Secondary general education

Biology

Preparing for the Unified State Exam in Biology: text with errors

• Don't "train" students on specific tasks. Future surgeons, veterinarians, psychologists and representatives of other serious professions must demonstrate deep knowledge of the subject.
• Go beyond the textbooks. At the specialized exam, graduates will have to demonstrate more than knowledge of the program.
• Use proven manuals. With a wide variety of materials on biology, many teachers choose publications of the Russian Textbook Corporation.
• Allow for variability in answers. There is no need to present the standard formulation as the only correct one. The answer may be given in other words, contain additional information, or differ from the standard in form and sequence of presentation.
• Practice answering questions in writing. Students are often unable to give complete written answers even at a high level of knowledge.
• Get used to working with drawings. Some students do not know how to extract information from illustrations for assignments.

• Demonstrate knowledge of terminology. This is especially important in the second part of the exam. Appeal with concepts (preferably literary).
• Express your thoughts clearly. Answers must be accurate and meaningful.
• Read the assignments carefully and take into account all the criteria. If it is indicated “Explain your answer”, “Give evidence”, “Explain the meaning”, then points are reduced for lack of explanation.
• Write the correct definition. In task No. 24, an error is not considered corrected if the answer contains only a negative judgment.
• Use the method of elimination. In task No. 24, first look for sentences that definitely contain or definitely do not contain an error.

Examples of tasks No. 24 and possible difficulties

Exercise: Find three errors in the given text. Indicate the numbers of the sentences in which errors were made and correct them. Give the correct wording.

Example 1

Example 2

(1) Eukaryotic cells begin preparing to divide in prophase. (2) During this preparation, the process of protein biosynthesis occurs, DNA molecules are doubled, and ATP is synthesized. (3) In the first phase of mitosis, the centrioles of the cell center, mitochondria and plastids are duplicated. (4) Mitotic division consists of four phases. (5) In metaphase, chromosomes line up in the equatorial plane. (6) Then, in anaphase, homologous chromosomes diverge to the poles of the cell. (7) The biological significance of mitosis is that it ensures the constancy of the number of chromosomes in all cells of the body.

Response elements:(1) Preparation for division begins in interphase. (3) The duplication of all these organelles occurs in interphase. (6) Sister chromatids, rather than homologous chromosomes, disperse to the cell poles in mitosis.

Note: The student can write “chromatids-chromosomes.” In textbooks there is the phrase: “Chromatids are also chromosomes,” so such a wording will not be considered an error or will become a reason for an appeal if the score is reduced for it.

A new textbook is offered to students and teachers that will help them successfully prepare for the unified state exam in biology. The reference book contains all the theoretical material on the biology course required to pass the Unified State Exam. It includes all elements of content, verified by test materials, and helps to generalize and systematize knowledge and skills for a secondary (high) school course. Theoretical material is presented in a concise, accessible form. Each section is accompanied by examples of test tasks that allow you to test your knowledge and degree of preparedness for the certification exam. Practical tasks correspond to the Unified State Exam format. At the end of the manual, answers to tests are provided that will help schoolchildren and applicants test themselves and fill in existing gaps. The manual is addressed to schoolchildren, applicants and teachers.

Example 3

(1) Chromosomes contained in one animal cell are always paired, i.e. identical, or homologous. (2) Chromosomes of different pairs in organisms of the same species are also identical in size, shape, and locations of primary and secondary constrictions. (3) The set of chromosomes contained in one nucleus is called a chromosome set (karyotype). (4) In any animal organism, somatic and germ cells are distinguished. (5) The nuclei of somatic and germ cells contain a haploid set of chromosomes. (6) Somatic cells are formed as a result of meiotic division. (7) Sex cells are necessary for the formation of a zygote.

Response elements:(2) Chromosomes of different pairs differ from each other in all of the listed characteristics. (5) Somatic cells contain a diploid set of chromosomes. (6) Somatic cells are formed by mitosis.

Note: Chromosomes are not always paired, so the student may identify the first sentence as incorrect. If he correctly corrects the remaining three sentences, the score for this will not be reduced.

Example 4

(1) Amphibians are vertebrate animals that live in water and on land. (2) They swim well; swimming membranes are developed between the toes of tailless amphibians. (3) Amphibians move on land using two pairs of five-fingered limbs. (4) Amphibians breathe using their lungs and skin. (5) Adult amphibians have a two-chambered heart. (6) Fertilization in tailless amphibians is internal; tadpoles develop from fertilized eggs. (7) Amphibians include the lake frog, gray toad, water snake, and crested newt.

