confirming the text of the poem word for word, is a completely impossible and unnecessary task. Whether the Trojan Horse was a wooden horse, or the author allowed himself such a metaphor, today no longer has any meaning, the myth does not necessarily have to be realistic.

The subject of today's conversation will be several stories about the wars of ancient Rome - some exaggerated, some too brief, but therefore even more interesting: every word about those distant times becomes valuable.

Sabine War

The Sabine War is considered the first war involving Ancient Rome, but it seems more like a beautiful legend, one of those that surround that distant era with an aura of mystery and understatement. The key point of the story is the plot of the abduction of the Sabine women and the epic rescue of Rome.

According to the stories of Roman historians, the city was initially inhabited only by men. It is unknown how plausible such a statement may be, but it is worth remembering that Rome was populated by people from Alba Longa, and it is possible that to a certain extent even by bandits and exiles. It is doubtful that Latin families, who had lived quietly on their land for many years, suddenly abandoned their comfortable homes and went to settle in a new city with a ruler unknown to them, especially if no one forced them to do so. Therefore, it is possible that the chroniclers are not exaggerating so much when they say that in the early years Rome was faced with an acute shortage of women for procreation. Without the appearance of numerous and healthy offspring among citizens, the city could not have any future in principle.

The Rape of the Sabine Women (artist Nicolas Poussin, 1636)

Since Rome was a new and poor city in the Italic League, none of the Romans' neighbors were in a hurry to enter into family alliances, giving their daughters to Romulus' warriors and artisans. Then the ruler, in order to save his state, had to resort to cunning bordering on outright meanness. The Romans announced the celebration of consular festivals in honor of the deity Consus, who was responsible for the safety of grain - the celebration was deliberately invented by Romulus - and invited the Sabines and their families to it. During the festival, the Romans suddenly attacked the unarmed guests and kidnapped their daughters and wives.

Outraged by such brazen treachery, the Sabines immediately began a war. In the first clash, the Romans successfully defeated the Latin tribe, but it was much more difficult in the clash with the Sabines (it is believed that they lost the most women): they, under the leadership of King Titus Tatius, were able to break into the city and capture the Capitoline Hill. As a result of stubborn battles, the Sabines put the Romans to flight, and Romulus, fearful of defeat, appealed to the gods for help, promising to build a temple to Jupiter in gratitude for the victory.

Help came unexpectedly. Sabine women, “with loose hair and torn clothes,” rushed among the fighters and begged to stop the battle: they did not want deaths among their new husbands, or among relatives and saviors. The Sabines agreed to make peace with Rome, and the two peoples united into one state. So the Romans also received the Sabine name - quirites, presumably derived from the word quiris - “spear”.

Conquest of Alba Longa

The capture and destruction of the former metropolis became the first successful operation in a series of victories and conquests of Rome. Essentially, the only irrefutable fact of this whole story can only be considered that the city of Alba Longa was really destroyed, and all other information balances between truth and lies; Unfortunately, it is not destined to draw a clear boundary after centuries. The main modern contender for the glory of the ancient city is Albano Laziale (“Albano in Lazio”), a city located 25 kilometers south of Rome. The ruins located there are considered to be the remains of the ancestral home of the founders of Rome.

It is difficult to say whether the hostility between Rome and Alba Longa was initial or grew out of some kind of internal conflict that escalated into a full-fledged war. The events that took place date back to the reign of the third Roman king, Tullus Hostilius, in the mid-7th century. BC After his predecessor Numa Pompilius, under whom not a single military campaign was carried out (constant predatory raids on nearby territories can be attributed, rather, to a version of “good neighborly relations” of that harsh era), the Romans again took up arms. The armies of both states stood opposite each other, ready to rush into battle and once again drench the Italian soil with blood, when the kings decided to remember the ancient tradition: to hold a fight between the strongest fighters from both sides to determine the winners of the battle.

Oath of the Horatii (artist Jacques-Louis David, 1784)

According to legend, the Romans fielded three brothers, whose father was named Horace. The Albanians followed their example, and from them came three brothers from the Curiatii family. The agreement was sealed with sacred rites, and the fight began. The fighters met for the first time: one Roman and one Albanian fell. The fighters met for the second time: another Roman fell, and two Albanians only received wounds. The subjects of Alba Longa rejoiced. But the last Roman soldier resorted to a trick: knowing that two wounded enemies would not be able to pursue him with equal speed, he began to run. When the opponents pursuing him were at a great distance from each other, the Roman stopped and defeated one Albanian after another.

But the legend doesn't end there. While the Romans joyfully greeted the winner, one Roman girl burst into hot tears: this was the sister of the winner, ironically engaged to one of the Alban brothers. Horace was outraged by his sister’s sadness for the killed enemy, and in a fit of anger he stabbed her to death, uttering the words: “Go to your beloved with your untimely love! Thus will every Roman woman who begins to mourn the enemy of her fatherland perish!”

The servants of Roman law had a difficult task: to punish the winner was inhumane, leaving unpunished would arouse the wrath of the gods. The court demanded the execution of Horace, the Roman people demanded pardon. As a result, it was decided to carry out a ritual that later became a tradition for enemies who surrendered: a criminal with his head covered was held under a symbolic gallows, without resorting to execution.

According to the treaty, the Albanians submitted to the authority of Rome, but did not resign themselves to it. When the Romans began a war with the cities of Fidena and Veii, the Albanians decided to take advantage of the opportunity and destroy their offenders. Alba Longa was supposed to provide Rome with an auxiliary army, which was led by the dictator of the conquered city, Mettius Fufetius, who plotted treason against Rome. In the battle, the Albanians moved away from the Romans, but did not come out against them with weapons, as they had originally intended, but stepped aside and began to wait to see who would win.

When the Romans seized the initiative and began to drive out the Fidenates, Fufetius decided not to risk it and bravely pursued the enemy until the end of the battle. After the battle, he appeared before Tullus Hostilius and explained his actions as an attempt to surround the enemy. The Roman king, however, did not forgive the betrayal and decided to brutally punish the people of Alba Longa. He secretly sent a detachment led by Horace to Alba Longa to capture and destroy the city, but not harm the temples or civilians. The latter were forcibly relocated to Rome. While Horace's warriors were razing the city to the ground, Tullus Hostilius summoned the Alban army, allegedly intending to reward them for good service and victory. The king announced that he knew about the betrayal, and Fufeti's army was destroyed.

