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Architecture the art of building in which human requirements and construction materials are related so as to furnish practical use as well as an aesthetic solution, thus differing from the pure utility of engineering construction. As an art, architecture is essentially abstract and nonrepresentational and involves the manipulation of the relationships of spaces, volumes, planes, masses, and voids. Time is also an important factor in architecture, since a building is usually comprehended in a succession of experiences rather than all at once. In most architecture there is no one vantage point from which the whole structure can be understood. The use of light and shadow, as well as surface decoration, can greatly enhance a structure.
The analysis of building types provides an insight into past cultures and eras. Behind each of the greater styles lies not a casual trend nor a vogue, but a period of serious and urgent experimentation directed toward answering the needs of a specific way of life. Climate, methods of labor, available materials, and economy of means all impose their dictates. Each of the greater styles has been aided by the discovery of new construction methods. Once developed, a method survives tenaciously, giving way only when social changes or new building techniques have reduced it. That evolutionary process is exemplified by the history of modern architecture, which developed from the first uses of structural iron and steel in the mid-19th cent.
Until the 20th cent. there were three great developments in architectural construction-the post-and-lintel, or trabeated, system; the arch system, either the cohesive type, employing plastic materials hardening into a homogeneous mass, or the thrust type, in which the loads are received and counterbalanced at definite points; and the modern steel-skeleton system. In the 20th cent. new forms of building have been devised, with the use of reinforced concrete and the development of geodesic and stressed-skin (light material, reinforced) structures.
See also articles under countries, e.g., American architecture; styles, e.g., baroque; periods, e.g., Gothic architecture and art; individual architects, e.g., Andrea Palladio; individual stylistic and structural elements, e.g., tracery, orientation; specific building types, e.g., pagoda, apartment house.
Architecture of the Ancient World
In Egyptian architecture, to which belong some of the earliest extant structures to be called architecture (erected by the Egyptians before 3000 BC), the post-and-lintel system was employed exclusively and produced the earliest stone columnar buildings in history. The architecture of W Asia from the same era employed the same system; however, arched construction was also known and used. The Chaldaeans and Assyrians, dependent upon clay as their chief material, built vaulted roofs of damp mud bricks that adhered to form a solid shell.
After generations of experimentation with buildings of limited variety the Greeks gave to the simple post-and-lintel system the purest, most perfect expression it was to attain. Roman architecture, borrowing and combining the columns of Greece and the arches of Asia, produced a wide variety of monumental buildings throughout the Western world. Their momentous invention of concrete enabled the imperial builders to exploit successfully the vault construction of W Asia and to cover vast unbroken floor spaces with great vaults and domes, as in the rebuilt Pantheon (2d cent. AD;).
The Evolution of Styles in the Christian Era
The Romans and the early Christians also used the wooden truss for roofing the wide spans of their basilica halls. Neither Greek, Chinese, nor Japanese architecture used the vault system of construction. However, in the Asian division of the Roman Empire, vault development continued; Byzantine architects experimented with new principles and developed the pendentive, used brilliantly in the 6th cent. for the Church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople.
The Romanesque architecture of the early Middle Ages was notable for strong, simple, massive forms and vaults executed in cut stone. In Lombard Romanesque (11th cent.) the Byzantine concentration of vault thrusts was improved by the device of ribs and of piers to support them. The idea of an organic supporting and buttressing skeleton of masonry, here appearing in embryo, became the vitalizing aim of the medieval builders. In 13th-century Gothic architecture it emerged in perfected form, as in the Amiens and Chartres cathedrals.
The birth of Renaissance architecture (15th cent.) inaugurated a period of several hundred years in Western architecture during which the multiple and complex buildings of the modern world began to emerge, while at the same time no new and compelling structural conceptions appeared. The forms and ornaments of Roman antiquity were resuscitated again and again and were ordered into numberless new combinations, and structure served chiefly as a convenient tool for attaining these effects. The complex, highly decorated baroque style was the chief manifestation of the 17th-century architectural aesthetic. The Georgian style was among architecture"s notable 18th-century expressions. The first half of the 19th cent. was given over to the classic revival and the Gothic revival.
New World, New Architectures
The architects of the later 19th cent. found themselves in a world being reshaped by science, industry, and speed. A new eclecticism arose, such as the architecture based on the Ecole des Beaux-Arts , and what is commonly called Victorian architecture in Britain and the United States. The needs of a new society pressed them, while steel, reinforced concrete, and electricity were among the many new technical means at their disposal.