Response elements:(5) Tadpoles have a two-chambered heart. (6) In the vast majority of tailless amphibians, fertilization is external. (7) The water snake is classified as a reptile.

Note: The limbs of frogs are correctly called five-fingered, but the student can write that one pair of frog limbs is four-fingered. Without the remaining corrections provided, this paragraph will be considered erroneous.

A new textbook is offered to students and teachers that will help them successfully prepare for the unified state exam in biology. The collection contains questions selected according to sections and topics tested on the Unified State Exam, and includes tasks of different types and levels of difficulty. Answers to all tasks are provided at the end of the manual. The proposed thematic assignments will help the teacher organize preparation for the unified state exam, and students will independently test their knowledge and readiness to take the final exam. The book is addressed to students, teachers and methodologists.

Examples of tasks No. 25 and possible difficulties

Questions need to be answered.

Example 1

What are the formations on the roots of a legume plant? What type of relationships between organisms is established in these formations? Explain the significance of this relationship for both organisms.

Response elements: 1. Formations on the roots of leguminous plants are nodules containing nodule azotobacteria. 2. Type of relationship: symbiosis of nitrogen-fixing bacteria and plants. 3. Nodule bacteria feed on organic substances of plants (plants provide bacteria with organic substances) 4. Nodule bacteria fix atmospheric nitrogen and provide.

Note: The student may be confused by the text of the assignment. Are we talking about the relationships between the organisms inhabiting the formation or between the plant and the organisms? Are there two or more organisms? Of course, the writers of the papers strive for maximum clarity in assignments, but inaccurate formulations still occur, and the graduate must be prepared for this.

Example 2

How does a pine seed differ in structure from a fern spore? List at least three differences

Response elements: 1. The seed is a multicellular formation, the spore is unicellular. 2. The seed has a supply of nutrients; the spore does not have this supply. 3. The seed contains an embryo; the spore does not have an embryo.

Note: The spore is not the embryo of the plant. Students often confuse the concepts of “spore” and “embryo” - this should be paid attention to when preparing.

Example 3

List the membranes of the human eyeball and what functions they perform.

Response elements: 1. Tunica albuginea (sclera) – protection of internal structures; its transparent part - the cornea - protection and light refraction (optical function). 2. Choroid – blood supply to the eye (pigment layer – light absorption); its part - the iris - regulates the light flow. 3. Retina – perception of light (or color) and conversion into nerve impulses (receptor function).

Note: This is a simple task in which students make many of the same mistakes. The guys don’t write about the fact that the tunica albuginea passes into the cornea, they don’t write about the functions of the cornea related to light refraction, about the transition of the choroid into the iris, or about the fact that the iris provides pigmentation of the eye. But students often mistakenly claim that the lens and vitreous body are also the membranes of the eye.

Example 4

Where are the sympathetic nuclei of the autonomic nervous system located? In what cases is it activated and how does it affect the functioning of the heart?

Response elements: 1. The bodies of the first nuclei (neurons) lie in the central nervous system in the spinal cord. 2. The bodies of the second neurons lie on both sides along the spine. 3. The ANS is activated in a state of strong arousal during active activity of the body. 4. Increases heart rate.

Note: Issues related to the nervous system are always complex. It is worth carefully studying the options for assignments on this topic, as well as repeating the structure of the autonomic nervous system, its reflex arcs, and the functions of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.

In conclusion, we note that a graduate will pass the Unified State Examination in Biology with a high score only if he has motivation, diligence and hard work. Responsibility for preparing for the exam lies largely with the student himself. The teacher’s task is to guide and, if possible, teach how to learn.

Training options for the Unified State Exam in biology

After the thematic assignments in biology, start practicing. Because to demonstrate a high level of knowledge, you need to confidently work with diagrams, tables and graphs. Explain biological processes using graphical information.

First of all, download FIPI, which is a sample and gives an idea of ​​the structure and form of complexity of future tasks on the Unified State Exam.

Based on a new demo version developed 10 training options, register and track your knowledge level in your personal account.

Identify, analyze mistakes and practice again. Your success is constantly solving options during preparation!

The Unified State Exam test in biology 2019 includes 28 tasks.

• Part 1 contains 21 tasks with a short answer (sequence of numbers, number, word or phrase)
• Part 2 contains 7 tasks with a detailed answer (give a full answer: explanation, description or justification; express and argue your own opinion).

The option is grouped thematically.