Victory of Tullus Hostilius over Veii and Fidenae (artist Giuseppe Cesari, 1595)

Rome not only replenished with new inhabitants - the poorest people of Alba Longa received plots of land in the new place - but also became a contender for supremacy throughout Latia, since Alba Longa was the center of the entire Latin union and was at the head of many communities. Of course, the fall of the city did not lead to the destruction of the union; moreover, Rome, in full accordance with military law, laid claim to leadership in the union as the successor of Alba Longa. But this was just the beginning of Rome’s wars of conquest.

Conquest of the Latins

Rome's aggressive policy, and even more so its desire for dominance in the Latin Union, caused the expected discontent of its neighbors. At the end of the 6th century. BC Octavius ​​Mamilius, the ruler of the Latin city of Tusculum, persuaded thirty cities of the Latin Union to unite against Rome. The alliance was also joined by Tarquin the Proud, the last king of Rome, expelled for despotism and crimes against the Roman people.

Around 499 BC The first clashes between the new Italian union and Rome occurred: the Romans quickly besieged Fidenae and subjugated Crustumeria (Crustumerium) and Praeneste. The final battle of the war took place at the Battle of Lake Regil. The army of the Latin Union was commanded by Octavius ​​Mamilius, along with him were Tarquin the Proud and his sons (at least Sextus, because of whom Tarquin was expelled from Rome). The Roman army was led by the dictator Aulus Postumius. At the beginning of the battle, the Latins were pushing back the Romans, but the Roman commander ordered his personal guard to ensure that the formation was maintained and to kill every fleeing Roman soldier on the spot, and for the horsemen - the military elite - to dismount and join the ranks of the infantry. The Romans maintained their formation and were able to overturn and defeat the army of the Latins; more than 6,000 enemy soldiers were captured by Aulus Postumius. Octavius ​​Mamilius himself and the sons of Tarquinius the Proud were killed in the battle. Tarquin fled and died a few years later in Cumae.

Three years later, around 495 BC, the Volscians, an Umbro-Sabelian people, invited Latium to unite in the fight against Rome, but the Latins, taught by bitter experience, handed over ambassadors to the Romans. They liked the loyalty of the Latins, they concluded a new treaty with their neighbors and returned the prisoners taken in the battle of Lake Regil.

Second Latin War

More than a hundred years have passed since the Romans defeated the Latin Union. For almost a century, Rome’s neighbors were submissive, remembering their past defeats, but the memory fades over generations, and by the 4th century BC. The Latins and neighboring tribes again decided to get even with their old enemy. According to the treaty concluded following the First War, the Latins in 358 BC. They also provided soldiers to help Rome, but already in 348 BC, according to the testimony of Titus Livy, they declared: “ It is enough to order those whose help you need; it is more convenient for the Latins to defend their freedom, and not alien dominion, with arms in their hands».

In 340 BC. The elders of the Latin Union arrived in Rome and demanded that the Latins be recognized as a single people and equal in rights with the Romans and that one of the elected Roman consuls be a Latin. The Senate did not make such concessions, and the outbreak of war was only a matter of time.

The first battle took place at Mount Vesuvius. According to legend, before the battle, both Roman consuls had the same dream: victory would go to the side whose leader doomed himself to death. The consuls decided that the one whose troops would be the first to retreat would sacrifice himself. During the battle, the left wing, commanded by the consul Publius Decius Mus, was the first to falter - he rushed into the thick of the battle, where he heroically laid down his head. This act caused an unexpected upsurge in the ranks of the Roman troops, and they, attacking the enemy with redoubled force, won a victory. After the battle of Tryfana, the Romans finally defeated the Latins and their allies, concluding peace on very favorable terms.

Death of Publius Decius Mus (artist Peter Paul Rubens, 1617)

One of these conditions was a ban on coalitions among Latin tribes, and those who did not receive Roman citizenship were completely deprived of the right to trade and marry. Thus, the Senate insured Rome against possible warlike alliances of its neighbors, and in general, in relation to the conquered tribes, the Senate used the classic carrot and stick method, giving the allies legally established advantages. The Latin tribes were left in the position of federates, the restless cities of Tibur and Praeneste were deprived of part of their lands, and the most loyal communities - Tusculum, Lanuvium, Aricia - were annexed to Rome with full rights and citizenship.

As a result of the two Latin Wars, Rome became the largest state in Italy, controlling all of Southern Etruria and Latium.

Invasion of the Gauls

Became a turning point in Roman policy in Germany. Misfortune befell Rome at the moment of the greatest strain of its forces, when the available resources were almost completely exhausted. Although it was possible to close the gap in the defense through forced mobilization and the transfer of legions from other fronts, it was not possible to prevent the development of the crisis. All of Germany east of the Rhine broke away from the empire - cities, fortifications and roads previously established in its lands were lost. Dying, Augustus advised his successor to abandon further expansion and stay within existing borders. But his will was not fulfilled.

Soldiers' Mutiny

19 August 14 AD Emperor Augustus died. With him, an entire era of Roman history went into the past. His successor was Tiberius, on whose shoulders fell the responsibility for resolving the crisis of the last years of his reign. From the very first days, the emperor faced serious difficulties, one of which was the unrest of the troops stationed in the provinces. Due to the brutal wars of recent years, particularly strict discipline was maintained in the army. Veterans did not receive retirement due to their age, middle-aged soldiers did not receive leave. To maintain wartime discipline and order, soldiers were subjected to exercises and hard work.

At the news of Augustus's death, long-pent-up irritation burst out. The soldiers of the three Pannonian legions refused to take the oath of allegiance to Tiberius and put forward a number of demands to his envoys. Then the soldiers of eight German legions followed their example.