After more than a half-century of assimilation and experimentation, modern architecture, often called the International style, produced an astonishing variety of daring and original buildings, often steel substructures sheathed in glass. The Bauhaus was a strong influence on modern architecture. As the line between architecture and engineering became a shadow, 20th-century architecture often approached engineering, and modern works of engineering-airplane hangars, for example-often aimed at and achieved an undeniable beauty. More recently, postmodern architecture, which exploits and expands the technical innovations of modernism while often incorporating stylistic elements from other architectural styles or periods, has become an international movement.
WELCOME TO THE WORLD OF ARCHITECTURE TSTU Publishing House Учебное издание ДОБРО ПОЖАЛОВАТЬ В МИР АРХИТЕКТУРЫ Сборник текстов на английском языке Составители: ГВОЗДЕВА Анна Анатольевна НАЧЕРНАЯ Светлана Владимировна РЯБЦЕВА Елена Викторовна ЦИЛЕНКО Любовь Петровна Редактор З.Г. Чернова Компьютерное макетирование М. А. Филатовой Подписано в печать 20.05.04 Формат 60 × 84 / 16. Бумага офсетная. Печать офсетная. Гарнитура Тimes New Roman. Объем: 3,49 усл. печ. л.; 3,5 уч.-изд. л. Тираж 100 экз. С. 372М Издательско-полиграфический центр Тамбовского государственного технического университета, 392000, Тамбов, Советская, 106, к. 14 Министерство образования и науки Российской Федерации Тамбовский государственный технический университет ДОБРО ПОЖАЛОВАТЬ В МИР АРХИТЕКТУРЫ Сборник текстов на английском языке для студентов 1 курса архитектурно-строительных специальностей Тамбов Издательство ТГТУ 2004 УДК 802.0(076) ББК Ш13(Ан)я923 Д56 Рецензент: Кандидат педагогических наук Е.А. Воротнева Составители: А.А. Гвоздева, С.В. Начерная, Е.В. Рябцева, Л.П. Циленко Д56 Добро пожаловать в мир архитектуры: Сборник текстов на английском языке / Сост.: А.А. Гвоздева, С.В. Начерная, Е.В. Рябцева, Л.П. Циленко. Тамбов: Изд-во Тамб. гос. техн. ун-та, 2004. 60 с. Предлагаемые аутентичные тексты отвечают динамике современного научно- технического прогресса, специфике существующих в университете специально- стей, а также требованиям учебной программы по иностранному языку для сту- дентов очной и заочной форм обучения высших учебных заведений технического профиля. Сборник текстов предназначен для студентов первого курса архитектурно- строительных специальностей. УДК 802.0(076) ББК Ш13(Ан)я923 © Тамбовский государственный технический университет (ТГТУ), 2004 BOLSHOI THEATRE Widely considered as one of the most beautiful performance houses in the world, the Bolshoi Theatre stands as a testament to the enduring nature of the Russian character. For more than two hundred years through monarchies, revolution, totalitarianism, socialism, and war the Bolshoi has been a symbol of the grand character of the Russian spirit expressed in architec- ture, dance, and opera. More than an instrument to stir the love of the arts, the Bolshoi Theatre is very nearly a mu- sical instrument itself. The auditorium is trimmed in wood and its acoustics is arranged to mag- nify and amplify sounds from the stage. It is among the most acoustically perfect houses in the world. Outside, the faзade has been restored after a bomb hit it in 1941 during the Second World War. It features the figure of Apollo and his quadriga (chariot) over a structure resembling the Parthenon. Although it looks impressive from the front, the Theatre is in need of renovation af- ter putting on 300 performances a year for 150 years. The ten-year project is being overseen by UNESCO in cooperation with the government of the Russian Federation. It is financed through donations from governments, corporations, and individual benefactors. The first phase involves the construction of a building next door on Teatralnaya Square. That building will be a sister theater to the Bolshoi with a stage that the Bolshoi will perform on during phase two – when the original theater will be renovated. Once complete, the complex will include both theaters, an administration building, re- hearsal halls, a greenhouse, a building to house the Bolshoi Theatre Club, a museum, confer- ence hall, and workshop buildings. 1776 – The Bolshoi Theatre is established by Prince Peter Urusov. 1781 – The original building by Christian Rosberg and M. Medox is erected. 1805 – The building is destroyed by fire. 1825 – The second building is erected by Osip Bove at a cost of R 2,000,000.00. 