1. The first part contains 21 tasks, which are grouped into content blocks presented in:
   • Multiple choice;
   • To establish correspondences;
   • To establish the sequence of processes or phenomena;
   • Problems in cytology and genetics;
   • To complement the drawings;
   • Analysis of a diagram or table.
2. The second part contains 7 tasks. To successfully solve them, the student is required to thoroughly master the conceptual apparatus and competently operate with biological terms.

A short analysis of the conditions of some tasks

Tasks from the block of the first ticket:

• – a biological fragment is presented that requires establishing connections between concepts;
• – count the number of chromosomes and determine the number of cells formed during various processes;
• – find examples in the text that correspond to the concepts;
• – to test knowledge of species properties – select criteria from the test that correspond to the species.

Evaluation of tests in biology of the Unified State Examination

For first part maximum ticket – 38 points.
For solving problems second part - 20 points.

The points received for correctly completed tasks are summed up.

Converting points to grades

• 0-35 points - 2,
• 36-54 points - 3,
• 55-71 points - 4,
• 72 and above points - 5;

To be admitted to a budget place at a prestigious university, you must score more than 84 points.

Decide! Go for it! Strive for the best!

1) What function did the ants participating in the experiment perform in the anthill?

2) What did the experimenters feed the ants before the experiment?

3) What is the optimal ratio of proteins and carbohydrates in the diet of black garden ants that ensures their life for up to 400 days?

WHAT DOES AN ANT PREFER TO EAT?

Black garden ants turn out to be a very convenient object for studying the influence of nutrition on life expectancy. Under natural conditions, they feed on honeydew - the sweet sap of plants, as well as dead insects. But what and how much an individual ant eats is difficult to understand, because the distribution of prey brought by foraging ants occurs in the bowels of the nest. Before the experiment, it was known that the protein part of the food is mainly used to feed the larvae, while adults prefer plant foods. It turned out to be difficult to study the problem of nutrition, since ant colonies are heterogeneous in composition, so an experiment was carried out.

Previously, scientists formed more than 100 experimental groups of 200 worker foraging ants each. Insects were sampled outside the nest while they were foraging. There were no queens or larvae in these homogeneous groups. Each group was placed in a “nest” - a plastic cup with a diameter of 10 cm, the bottom of which was lined with damp cotton wool. The nest was placed on a round stand with a diameter of 12 cm with very slippery walls that did not allow insects to escape. In the same zone, the ants were fed from a single feeder - this made it easier to take into account the food consumed per day, the number of ants at the feeder and the number of feeding insects. First, they were given a 15% solution of bee honey and mealworms (mealworm larvae), and a week later, when the insects had become accustomed to the new place, they began the experiment.

At the first stage of the experiment, scientists decided to test how the ratio of proteins and carbohydrates affects the lifespan of ants. Artificial food was prepared for insects, in which the total concentration of nutrients was constant, the content of vitamins, minerals and fats remained unchanged, and the ratio of proteins and carbohydrates was 5:1, 3:1, 1:3 and 1:5. Each of these four diets was tested by 32 experimental groups. Every day, the researchers removed dead ants from the nest; the experiment lasted until all the insects died. As a result, it was found that the groups that were predominantly on a carbohydrate diet lasted about 400 days, and those with a maximum predominance of proteins barely reached 50 days. Thus, scientists were able to establish the most optimal ratio of carbohydrate and protein foods in the diet of foraging ants.

34-“How can biochemical analysis be used to distinguish viruses containing RNA from those containing DNA? Give two differences."

Sample answer:

1. RNA-containing viruses, unlike DNA-containing ones, will contain uracil rather than thymine;

2. RNA-containing viruses, unlike DNA-containing ones, will contain ribose rather than deoxyribose.

34-For what purpose in some regions of Russia - in Altai,

in Primorye, Rostov region, do doctors recommend adding iodized salt to food, eating seafood (fish, seaweed)? Explain your answer.

1.Iodized salt and seafood are sources

iodine, which is part of thyroxine, the thyroid hormone.

2. In these areas, the amount of

iodine, and people experience endemic goiter (growth

thyroid gland to compensate for the lack of hormone);

These products help prevent diseases

thyroid gland.

34-Why is there strong “blooming” of water in ponds and lakes?

accompanied by fish death.

1.Water blooms are caused by blue-green algae

(cyanobacteria), and they are poisonous;

2. During photosynthesis, algae produce large

amount of oxygen, but living organisms lack it,

because in well-heated water, the solubility of oxygen increases dramatically

decreases and it is released into the atmosphere in the form of bubbles.