Basalt bust of Germanicus, British Museum, London

The commander of the Rhine army was the stepson of Tiberius, the son of his brother Drusus, 29-year-old Tb. Claudius Drusus Nero Germanicus. The army was divided into two groups, each of which was under the control of its own legate. G. Silius commanded four legions - II Augustus, XIII and XIV Dual and XVI Gallic - stationed on the upper Rhine in Mogonziak (Mainz). Caecina Severus also commanded four legions - I German, V Zhavoronkov, XX Valeria and XXI Predatory - stationed on the lower Rhine in summer camps near present-day Cologne. The news of Augustus's death found Germanicus in Gaul, where he was collecting taxes.

As a military leader, he had to lead the soldiers to swear allegiance to the new emperor. However, the soldiers of the V and XXI legions refused to take the oath and rebelled. The centurions who tried to restore order in the camp were severely beaten. The rebels surrounded the tribunal where Germanicus was and demanded from him his promised resignation, payment of salary and improved conditions of service. Germanicus refused to talk to the soldiers and disappeared into his tent.

The Emperor addresses the soldiers. Image on the denarius of Emperor Caligula

A few days later, when the unrest subsided, an agreement was concluded between the rebels and the command. In exchange for taking the oath, Germanicus promised to fulfill most of the soldiers' demands, and also to distribute to the soldiers the money bequeathed to them by the late emperor. Reluctantly and hesitantly, first the soldiers of the Lower German army, and then their comrades from Upper Germany, took oaths of allegiance.

Resumption of expansion

To regain control over the rebel army, Germanicus decided to immediately undertake a military campaign across the Rhine. In preparation for the performance, rebellious speeches were forgotten, the soldiers remembered discipline and again began to unquestioningly obey the orders of their commanders. Germanicus' calculations were based on this. In the late autumn of 14, he crossed to the right bank of the Rhine with two formerly rebellious V and XXI legions, the XX Valerian legion, 26 auxiliary cohorts and 8 cavalry troops. In total, the army numbered more than 20 thousand people.

Military campaigns of Germanicus 14 – 16.

The target of the attack was the Marsy living between the Lippe and Ruhr rivers. They were just celebrating the autumn fertility festival when unnoticed troops invaded and slaughtered the unarmed people who had gathered. The sanctuary of the goddess Tamfana, revered by the Germans, was destroyed. The army was divided into small detachments and devastated a vast area on the right bank of the Rhine. Angered by the attack, the neighboring tribes of the Bructeri, Tubantes and Usipetes attempted to capture Germanicus on his way back in a forest ravine, but the Romans moved in perfect order and the attempt failed. The troops successfully returned to the left bank of the Rhine and spent the winter in their quarters.

'15 Campaign

The success of this operation strengthened revanchist sentiments among soldiers and officers. In February 15, Germanicus, with four Upper German legions and ten thousand people as part of the auxiliary troops, again crossed the Rhine and marched against the Hutts. His path ran up the Main valley and further to the upper reaches of the Weser. Perhaps the restoration of Drusus's camp near modern Hedemünden should be associated with this campaign. The Hutts did not accept the fight and retreated deep into their forests. Their main city, Mattius, was set on fire, and a large area was devastated by the advancing troops.

At the same time, on the lower Rhine Caecina, Severus also crossed with his four legions to the right bank and advanced upstream of the Lippe in order to create a threat to the Cherusci and prevent them from coming to the aid of the attacked Chatti. The Mars, harboring anger over the previous year's invasion, attempted to attack Caecina's camp, but were defeated in battle. One of the results of this campaign was the transfer to the Romans of the leader of the pro-Roman Cherusci party, Segestus, with numerous relatives and household members, among whom was his daughter, the wife of Arminius Thusnelda.

Equipment of a Roman legionnaire from the early 1st century. AD Kalkriese Museum

In the summer of that year, a large-scale offensive was launched in the northeast. Caecina with 40 cohorts passed through the lands of the Bructeri and Tubantes to the middle reaches of the Ems, where he met with the main group of troops transported by the fleet, which included 4 legions and cavalry. Having united, the army devastated the territories of the Bructeri between Ems and Lippe near the borders of the Teutobug Forest, where the unburied remains of the troops of Quintilius Varus still lay. Germanicus visited the site of the battle, buried the remains of the soldiers and paid last respects to the dead. Then most of the army returned to the ships, and Caecina led his detachment to the Rhine overland.

The route passed through marshy areas, along wooden roads laid here in 3 BC. L. Domitius Ahenobarbus. While some of the soldiers were repairing the road, the rest were forced to continuously fight off the advancing Germans. The troops suffered heavy losses, the soldiers became despondent, remembering the fate of Var. Tsetsina was an old commander who had served in the army for 40 years. He retained his cheerfulness and presence of mind. Having waited until the Germans approached the fortifications of the camp, he personally led the soldiers on a sortie through the side gate. The barbarians, fully confident of their victory, were taken by surprise, overturned and crushed. Breaking away from pursuit, the Romans safely left across the Rhine.

Resistance organization

The resumption of Roman military expansion provoked predictable resistance from the Germans. It was led by Arminius and his paternal uncle Ingviomer. Together they launched active activities, and, despite the disagreements that existed among the tribal nobility, they achieved significant success in this field. The basis of the coalition they created was the Cherusci who had again taken up arms. They were joined by the eternal enemies of the Romans, the Hatti, as well as the Ampsivarii, Bructeri, Usipetes, Tubantes and other Germanic tribes, who had been fighting for a long time, all the way to the Elbe. The total number of tribal militias they fielded was 30,000–50,000 warriors.

Equipment of a German warrior of the early 1st century. AD Kalkriese Museum

Although Arminius made significant efforts to get Marobodus into the anti-Roman coalition, the Marcomanni king again remained neutral this time. At one time, he even sent the head of Quintilius Varus, sent to him by Arminius, to the Romans so that it could be buried with proper honors. Arminius was also not supported by the Batavians, Frisians and Chauci who lived near the sea coast, whose detachments took part in the war on the side of the Romans.