1953 – The building is destroyed in a three-day fire. 1955 – The third building is erected. It is designed by Albert Kavos based on the design by Osip Bove. 1902 – Due to settling of the foundation, the walls of the auditorium shift, wedging the exit doors of two sections closed, trapping the audience inside. SAINT BASIL’S CATHEDRAL Saint Basil"s Cathedral is the most recognizable symbol of Russia. Its colorful onion domes are instantly recognizable around the world as emblems of Moscow and the Rus- sian Orthodox Church. The church is actually the Cathedral of the Protection of the Mother of God, known as "Theotokos" or "Bogoroditsa" in the Orthodox Church. But it is mostly known as Saint Basil"s Cathedral, named after the man who roamed the streets of Moscow trying to win converts during the reign of Ivan the Terrible (Tsar Ivan IV or Ivan Grozny). In spite of the brutal Russian winters and unforgiving summers, he many times conducted his crusade naked. It is the domes that make this, and other Russian Orthodox architecture unique. Saint Basil"s has a total of ten towers with domes. The largest is at the center of the cathedral known as the Church of the Feast of the Pokhrov. There are four more, each topping a church, located on a cardinal point, north, south, east, and west. Then an additional four at the northeast, southeast, northwest, and southwest points. Each of these eight churches represents an important historical event in Russian history. Then there is one that does not stand on a rose point. It was built in 1555 and is located over the grave of Saint Basil. It became part of the Cathedral in 1588. The cathedral may have been designed by Russian architects Posnik and Barma. But the early records are confusing, and they may be a single person. There is also a legend that the ca- thedral was designed by an Italian architect who was blinded so he could never create a more beautiful building. The root of this legend may lie in the fact that between 1475 and 1510 Ital- ian architects were employed to restore the Kremlin and two of its churches. In some ways, it is amazing that the cathedral has survived as long as it has. Two of the world"s most ruthless leaders – Napoleon and Stalin – tried to destroy it. Napoleon tried to burn it down with little success. Stalin wanted to have it razed so his military parades would have more room. Another Moscow legend has it that the demolition was stopped by an architect who threatened to slit his own throat on the cathedral steps in protest. CATHEDRAL OF SAINT MICHAEL THE ARCHANGEL If there"s one thing the Russians excel at it"s religious architecture. Across the country thou- sands of churches abandoned under Soviet rule are now being restored. There are a few, how- ever, that escaped decay because they were thought to be of special value to the people. One of them is the Cathedral of Saint Michel the Archangel – one of three cathedrals in or near the Kremlin, and one of two actually on Kremlin grounds. Like most other Russian Orthodox churches it features the special onion domes topped by gilded crosses that are commonplace. But this wasn"t built by a Russian. Italian architect Alevi- sio Novi was charged with rebuilding the great cathedral in Cathedral Square, also known as the "City of God." Moscow was to become the Third Rome, after Constantinople and, of course, the original Rome. Though at a casual glance it appears authentic Russian, his design is Italian Renaissance at its fundamentals even though he was required to make it palatable to Byzantine tastes. Inside, the tomb of Ivan the Terrible and dozens of other members of the Russian Royal family line the walls. THE HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT Built by Charles Barry and August Pugin in flamboyant neo-Gothic style between 1837 and 1860, the Houses of Parliament provide chambers, lobbies and offices for politicians, linked by some two miles (3.2 km) of passages. In the House of Commons, the Speaker presides over de- bates, the Government and Opposition facing each other over the dispatch boxes, with Minis- ters on the front benches. Bills are passed from here to the House of Lords, where some are amended. The Houses of Parliament are often referred to as the Palace of Westminster, having been constructed on the site of the home of monarchs from Edward I to Henry VIII. The old palace was destroyed in a calamitous fire in 1834, leaving only the medieval Westminster Hall, the cloister and undercroft of St Stephen"s Chapel, and the Jewel Tower built by Edward III in 1366 for his treasures. Westminster Hall, scene of many extravagant royal celebrations including coronation banquets, is dominated by a massive hammer – beam angel roof. The much-photographed Big Ben in St Stephen"s Tower is actually the name of the huge 13 1/2-ton bell that strikes the hours. Old pennies are used to adjust the clock"s mechanism, help- ing it to keep in perfect time. The minute hands on each of the four dials are as high as a dou- ble-decker bus. BIG BEN For tourists, photographers, residents, and even terrorists, this is the symbol of London. Big Ben is one of London"s best-known landmarks, and looks most spectacular at night when the clock faces are illuminated. You even know when parliament is in session, because a light shines above the clock face. The four dials of the clock are 23 feet square, the minute hand is 14 feet long and the figures are 2 feet high. Minutely regulated with a stack of coins placed on