34-The criminal, in order to hide traces of the crime, burned the bloody clothes of the victim.

A forensic expert determined the presence of blood on the clothing. How was this done?

1.After combustion, chemicals remain in the ash

elements that were part of the burnt object;

2. The composition of red blood cells - erythrocytes - includes

hemoglobin, which contains iron; if the ashes are an expert

found increased iron content, therefore

there was blood on the clothes.

What letters are indicated in the picture?

“Fern development cycle” haploid stages of development?

Name them.

Haploid stages of development:

1.B-dispute

2.G-prothallus

3.D-antheridium, archegonia, sperm, egg

35-What are the structural elements of an animal cell membrane?

cells are indicated in the figure by numbers 1,2,3 and what functions

do they fulfill?

1-glycocalyx (complex of carbohydrates and proteins),

ensures the union of similar cells into tissues,

performs a signaling function;

2- protein molecules that perform structural

(construction), receptor (signal),

enzymatic (catalytic),

transport and other functions.

3-lipid bilayer, the basis of the cell membrane,

delimits the internal contents of the cell and

ensures selective supply of substances;

The structure of what substance is shown in the figure?

What is indicated by numbers 1-3 in the picture?

What is the role of this substance?

tRNA molecule;

1-anticodon; 2-acceptor site; 3-amino acid;

Transport of amino acids to the site of protein synthesis;

36-Find errors in the given text. Please provide offer numbers.

1.The human urinary system contains the kidneys, adrenal glands, ureters, bladder and urethra;

2. The main organ of the excretory system is the kidneys;

3. Blood and lymph containing the end products of metabolism enter the kidneys through the vessels;

4.Blood filtration and urine formation occur in the renal pelvis;

5. Absorption of excess water into the blood occurs in the nephron tubule;

6.Urine enters the bladder through the ureters.

Errors

1.1-The human urinary system contains the kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra;

2.3-Blood containing the end products of metabolism enters the kidneys through the vessels;

3.4-Blood filtration and urine formation occur in the nephrons;

36-The cerebral cortex is formed by gray matter

1. Gray matter consists of long processes of neurons;

2.Each hemisphere is divided into the frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital lobes;

3. The conductor section of the analyzer is located in the cortex;

4. The auditory zone is located in the parietal lobe;

5. The visual zone is located in the occipital lobe of the cerebral cortex.

Errors

2-Gray matter consists of neuron cell bodies;

2. 4-The central section of the analyzer is located in the cortex;

3. 5-The auditory zone is located in the temporal lobe;

36-Find errors in the given text and correct them.

1. Fertilized eggs of the liver fluke are hatched from the intestines of the intermediate host, and some of them end up in the reservoir.

2. Here the tailed larvae emerge from the eggs.

3. These larvae invade the body of the small pond snail, which is the definitive host.

4.After leaving the pond snail, the tailed larvae turn into cysts.

5. In the spring, cows or sheep eat cysts and become infected with flukes.

1-Fertilized eggs of the liver fluke are hatched from the definitive host and some of them end up in the reservoir.

2.2-Here larvae with cilia emerge from the eggs.

3.3-These larvae penetrate the body of the small pond snail, which is an intermediate host.

37-Caterpillars of the turnip white butterfly are light green in color and are invisible against the background of cruciferous leaves. Explain, based on evolutionary theory, the emergence of protective coloring in this insect.

Response Elements

As a result of hereditary variability(mutations) light green caterpillars appeared

Mainly in BZS received insects whose coloring was in harmony with the leaves of cruciferous plants, making them less noticeable

In the process of natural selection over many generations, individuals with useful traits survived and left offspring, which led to the consolidation of the useful trait

Carp were released into an artificial pond. Explain how this can affect the number of insect larvae, crucian carp and pike living in it

1. Carps feed on insect larvae, so the number of larvae will decrease;

2. According to the principle of Gause’s law of competitive exclusion, carp are competitors of crucian carp, therefore interspecific struggle intensifies, which leads to the displacement or reduction of the number of crucian carp.

3. The number of pikes is increasing, since carp are food for pikes.

38-What is the connection between respiration and photosynthesis in plants?

Response elements:

1.during photosynthesis, CO is absorbed 2 and O 2 is released , it is used in the respiration of organisms, and CO 2 goes to synthesis

C 6 H 12 O 6 (glucose).