'16 Campaign

In the summer of 16, Germanicus, at the head of an army of about 35 thousand people, consisting of 4 legions and numerous Gallic and German auxiliary units, approached the Weser. The army in this campaign was again actively supported by the fleet, which went out to sea through the Drusus Canal and then went up the river. Emsa. In the Idistaviso valley on the right bank of the Weser, in the area of ​​​​the current Westphalian Gate, a huge tribal militia of the Cherusci and their allies, commanded by Arminius and Inguiomer, gathered. The Roman army crossed the river, and the Cherusci, retreating, carried away a cohort of Batavians and, before the horsemen could help them, inflicted serious losses on the Batavians.

The next day, the Roman marching column moving along the Weser was attacked by the Germans who had accumulated on the crests of the hills. The cavalry sent forward attacked the enemy's flanks and rear, while the legions and auxiliary cohorts attacked the hillsides. The Germans were unable to offer serious resistance and fled, exterminated by the Roman cavalry. Many drowned while trying to swim across the Weser - they were shot by Roman archers. Arminius was wounded in battle and barely escaped, smearing his face with his blood so as not to be recognized. Some historians point out that the Chauci fighting on the Roman side recognized him, but allowed him to escape. The same trick saved Ingviomer. Roman losses in the battle were minor.

Battle of Idistavizo

The defeat did not break the will of the Germans to resist. Some time later, Arminius managed to again gather significant forces on the border of the possessions of the Cherusci and Angrivarii, between Damme and Hunteburg in what is now Lower Saxony. The battlefield became a narrow strip of marshy land between the river and the embankment, on which the Germans took up a defensive position. The Roman light infantry, archers and slingers advanced forward fired projectiles at the enemy for a long time. Then the legions launched an assault and, after a fierce battle, captured the embankment.

The Roman historian Tacitus describes what followed:

“The Germans fought with no less courage than the Romans, but the battle conditions and their weapons were unfavorable for them: squeezed into a multitude in a narrow space, they could neither strike with their excessively long spears, nor quickly withdraw them, nor use lunges, using your mobility and dexterity; on the contrary, the Roman soldiers, whose shield was pressed closely to their chest, and their hand firmly holding the hilt of the sword, pierced the huge bodies of the barbarians and their unprotected faces.”

The Germans were defeated again. The Roman commander forbade his soldiers to take prisoners, and only the fall of night put an end to the massacre. Arminius and Ingviomer escaped again.

Battle of Idistavizo, modern reconstruction

Having erected a trophy on the battlefield with a list of conquered tribes between the Rhine and Elbe, Germanicus gave the order to return to the bases. The army reached Ems, from where several legions went home overland, and the rest were put on ships. The returning fleet was caught in a storm. Many ships sank, others, including the ship of Germanicus himself, were thrown ashore. Roman losses were quite significant. To reduce the possible resonance of this catastrophe, even before the onset of winter cold, Germanicus himself undertook a short raid on the lands of the Mars, and his legate Silius on the Hutts.

Review by Germanika

The victorious reports sent by Germanicus to Rome did not convince Tiberius. Military expenses of the state treasury increased, human losses increased, and the end of the German operation was not in sight in the near future. In the spring of 17, the emperor ordered the recall of Germanicus and the curtailment of all military operations beyond the Rhine.

“Since the vengeance of Rome has been accomplished,” his decision read, “the barbarians should henceforth be left to their own discord.”

To make the end of the offensive look like a final success, the Senate decreed that Germanicus had the right to celebrate his triumph over the Germans. On May 26, 17, the young commander entered Rome at the head of a solemn procession. Behind Germanicus's chariot they carried the names of the tribes he had conquered and carried the captured booty. The decoration of the procession was the eagles of Var's legions captured from the Germans. Among the prisoners following the chariot were the wife of Arminius Thusnelda with their little son Tumelikius, the rulers of the Cherusci Segestes and Sesitacius, the leaders of the Chatti and Sugambri.

Cameo depicting the triumph of Germanicus. In the center, Emperor Tiberius is depicted on the throne next to his mother Livia. In front of them is Germanicus with his wife Agrippina, behind them is young Caligula. The lower part of the cameo depicts German prisoners in chains

The return of Germanicus to Rome meant the end of the three-decade Roman onslaught in the territory beyond the Rhine. Roman fortifications and civilian settlements beyond the Rhine were abandoned again, this time permanently, although over the course of 11–16 AD. in some of them, including Waldgirm, restoration work was carried out. The Rhine finally became the border of the Roman Empire. And although the legions were subsequently repeatedly transported to the right bank, the Romans no longer sought to extend their direct control to these territories.

Literature:

1. Cassius Dio Cocceianus Roman history. Books LI–LXIII / Trans. from ancient Greek edited by A. V. Makhlayuk. St. Petersburg: Nestor-Istoriya, 2014. 664 p.
2. Cornelius Tacitus. Annals. Small works. Per. from lat. A.S. Bobovich. / Works. In 2 volumes. L.: Nauka, 1969. T. 1. 444.
3. Christ K. History of the times of the Roman emperors from Augustus to Constantine. – T.1. – Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 1997. – 573 p.
4. Ralf G. Jahn: Der Römisch-Germanische Krieg (9–16 n. Chr.). Dissertation. Bonn 2001.
5. Franz Miltner: Der Tacitusbericht über Idistaviso. In: Rheinisches Museum für Philologie. Band 95, 1952, pp. 343–356

A new round of civil conflict began during Sulla’s lifetime and ended only after his death. It was brought to life by the circumstances of the previous war and in many ways was its direct continuation. This time the conflict unfolded not only in Italy, but also in the provinces. In addition, it included a number of other clashes not directly related to the struggle of the Roman parties, including the slave revolt and the Mithridatic War. The beginning of the conflict was associated with the name of Quintus Sertorius.

Origin of Sertorius

Quintus Sertorius was born in Nursia into an equestrian family. In his youth he received a good education and acquired some influence in his native city through judicial appearances. Sertorius then entered Roman military service. In 105 BC. he fought against the Cimbri at the Battle of Arausion, in 102 BC. took part in the battle of Akva Sextiev, in 98 BC. fought in Spain against the Celtiberians and, finally, in 91–88 BC. participated in the Allied War against the rebel Italians, in which he gained wide fame.