the huge pendulum, Big Ben is an excellent timekeeper, which has rarely stopped. Officially called the Clock Tower, millions of people around the world know it as "Big Ben." In truth, Big Ben is the name of the bell inside the clock, not the tower. But trying to convince people of that is akin to trying to stop a train with your car: it"s possible, but not worth the effort. Not a building on its own, the 320-foot Clock Tower is one of two towers flanking Eng- land"s Houses of Parliament. It was built after a fire in 1834 destroyed most of the existing structure. That inferno was caused by the burning of an abacus that was used for bookkeeping. The fire got out of control and took most of the building with it. Charles Barry was the winner of a competition to design the new center of government. He went with a Renaissance style, and married it with Neo-Gothic details by Augustus Pugin, including the towers. Inside the tower is Big Ben – a 13-ton bell that sounds the hours as time passes. There is no firm documentation on how the bell got its name. Some think it was named after boxer Ben Caunt. Others believe it was named after Sir Benjamin Hall, a rather hefty gentleman who was a commissioner in Westminster. This bell came originally from the old Palace of Westminster, it was given to the Dean of St. Paul’s by William III. Before returning to Westminster to hang in it"s present home, it was refashioned in White chapel in 1858. The BBC first broadcast the chimes on the 31st December 1923 – there is a microphone in the turret connected to Broadcasting House. During the second world war in 1941, an incendiary bomb destroyed the Commons cham- ber of the Houses of Parliament, but the clock tower remained intact and Big Ben continued to keep time and strike away the hours, its unique sound was broadcast to the nation and around the world, a welcome reassurance of hope to all who heard it. There are even cells within the clock tower where Members of Parliament can be impris- oned for a breach of parliamentary privilege, though this is rare; the last recorded case was in 1880. The tower is not open to the general public, but those with a "special interest" may arrange a visit to the top of the Clock Tower through their local (UK) MP. Either way, it is the quintessential London experience to emerge from the Underground, walk along the Thames on a foggy Sunday morning and hear Big Ben toll. If you"re not in Lon- don, it can still be heard frequently on the radio via the BBC World Service on AM in Europe, and satellite and short-wave elsewhere. 1949 – Big Ben"s time falls behind by 4½ minutes when a flock of birds perches on the minute hand. 1962 – Big Ben sounds the New Year ten minutes late because of a buildup of heavy snow on its hands. 20 March 2004 – Protestors scale Big Ben and unfurl a banner protesting war. 10 DOWNING STREET The modest faзade of this building does not reveal the power behind its legendary black door. This is the home of the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. It is from this place that, for hundreds of years, power has radiated throughout the kingdom. Though the portal appears modest, it conceals a much more complicated building inside. Number 10 is connected to another building, which used to be a standalone mansion. The Downing Street location gets its name from Sir George Downing, a civil servant who built the street on the site of the demolished Axe Brewery. It has been abandoned since the early 16th century. When that building was leveled, it became a residential zone. The earliest record of a home on the spot is from 1581. But the history goes back much far- ther than that. In the ninth century, the area was known as the Isle of Thorns. By the 11th cen- tury, King Canute had a palace constructed in the area. Subsequent rulers expanded their royal dwellings, and the area became commonly known as the seat of government. The last palace in this neighborhood was Whitehall, which burned down in 1698. However, it wasn"t until 1732 that King George II designated Number 10 the official resi- dence of the First Lord of the Treasury, who is also the Prime Minister. The first Prime Minister to live here was Sir Robert Walpole; the last private citizen to live here was a Mister Chicken who left in 1735. The mailbox outside reads, "First Lord of the Treasury." Technically speaking, it is his offi- cial residence. But since the Prime Minister is also the First Lord of the Treasury, it is the de facto Prime Minister"s residence. The building is made of yellow bricks. These were blackened by decades of exposure to sooty London air. They were cleaned in the 1960"s, and painted black because the public couldn"t cope with the yellow color. It is said that the front door of the build- ing can only be opened from the inside. 1500 – The Axe Brewery is abandoned and the land redeveloped. 1581 – First record of a residential home in this location. 1698 – Whitehall Palace burns down. 1732 – The building is designated the official home of the Prime Minister. 