2. as a result of photosynthesis, the energy of the Sun is converted into the energy of chemical bonds of organic substances; during respiration, the energy of the breakdown of organic substances is used for the synthesis of ATP

3. as a result of photosynthesis, organic substances are synthesized, and during respiration these substances are oxidized

38-The oxygen cycle occurs in nature. What role do living organisms play in this process? Explain your answer.

Oxygen is formed in plants from water during the process of photosynthesis and released into the atmosphere;

In the process of respiration, oxygen is used by organisms; in their cells, water and carbon dioxide are formed in the process of energy exchange;

Chemosynthetic bacteria use oxygen to oxidize inorganic substances to produce ATP.

39-A somatic cell of an animal is characterized by a diploid set of chromosomes. Determine the chromosome set (n) and the number of DNA molecules (c) in the cell at the end of telophase of meiosis 1 and anaphase of meiosis 2. Explain the results in each case.

Scheme for solving the problem:

1. At the end of the telophase of meiosis I set of chromosomes-n,

DNA-2c number;

2. In anaphase of meiosis II, the set of chromosomes is 2n, the number of DNA is 2c;

3. At the end of telophase I, reduction division occurred, the number of chromosomes and DNA decreased by 2 times;

4. In anaphase of meiosis II, sister chromatids (chromosomes) diverge to the poles, therefore the number of chromosomes and DNA is equal.

Sections 3 and 4 provide an explanation of the results obtained.If the answer is 1 and 2, 1 point is given, if 3 and 4, then 3 points.

39-Determine how many times the glucagon protein molecule is lighter than the structural gene encoding it. Glucagon consists of 29 amino acid residues. The average mass of one amino acid residue is 110 amu. The average molecular weight of one nucleotide is 345 amu.

1. Protein mass 110x29=3190 amu.

2. One amino acid is encoded by three nucleotides, therefore the number of nucleotides is 29x3=87

Gene mass 87x345=30015

3. The mass of the protein is 9.4 times less than the mass of the gene

30015/3190=9,4

During glycolysis, 60 molecules of PVA (pyruvic acid) were formed. How many glucose molecules were broken down and how many ATP molecules were formed during hydrolysis and complete oxidation of this amount of glucose? Explain your results.

1. From one molecule of glucose 2 molecules of PVA are formed, therefore 30 molecules of glucose were split (60/2=30).

2. When 1 glucose molecule is hydrolyzed, 36 ATP molecules are formed, and when 30 glucose molecules are hydrolyzed, 30x36 = 1080 ATP molecules are formed.

3. With the complete oxidation of 1 glucose molecule, 38 ATP molecules are formed, and with the hydrolysis of 30 glucose molecules, 30x38 = 1140 ATP molecules are formed.

39. In the sequence of one of the DNA chains, which has the structure –GCAGGGTATCGT-, a mutation occurred—the loss of the first nucleotide in the fourth triplet. Using the genetic code table, determine the original structure of the protein. How will this change affect the structure of the protein molecule? What type of mutation does this change belong to? Explain your answer.

1. The sequence of nucleotides in i-RNA: -CGUCCCAUAGCA-;

initial protein structure: arg-pro-ile-ala;

2. In the event of a mutation, a section of the protein molecule will become shorter by one amino acid -ALA-, a shift in the reading frame will occur, which will lead to a change in the amino acid sequence in the protein molecule (primary structure);

3.Gene (point) mutation.

39The haploid set of chromosomes of a guinea fowl is 38. How many chromosomes and DNA molecules are contained in skin cells before division, in anaphase and telophase of mitosis? Explain your answer.

1. Before division, chromosomes double (consist of two chromatids), therefore, skin cells (they have a diploid set of chromosomes) contain 76 chromosomes and 152 DNA molecules;

2. In anaphase of mitosis, daughter chromatids diverge to opposite poles, but the cell has not yet divided, therefore there are 76 chromosomes, 152 DNA molecules (or 76 at each pole);

3. In telophase, 2 daughter cells are formed with a diploid set of chromosomes, which contain 76 chromosomes and 76 DNA molecules.

39-Protein consists of 315 amino acids. Determine the number of nucleotides in the sections of DNA and mRNA molecules that encode this protein, as well as the number of molecules

tRNA necessary to transport these amino acids to the site of protein synthesis. Explain your answer.

1. The genetic code is triplet - one amino acid is encoded by three nucleotides, the number of nucleotides per mRNA-315x3 = 945;

2. The number of nucleotides on i-RNA corresponds to the number of nucleotides on one DNA strand, i.e. also 945 nucleotides;

3. Each amino acid is transported to the site of protein synthesis by one tRNA molecule, therefore, the number of tRNAs is equal to the number of amino acids (315 tRNA molecules).