The war that Sertorius waged in Spain was predominantly reminiscent of the Guerilla war familiar to local residents, with its characteristic fleeting battles, ambushes and the actions of small detachments

In 88 BC. Sertorius ran for the position of tribune of the people, but lost due to the opposition of Sulla. Therefore, the following year Sertorius sided with Cinna, becoming one of the most prominent military leaders of the Marian party. Possibly between 87 and 84 BC. Sertorius served as praetor in Rome. After returning in 83 BC. Sulla and the resumption of the Civil War in Italy, Sertorius was part of the army of Scipio Asiagen. After the Battle of Mount Tifatus, in which the consul Norbanus was defeated by Sulla, Sertorius tried in vain to prevent Scipio's soldiers from defecting to the enemy. His relations with the main leaders of the Marians broke down, and at the end of that year Sertorius left for Spain.

In the provinces, he encountered unrest among the local tribes and opposition from the urban population. While Sertorius restored order in Spain, Sulla won a complete victory over the Marians. His military leaders began to travel around the provinces to establish a new order here. In 81 BC. Gaius Anicius Lusk was sent to Spain with an army of 20 thousand. The troops of Sertorius, who occupied the mountain passes in the Pyrenees, went over to his side, and their commander, Lucius Livius Salinator, died. Left with few forces against a superior enemy, Sertorius boarded ships at New Carthage and sailed to Mauretania. Here he entered the service of Prince Askalid, won a number of victories for him and strengthened his reputation as a brave and skillful military leader.

Resumption of war in Spain

In 80 BC. The Lusitanians again invited Sertorius to Spain to lead their revolt. For Sertorius himself, this proposal meant a chance to resume the war against the Sullan government. With a small detachment numbering only a few hundred people, he landed in the southern part of the country, which he quickly brought under his authority. Here many dissatisfied with the Roman government joined Sertorius. From these he recruited an army that included 2,500 Romans and Italian emigrants living in the province, 4,500 Lusitanian barbarians and 700 Africans and Moors. The governor of Further Spain, Lucius Fufidius, opposed Sertorius with all his forces. A battle took place not far from Hispalis, in which Fufidius was completely defeated and lost more than 2,000 of his soldiers killed. After this, not only all of Lusitania, but also a significant part of the Roman province went over to the side of Sertorius.

Alarmed by the way things were turning out in Spain, Sulla, in 79 BC. sent there one of his main associates, Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius. An army consisting of four legions and an even larger contingent of allies was placed at the disposal of Metellus - a total of about 40,000 soldiers. The scene of military operations in 79–77 BC. became the southwestern and western parts of Spain. Their course is known only from fragmentary information from sources.

Spanish theater of war in 80–78 BC.

Metellus made a series of campaigns in Lusitania, took the cities of Dipona and Conistorga and unsuccessfully besieged Langobriga. Sertorius, significantly outnumbered by the enemy, could not challenge him directly and turned to guerrilla warfare tactics. He skillfully avoided major battles, and instead ambushed his opponent and made it difficult for him to supply. Metellus could do little to oppose him. Although he managed to restore Roman control over the territory of Baetica, Metellus was unable to prevent the enemy’s successful actions in the territory of Near Spain. The quaestor Sertorius Lucius Hirtuleius acted here, who in 78 BC. defeated the troops of her governor Marcus Domitius Calvinus at Consabura, and the governor himself fell in battle.

Death of Sulla and the rise of Lepidus

While the war was going on in Spain, in Rome at the beginning of 79 BC. Sulla, unexpectedly for everyone, resigned his power and, as a private citizen, went to his villa in Campania. Here the following year he died of lice-borne disease. Sulla's death provoked a split in Roman society. One of the consuls of 78 BC, Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, spoke in the Senate with a project to condemn his actions and at the same time initiated a program of extensive reforms, including an amnesty for victims of repression, the restoration of their property, the return to the Italians of the lands taken from them, the restoration of the rights of the people's tribunes etc. After heated debates in the Senate and bloody riots on the streets of Rome, the point of view of the associates of the deceased dictator, who were rallied around him by the consul Quintus Lutatius Catullus, prevailed. Sulla's body was brought to Rome with great triumph and buried with honors on the Campus Martius.

Roman funeral ceremony. Relief from the 2nd–1st centuries BC.

But Lepidus was by no means going to give up his attempts. His initiative caused widespread unrest in Italy, where memories of civil war and terror were very fresh. The inhabitants of the Etruscan city of Fezula, whose lands had recently been given to Sulla's veterans, expelled the colonists with arms in hand and regained their property. The Senate sent both consuls to Etruria, taking an oath from them to refrain from military action against each other. From the very beginning, Lepidus actually withdrew from fulfilling the task assigned to him, settled in Etruria and began to massively enroll the Italic volunteers who flocked to him into his army. These actions alarmed the Senate, which at the end of the year invited Lepidus to disband his soldiers and return to Rome to hold elections. Lepidus refused to answer the call. He was joined by other supporters of the reforms, including Marcus Junius Brutus, who commanded troops in Cisalpine Gaul, Marcus Perperna, who recruited his own troops in Liguria, and his own son Lepidus, adopted by Lucius Cornelius Scipio Asiagen.

Some senators called for negotiations with Lepidus. But Catullus, at the head of his party at the beginning of 77 BC. carried out a decision declaring him an enemy of the fatherland. In response, Lepidus marched on Rome with an army. The Senate declared a state of emergency, giving military command to Catullus and Pompey. The decisive battle took place near Rome on the Campus Martius. Lepidus was defeated and retreated back to Etruria. Scipio Lepidianus and part of his troops entrenched themselves in Alba, where they were besieged by Catullus.