Analyze the result of the crossing, draw a conclusion about the nature of inheritance and explain the reasons for such results.

In maize, the genes “shortened internodes” (b) and “incipient panicle” (v) are recessive. When conducting an analytical crossing of a plant with normal internodes and a normal panicle, the following offspring were obtained: 48% with normal internodes and a normal panicle, 48% with shortened internodes and a rudimentary panicle, 2% with normal internodes and a rudimentary panicle, 2% with shortened internodes and a normal panicle. broom Determine the genotypes of parents and offspring. Draw up a crossover diagram for the problem. Explain your results. What laws of heredity are manifested in this case?

Scheme for solving the problem:

Genotypes of parents: norm BbVvxbbvv

Gametes BVBvbVbvbv

Genotypes of offspring:

48% - BbVv, with normal internodes and normal panicle

48% - bbvv, with shortened internodes and rudimentary panicle

2% -Bvbv with normal internodes and rudimentary panicle,

2% - bbVv with shortened internodes and normal panicle.

The appearance in the offspring of two numerous groups (48% each) allows us to conclude that the inheritance of these genes is linked; the presence of two more groups (2% each) is explained by a violation of gene linkage as a result of crossing over; Morgan's laws of linked inheritance and disruption of gene linkage appear.

40. White kittens with orange eyes were born from a Persian cat with white fur and orange eyes and a chocolate cat with copper eyes. When crossing cats with each other and cats from F1, kittens were always obtained

white with orange eyes and chocolate with copper eyes.

Make a diagram for solving the problem. Determine the genotypes of the parents,

descendants of F1 and F2. What laws of heredity are manifested in them?

Ulyanovsk: UlGU; Part 1 - 2005, 176 p., Part 2 - 2006, 195 p.

The textbook reflects the current state of science about the general laws of the origin and development of life on Earth - general biology. Ideas about the structural and functional organization of living systems at all levels, from the molecular to the biosphere, are presented in a form accessible to junior university students. Particular attention is paid to the cellular and organismal levels of organization of living things, the patterns of heredity, variability and evolution of organisms, their relationships with each other and with inanimate nature. The textbook is intended for university students studying biological, medical and agricultural specialties.

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Part 1.
INTRODUCTION 3
CHAPTER 1. LIFE AS A NATURAL PHENOMENON 9
1.1. Defining the essence of life 9
1.2. Substrate of life 10
1.3. Properties of living things 11
1.4. Fundamental properties of life 12
1.5. Levels of life organization 13
CHAPTER2. CELL BIOLOGY 16
2.1. The cell is the elementary structural, functional and genetic unit of life 16
2.2. The main stages of development and the current state of cell theory 16
2.3. Structural organization of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells 20
2.4. Surface apparatus of cell 23
2.5. Cytoplasmic apparatus of cell 30
2.5.1. Hyaloplasma 30
2.5.2. Organelles (organoids) of cells 32
2.5.2.1. Membrane organelles (organelles) 34
2.5.2.2. Non-membrane organelles (organelles) 41
2.6. Cell nuclear apparatus 49
2.7. Cell life cycle 55
2.7.1. Concept of the cell life cycle 55
2.7.2. Interphase 56
2.7.2.1. Postmitotic period 57
2.7.2.2. Synthetic period. Self-Duplication of DNA 57
2.7.2.3. Premitotic period 64
2.7.2.4. Mitotic period 65
2.7.2.5. Cell renewal in cell populations 69
2.7.2.6. Cell response to adverse effects... 70
2.7.2.7. Cell dystrophy 70
CHAPTER 3. REPRODUCTION OF ORGANISMS 73
3.1. Reproduction is a universal property of living things. Evolution of Reproduction 73
3.2. Asexual reproduction 73
3.2.1. Monocytogenic asexual reproduction 73
3.2.2. Polycytogenic asexual reproduction 75
3.3. Sexual reproduction 76
3.3.1. Evolution of methods of sexual reproduction 77
3.3.2. Gametogenesis 82
3.3.3. Fertilization 91
3.4. Ways of interspecific exchange of biological information 92
3.5. Biological aspects of sexual dimorphism 95
CHAPTER 4. ORGANIZATION OF HEREDITARY MATERIAL 97
4.1. Subject, tasks and methods of genetics. Stages of genetic development 97
4.2. Structural and functional levels of organization of hereditary material 100
4.3. Gene as a functional unit of heredity. Classification, properties and localization of genes 102
4.4. Basic provisions of the chromosomal theory of heredity 108
CHAPTER 5. REGULARITIES OF INHERITANCE BY
5.1. Heredity as a property of ensuring material continuity between generations 110
5.2. Types and patterns of inheritance 111
5.3. Phenotype as a result of the implementation of a genotype under certain environmental conditions 117
5.4. Molecular biological concepts of the structure and functioning of genes. Gene expression and its regulation 118
5.5. Gene interaction 122
5.5.1. Interaction of allelic genes 122
5.5.2. Interaction of non-allelic genes 125
5.6. Pleiotropy 129
5.7. Multiple allelism 131
5.8. Expressiveness and penetrance. Genocopies 133
5.9. Genetic engineering 134
CHAPTER 6. VARIABILITY 137
6.1. Variability as a universal property of living things 137
6.2. Modification variability, its adaptive nature, the significance of ontogenesis and evolution 138
6.3. Statistical methods for studying modification variability 143
6.4. Genotypic variability. Mechanisms and biology 146

Part 2.
CHAPTER 7. INDIVIDUAL DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANISMS 3
7.1. Life cycles of organisms as a reflection of their evolution. The concept of ontogenesis. Periodization of ontogeny, 3
7.2. The struggle of materialism and idealism in solving the problem of development. Preformationism and epigenesis 8
7.3. General characteristics of the stages of embryonic development 11
7.3.1. Crushing 11
7.3.2. Gastrulation 18
7.3.3. Stage of primary organogenesis 27
7.3.4. Stage of definitive organogenesis 28
7.4. Extraembryonic (provisional) organs 28
CHAPTER 8. REGULARITIES AND MECHANISMS OF ONTOGENESIS 31
8.1. Differentiation in development. Stages of differentiation 31
8.2. Cell differentiation factors 32
8.3. Mechanisms of selective gene activity 37
8.4. Integrity of ontogeny. Integration in development. The concept of correlations 39
8.5. The role of heredity and environment in ontogenesis 44
8.6. Critical periods of development. Teratogenic environmental factors 45
CHAPTER 9. POSTNATAL ONTOGENESIS AND THE PROBLEM OF HOMEOSTASIS 48
9.1. General characteristics of postnatal ontogenesis (postembryonic development) 48
9.2. Biological aspects and mechanisms of aging 50
9.3. Biological and clinical death 53
9.4. The concept of homeostasis. General patterns of homeostasis in living systems 54
9.5. Regeneration of organs and tissues as a developmental process 58
9.5.1. Physiological regeneration 59
9.5.2. Reparative regeneration 60
9.5.3. Pathological regeneration 62
9.5.4. Methods of reparative regeneration 63
9.6. Biological rhythms. The importance of chronobiology in medicine 65
CHAPTER 10. HISTORY OF THE FORMATION OF EVOLUTIONARY TEACHING 69
10.1. Pre-Darwinian period of formation of the evolutionary idea 69
10.2. The emergence of Darwinism 70
10.3. Basic provisions of the evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin 78
10.4. Characteristics of the modern period of synthesis of Darwinism and genetics. Modern (synthetic) theory of evolution 83
10.5. Biological species - a really existing group of individuals in nature 85
10.6. Macro- and microevolution. Characteristics of their results 87
CHAPTER 11. POPULATION - ELEMENTARY UNIT OF EVOLUTION. FACTORS OF EVOLUTION 90
11.1. Population is the elementary unit of evolution. A meaningful and mathematical expression of the Hardy-Weinberg law. The concept of a primary evolutionary phenomenon 90
11.2. Characteristics of elementary evolutionary factors 94
11.2.1. Mutations 94
11.2.2. Population waves 97
11.2.3. Isolation 99
11.2.4. Adaptive nature and forms of natural selection 101
11.2.4.1. Driving selection 102
11.2.4.2. Stabilizing selection 103
11.2.4.3. Disruptive selection 105
11.3. Speciation and adaptation formation 106
11.3.1. Methods of speciation 106
11.3.2. Adaptations and pre-adaptations 108
11.3.3. The concept of an ecological niche 110
11.4. Specificity of the action of elementary evolutionary factors in human populations
11.4.1. Population structure of humanity 110
11.4.2. The influence of the mutation process on the genetic constitution of people 111
11.4.3. Specificity of the action of natural selection in human populations. Population genetic effects of selection-counter-selection systems 113
11.4.4: Genetic polymorphism and the genetic load of humanity. Genetic polymorphism 116
CHAPTER 12. ORGANIC WORLD AS A RESULT OF THE PROCESS OF EVOLUTION 122
12.1. The emergence of life on Earth 122
12.2. The problem of the direction of the evolutionary process 128
12.3. Biological and morphophysiological progress, their criteria and genetic basis 129
12.4. Irreversibility of evolution. Principles of organ evolution 134
12.5. Phylogenetic connections in living nature and natural classification of living forms 137
CHAPTER 13. ANTHROPOGENESIS 141
13.1. Position of the species Homo sapiens in the animal world. Qualitative originality of a person 141
13.2. Stages (stages) of anthropogenesis 144
13.3. Biological factors of anthropogenesis 149
13.4. Specifics of the action of biological factors in the modern period of anthropogenesis 150
13.5. Social factors of anthropogenesis 150
13.6. “Blind spots” of the problem of anthropogenesis 151
13.7. Modern hypotheses of human origin 154
13.8. Races and species unity of humanity 158
13.9. Human biological inheritance, its significance in determining human health. Criticism of the provisions of biologizing concepts of human nature and factors of human development 160
13.10. Humanity's Prospects 162
CHAPTER 14. INTRODUCTION TO ECOLOGY. BIOGRAPHICAL AND ANTHROPOGENIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ENVIRONMENT 165
14.1. Ecology as the science of the relationships of organisms with the environment 165
14.2. The concept of environmental factors, ecosystem, biogeocenosis 166
14.3. Biogeocenosis as a relatively stable self-regulating natural complex 168
14.4. Anthropobiogeocenosis. Specifics of people's living environment 172
14.5. Subject of human ecology. Biological and social aspects of human adaptation, its indirect nature 175
14.6. General characteristics of anthropogenic systems 178
14.7. Biological variability of people and biogeographic characteristics of the environment. Ecological differentiation of humanity 179
CHAPTER 15. MAN AND THE BIOSPHERE 182
15.1. The concept of the biosphere. Modern concepts of the biosphere 182
15.2. Living matter and functions of the biosphere 183
15.3. Evolution of the biosphere 186
15.4. The noosphere is the highest stage of the evolution of the biosphere. Man as a natural object and an active element of the biosphere 187
15.5. International programs for the study of the biosphere 190