During the Civil Wars, equally armed warriors fought on both sides, often neighbors and even relatives

Meanwhile, Pompey, at the head of another army, defeated Brutus in Cisalpine Gaul, besieged him in Mutina, forced him to surrender and executed him, despite promising to spare his life. Catullus dealt with Scipio Lepidian in the same way. Lepidus himself in Liguria united with the troops of Marcus Perperna and crossed over to Sardinia in order to cut off Rome from the supply of grain from here. The governor of Sardinia, Guy Valerius Triarius, who had only a limited number of soldiers, offered him desperate resistance. Lepidus was defeated, wounded and soon died of illness. Perperna transported the remnants of his army on ships to Spain, where he joined Sertorius.

Resumption of war in Spain

The expansion of the war in Spain prompted the Senate to send Pompey there instead of the deceased Domitius Calvin. Pompey himself sought this appointment; after the victory over the rebels, he was in no hurry to send his soldiers home. In the summer of 77 BC. he crossed the Alps, passed Narbonne Gaul and in the fall of the same year appeared in Spain with an army of 30,000 infantry and 1,000 horsemen. He was supported by some Spanish communities dissatisfied with Sertorius. In the spring of 76 BC. Pompey crossed the Ebro River and moved south along the Mediterranean coast.

Sertorius at this time was besieging Lauron, which had recently fallen away from him. To demonstrate his strength to his allies, Pompey decided to help the city and fell into an ambush skillfully set by Sertorius. Having suffered huge losses, Pompey retreated again across the Ebro and did not take active action until the end of the year.

Pompey. Marble bust. Vatican Museum

Metellus at this time also did not shine with success. His legate Lucius Thorius Balbus, whom he sent to Near Spain, was intercepted and defeated by Hirtuleius on the way. Sertorius himself, until the end of the year, apparently waged a campaign in Celtiberia against local tribes who did not want to take his side.

The following year, 75 BC, Sertorius planned that Perperna and Herennius would hold Pompey in northeast Spain, and Hirtuleius would defend Lusitania from Metellus. In the meantime, he himself intended to complete the campaign in Celtiberia that had begun the previous year. To his misfortune, Sertorius underestimated Pompey, who again crossed the Ebro, pushed back Perperna, defeated Herennius, who died in battle along with 10,000 of his soldiers, captured and destroyed Valentia. Metellus also went on the offensive and in the battle of Italica completely destroyed the 20,000-strong army of Hirtuleius.

Celtiberian warrior of the 2nd–1st centuries BC. Reconstruction by I. Gil

Having received such terrible news, Sertorius rushed to the coast in order to defeat Pompey before he united with Metellus coming towards him. For his part, Pompey also wanted a decisive battle so as not to share the glory with his senior colleague. The opponents met on the Sukron River. Pompey, who fought against Sertorius himself on the right flank, was defeated and wounded. He managed to escape only because the enemies, having captured his horse in precious harness, coveted rich booty. On the other flank, Lucius Afranius gained the upper hand over Perperna. The appearance of Sertorius did not allow him to develop his success.

Pompey was defeated, but not destroyed. Metellus was already approaching, and Sertorius was forced to retreat, exclaiming: "Whenever this old woman(i.e. Metellus), I would whip that boy and send him to Rome!” Now the hostilities have moved to the central part of Spain. Metellus and Pompey joined their troops. The Battle of Segontia did not end in Sertorius's favor. Although he again defeated Pompey, Metellus on his flank forced his army to retreat. For some time, both Roman commanders besieged Sertorius in the mountain fortress in Klupea, but he managed to break through and again resort to guerrilla warfare tactics.

Doe Sertoria. Someone gave Sertorius a white doe, which was considered a sacred animal by the Spaniards. The doe was not at all afraid of people and was almost tame. When Sertorius received any important news, he released it in front of the soldiers and pretended that the gods themselves were telling him the right decisions. Sertorius' soldiers considered the doe a sign of the gods' favor towards Sertorius and respected him very much for this.

End of the war and death of Sertorius

In 74 BC. The balance of power in Spain changed in favor of the Sullans. Sertorius finally lost Further Spain. Slowly but surely Metellus and Pompey with their armies pushed him out of the Mediterranean part of the country into Celtiberia. Sertorius began to distrust his Roman surroundings, increasingly relying on the Spanish military leaders. The loyalty of ordinary warriors to him remained unshakable. Many warriors, according to Spanish custom, devoted themselves to Sertorius and recklessly went to their death for him. He still had significant forces. Nevertheless, the battles of Bilbilis and Segobriga ended with an uncertain result. Pompey failed in his attempt to capture Pallancia. The Battle of Kallaguris again ended in a draw.

Spanish theater of war in 77–73 BC.

Meanwhile, Sertorius's Roman confidants plotted against him. The conspirators were led by Perperna, who hoped to seize supreme power. In 73 BC. Sertorius was killed at a feast in Osca. The Spaniards were outraged by the murder of their military leader and began to leave his camp en masse. To rally his warriors, Perperna decided to give the enemy a general battle. To this end, he opposed Pompey, but was completely defeated in the first battle, captured and executed.

His death ended the civil war. Most of the Romans fighting in Sertorius's camp hastened to resort to Pompey's mercy. In 71 BC. a law on political amnesty was passed, as a result of which even the most irreconcilable rebels were able to return home. The resistance of the Spanish tribes, on the contrary, was still not broken and continued for many years. Pompey remained in Spain until the winter of 72–71 BC, when the Senate summoned him to Italy, where the Spartacus rebellion was raging at that time. Metellus returned to Rome in 71 BC. Both commanders celebrated their triumph as if their victories had been won in a war against an external enemy.

Triumph of Pompey. Reconstruction by Peter Dennis

Rise of Spartacus

While the war against Sertorius was going on in Spain, and the eastern provinces were again devastated by Mithridates, in Italy itself in 73 BC. The Spartacus uprising broke out. The initial area of ​​​​indignation covered Campania and Lucania, but quickly spread to the entire central and southern part of Italy, that is, to those regions in which the Allied War had recently raged. The success of the movement was facilitated by the dissatisfaction of the Italians with the power of the Sullan party in Rome: they supported the rebels.

The basis of Spartacus' army was made up of slaves and disenfranchised tenants, many of whom were victims of Sulla's colonization policy. At the peak of its success, the rebel army numbered approximately 80,000. The rebels managed to achieve a number of military successes and defeat the detachments of government troops sent against them, including the praetor Publius Varinius and both consuls Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Clodian and Lucius Gellius Publicola.

At first, Spartacus apparently sought to get his men out of Italy. In the autumn of 72 BC. He fought through the southern foothills of the Alps and here unexpectedly turned back. The Senate handed military command to Marcus Licinius Crassus, under whose command an army of 60,000 was gathered. A series of clashes took place between Crassus and the rebels, during which Spartacus suffered serious losses. He decided to cross to Sicily, where he planned to rekindle the flames of the slave revolt. However, the Cilician pirates, who promised to transport him across the Strait of Messa, deceived Spartacus, and he was locked up on the Rhegian Peninsula.

Rise of Spartacus. Map of military operations

At the beginning of 71 BC. The rebels broke through the 30-kilometer line of fortifications built by Crassus and rushed to Lucania. A decisive battle took place on the Silaria River, during which the rebels were defeated and Spartacus himself died. The remnants of his troops troubled Italy for a long time, but were ultimately destroyed by Crassus and Pompey, who returned from Spain.

Conspiracy of Catiline

The last episode of the civil wars of the first half of the 1st century BC. there was a conspiracy and revolt of Catiline. Lucius Sergius Catilina was a supporter of Sulla and fought under his command in the Allied and Civil Wars. Like many Sullans, he made a fortune for himself during the proscriptions, but gradually squandered everything and found himself deeply in debt. Then Catiline decided to improve his affairs in the province. In 68 BC. he was elected praetor, after which he ruled Africa for a year. Here he was engaged in extortion, and due to legal persecution he was not allowed to participate in the consular elections in 65 BC. At the end of the litigation, Catiline again stood for election in 64 BC, but lost the fight to Marcus Tullius Cicero.

Left out of work, Catiline decided to seize power by force. These intentions were favored by the difficult economic situation in Italy. He managed to involve several members of the nobility in the conspiracy. Gaius Manlius began to recruit people for him in Etruria. First of all, insolvent debtors and former veterans of Sulla enlisted in the army. Thus, from 7 to 20 thousand people gathered under his banner.

Cicero exposes Catiline. Fresco by Cesare Maccari (1888).

In the autumn of 63 BC. the conspirators planned to kill Cicero and a number of other persons, announce the cancellation of debts and carry out some reforms. Their plans became known. Cicero made several speeches in the Senate to provoke the enemy into rash actions. Catiline left the city and was declared an outlaw by the Senate. Cicero managed to obtain evidence of the conspiracy and on this basis achieved the arrest of the leaders of the conspirators in Rome. On December 5, the Senate approved the death sentence for five of them, and it was immediately carried out.

Having received news of the defeat of the conspirators in Rome, the army of Catiline's supporters in Etruria began to thin out. Government detachments of Metellus blocked his path to the north, and at that time the army of the consul Guy Antonius of Hebrides was approaching from the south. With his remaining people, Catiline decided to give battle. At the decisive battle of Pistoria, which took place in early January 62 BC, he was defeated and fell in battle along with Manlius and 3,000 of his followers. The consul sent Catiline's head to Rome.

Literature:

1. Korolenkov, A.V. Quintus Sertorius. Political biography / A.V. Korolenkov. - St. Petersburg: Aletheya, 2003.
2. Korolenkov, A.V. Sulla / A.V. Korolenkov, E.V. Smykov. - M.: Young Guard, 2007.
3. Tsirkin, Yu. Sertorius Movement / Yu.B. Tsirkin // Social struggle and political ideology in the ancient world. - 1989. - P. 144–162.
4. Tsirkin, Yu.B. Civil wars in Rome. Defeated / Yu.B. Tsirkin. - St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg State University Publishing House, 2006.
5. Tsirkin, Yu. History of ancient Spain / Yu.B. Tsirkin. - St. Petersburg: Nestor-History, 2011.
6. Gurin, I.G. Sertorian War (82–71) / I.G. Gurin. - Samara: Samara University, 2001.
7. Goroncharovsky, V.A. Spartacist war. Rebellious slaves against the Roman legions / V.A. Goroncharovsky. - St. Petersburg: Petersburg Oriental Studies, 2011.
8. Utchenko, S. L. Cicero and his time / S. L. Utchenko. - M.: Mysl, 1972.
9. Grimal, P. Cicero / P. Grimal. - M.: Young Guard, 1991.

Roman civilization grew and flourished, destroying other peoples and states. But not everyone resignedly surrendered to the conquerors: there were brave men who challenged the powerful Roman army, fighting for their freedom. And even the Romans expressed their admiration for their exploits and courage.

1. Pyrrhus

In 280 BC, as Rome was conquering southern Italy, Roman troops laid siege to the Greek colony of Taras (the modern Italian city of Taranto). The city authorities called for help from Pyrrhus (319-272 BC), a Greek commander and king of the city of Epirus. Pyrrhus responded to the call of Taras and crossed the Adriatic with his army. Thanks to his military talent, Pyrrhus defeated the Romans in two battles. But at the same time he paid too high a price, exhausting his military resources.

By 275 B.C. Pyrrhus realized that it was pointless to continue further struggle with the enemy, to whom help was constantly coming. As a result, Pyrrhus returned home, Rome gained control of southern Italy, and since then the expression “Pyrrhic victory” has come about, which is used to describe the successful completion of some task at too high a cost.

2. Hannibal

The ancient Greek historian Polybius wrote that the Carthaginian military leader Hamilcar, during the First Punic War, made his son Hannibal (247 - 183 BC) swear before the altar that he would never be a friend of the Romans. Although the Carthaginians lost this war, they were determined to restore their empire. Hannibal took revenge on Rome for his father's defeat during the Second Punic War. He invaded the territory of modern Spain in the area of ​​New Carthage (now Cartagena), marched with his army and war elephants all over the Pyrenees, and then crossed the Alps and invaded the Apennine Peninsula, destroying everything in his path.

The legendary military campaign was a huge threat to the growing Roman Republic, but the Roman general Scipio's counter-raid into Carthage and defeat by the Romans at Zama (North Africa) in 202 BC forced Hannibal to return to Carthage. He eventually went into exile in 195 BC and died around 183 BC. Ancient sources contradict each other regarding the time and circumstances of his death.