INTRODUCTION
Biology is a science or, more precisely, a system of sciences about living things. Biology studies the diversity of existing and extinct living beings, their structure and functions, origin, evolution, distribution and individual development, connections with each other and with inanimate nature. Biology originated in ancient times (Hippocrates, Aristotle, Galen), but received its name only in 1802, when the term in its modern interpretation was proposed by the French scientist J. B. Lamarck and the German researcher G. R. Treviranus.
Man began to collect the first information about living beings from the time he isolated himself from the surrounding nature, realizing his difference from its objects. From the surviving literary monuments it is known that the ancient Indians, Babylonians, Egyptians and other peoples already knew a lot about plants and animals. In the 14th century in Mesopotamia, knowledge about plants, divided into trees, vegetables, medicinal herbs, etc., as well as about carnivores and herbivores, was systematized, as follows from the cuneiform tablets that have come down to us from those times. The study of living nature was dictated by two urgent needs of humanity: 1) the need to know plants and animals in order to satisfy their needs for plant and animal food; 2) the need to understand the human body in order to improve the ancient art of healing. Indian works on medicine, created in the 6th -1st centuries BC, summarize ideas about the reasons for the similarity of parents and children, and the monuments “Mahabharata” and “Ramayana” describe the life of plants and animals. Breeding methods were first studied in ancient China silkworms.
The slave-owning period of human history was marked by the formation of the Ionian, Athenian, Alexandrian and Roman schools in the study of living nature. The philosophers of the Ionian school (Ionia, VI-IV centuries BC) did not believe in the supernatural origin of life, recognizing the causality of all phenomena. The most prominent representatives of this school were Alcmaeon (VI - V centuries BC), who described the optic nerve and the development of the chicken embryo, and Hippocrates (460 - 370 BC), who was the first to describe in detail the structure of the human body and animals, who studied the role of heredity and environment in the development of diseases.
The most prominent representative of the Athenian school, Aristotle (384 - 322 BC), considered the founder of zoology, devoted four treatises to animals. He developed the first classification of animals, dividing them into four-legged, flying, feathered and fish. Aristotle described human organs, the origin of sex and the inheritance of individual characteristics.