3. Mithridates

Mithridates VI (132-63 BC) ruled a small but wealthy kingdom on the Black Sea in what is now Turkey. His father was killed, and his own mother was only thinking about how to kill him. He went into exile as a youth, but returned as a grown man several years later. With the support of many tribes, he regained his crown and killed many of his family members who were plotting against him. Between about 115 B.C. and 95 BC his kingdom grew threefold. Rome and Mithridates fought a Cold War, opposing each other through diplomacy, propaganda, and political conspiracies.

In 89 BC, the Roman consul Manius Aquilius went to war against Mithridates. The following year, Mithridates ordered the massacre of some 80,000 Roman men, women and children in a dozen Asian cities. The war continued until 63 BC, when Mithridates was killed, not as a result of defeat, but as a result of the betrayal of his own son Pharnaces.

4. Yoghurtha

The illegitimate son of Masinissa, the first king of Numidia (North Africa) Jugurtha (160-104 BC) had to “punch” his way to the throne. In 118 BC, he beheaded one of the heirs to the crown (Giempsala). Another heir, Adgerbal fled to Rome, where he asked the Senate for help. But Jugurtha was well versed in the bureaucracy system and managed to bribe literally everyone. As a result, he was allocated the sparsely populated western part of Numidia.

However, Jugurtha did not stop there. He captured the city of Cirta in 112 BC, after which the Roman Senate declared war on him. In 109 BC. Rome sent an army led by Metellus, an excellent commander who was also incorruptible and indifferent to Jugurtha's gold. As a result, the Romans, with the help of the king of Mauritania, defeated Jugurtha and captured his territory after the war.

5. Spartak

Spartacus (111-71 BC) was a Roman slave of Thracian origin who escaped from a gladiator training camp in 73 BC. He "took with him" 78 other slaves. As a result, his ideas of confronting the inequality of Roman society attracted thousands of other slaves and disadvantaged people of the country. The Roman general and writer Frontius wrote that Spartacus's army tied corpses to posts near their camp and attached weapons to their arms to give the impression of greater numbers and organization.

The uprising of Spartacus lasted two years, and in the end he was defeated by the Roman commander Crassus. Spartacus was killed, but his deeds turned him into a legend. About 5,000 of his men fled north after the defeat, and more than 6,000 were crucified.

6. Boudicca

Boudicca (33 60 AD) was the wife of Prasutagus, Tigern (leader) of the Iceni, an eastern British tribe dependent on Rome. When Tigern died, the Romans tried to take over her territories, causing the Icerni, led by Boudicca, to rebel. Some neighboring tribes joined them and together they launched an attack against the city of Colchester, where many Romans were killed. From there they went to Londinum (modern London), the heart of Roman trade in Britain, which they burned to the ground.

As a result, the uprising was suppressed by Gaius Suetonius, who managed to defeat the forces of Boudicca, which outnumbered the Roman army by several dozen times. As a result, Boudicca fled to her homeland, where she soon committed suicide by taking poison.

7. Shapur

Shapur I (240-270 AD) was the ruler of their Sassanid dynasty who decided to reclaim the territories that had been lost to his Persian ancestors and were under Roman control. Shapur captured Syria and its capital Antioch, one of the largest cities controlled by Rome. The Romans struck back and recaptured some of the lost territory, but they left other battle fronts exposed.

In 260 AD. The Roman Emperor Valerian personally came out against Shapur with a huge 70,000-strong army, and suffered a crushing defeat near Edessa. Historians claim that Valerian personally came to Shapur to propose terms of truce, but was captured by the Persians along with his commanders. Shapur then used them as a "rest" when he mounted his horse. Emperor Valerian was then executed, skinned, stuffed with straw, and stuffed as a trophy.

8. Alaric I

In 395, Alaric I (370-410 AD) was named king of the Visigoths, a powerful tribe in the former Roman province of Dacia (now Hungary, Romania and Slovenia). The Visigoths were allies of Rome, but over time they reconsidered their clearly disadvantageous position. Alaric led the Visigoths under the walls of Rome, sacking many cities along the way. In 408, the Romans withstood two sieges, but during the third siege, someone opened the city gates. On August 24, 410, the Visigoths sacked Rome. Alaric then traveled south to Calabria with the goal of invading Africa, but died suddenly.

9. Vercingetorix

Years of Julius Caesar's cruelty in Gaul led Vercingetorix (82 BC - 46 BC) to believe that the Gallic tribes must either unite against Rome or die. He tried to convince the council of his hometown to fight the Romans, but this only led to his expulsion from the council. He went to the countryside, raised a rebellion against the city of Gergovia, where he seized power. In 52 BC. Vercingetorix captured Kenab (now Orleans, France), where he brutally killed many Romans.

Most of the Gallic tribes joined him, but this was not enough against the highly organized Roman army, so Vercingetorix always fought against the Romans exclusively in places advantageous to himself. If this failed, then his army retreated and burned everything behind it, depriving the Romans of food supplies.

His last battle against Rome took place during the Siege of Alesia. Vercingetorix came to Caesar asking for mercy, in the hope of preventing the total massacre of the Gauls. Some Gallic tribes were allowed to leave, but many soldiers were turned into slaves. Vercingetorix was held in Rome as a prisoner for six years, after which he was executed.

10. Attila

When Attila (406-453 AD) became the ruler of the Hunnic people, the Huns paid tribute to Rome, which looked more like robbery. In 447, Attila invaded the eastern territories of the empire. Rome bribed one of Attila's commanders to kill his master, but the plan failed, after which Attila declared that he would never pay "a penny" to Rome again.

After Emperor Theodosius died in 450 AD, Attila captured several cities in the western part of the empire. As a result, the Roman commander Aetius, with the support of the Visigoths, was able to hold back Attila's advance in the battle on the Catalan Plain. Soon the ruler of the Huns was found dead, suffocated in his blood coming from his nose during his wedding night.

And in continuation of the topic, a story about.