1732 – Number 10 is linked to a larger mansion to create a single building. 1735 – Mister Chicken moves out. The first British Prime Minister moves in. 1894 – Electric lights are installed. 1960 – Renovated to prevent collapse. The faзade was preserved, but everything else gutted and rebuilt. 7 February 1991 – The building is attacked by a mortar launched from a nearby van by Irish terrorists. The bomb landed in the backyard and blew out the windows. 1993 – The first computer cables are installed. TRAFALGAR SQUARE A large open square surrounded by wonderful buildings including the National Gallery, the National Portrait Gallery, and the building used as the fictional home of "Universal Exports" – James Bond"s cover company in all the 007 films. On a lazy Sunday morning great clouds of pigeons gather to pick up scraps from passersby. Admiral Nelson surveys London from his perch 145 feet above the city. This monument was erected in 1843 to honor his victories abroad. At the base of the monument are four sculptures depicting his battles in Egypt, Denmark, Cape Saint Vincent, and Trafalgar, where he died in 1805. After the battle he was placed in a barrel of alcohol and shipped back to England for bur- ial. That"s where we get the expression "pickled" referring to a drunken person. It"s also the root of the more obscure phrase "Tapping the Admiral," describing the process of getting drunk. Nevertheless, the four images were cast from cannons brought back to Eng- land after his triumphs in far-off lands. Trafalgar Square is also where the national Christmas tree is put up each year. It is an annual gift from Norway to thank England for taking in their royal family during the Second World War. WESTMINSTER ABBEY One of the "must see" sights in London, Westminster Abbey is known the world over. What is unknown however is just how old it is. The first church on the site is believed to have been constructed around the year 700. There are records of a church existing there as early as 1040 when Edward the Confessor was crowned. The abbey has its own gift shop, and you can make your own brass rubbings in another sec- tion. But be sure to watch your belongings while you do. Thieves have been known to make off with purses and bags belonging to people engrossed in their art. Also be warned that no photog- raphy is allowed inside, and it is still an active place of worship. So if a service is ongoing, please be respectful. WESTMINSTER ABBEY AND THE COSMATI PAVEMENTS IN POLITICS Many books on pavements and floor tiles consider technology or geometry without cover- ing the reasons as to how or why they came into being. Perhaps they do not have the unique history that the Westminster Abbey pavements do. This paper brings the reasons behind the construction of the pavements and brings them to life with the struggle they went through in the context of the politics of the times. The thirteenth century was a time when the politics of church and state were in high tur- moil. In 1215 King John had been forced by the Barons to sign Magna Carta. Henry III reigned from 1216 and was in the similar position of not being an absolute monarch, despite his belief that he was ruling with the divine right of kings, perhaps not helped by his being only nine when he ascended the throne. This was the century when the mother of parliaments was in its infancy. Moreover, Henry has his own agenda for the rebuilding of Westminster Abbey, aligning himself with the icon of St Edward the Confessor. There had been civil war and the king was subject to the authority of the Baronial Council, although their hold varied in severity, this re- stricted his ability to obtain money for his work on the Abbey. One can only marvel that so much was achieved, not least the construction of something as complex as the Great Pavement. Comparing that time with today"s secular society, it is hard to see how a saint can be such a force in defining how such work could be carried out. But Henry saw St Edward as "a saint of mighty power," supporting him in this life and standing ready to guide him to the next. One might say Henry was more concerned with his soul that his role in life and to this end claimed St Edward as his own and hence spent a considerable effort in reconstructing the Abbey. In today"s world of political spin (especially in the United Kingdom) one could be forgiven for thinking that it had been invented recently with the advent of mass communication. The ba- ronial council was manipulating the king so that he was forced to beg them to carry out his wishes rather than he commanded them. David Carpenter makes it clear that today"s politicians could learn a lot from history. So while Henry was claiming Edward for himself, they made sure they got a piece of the action. Edward the Confessor would protect the kingdom as well as the king and the members of the council were not averse to making sure their presence was noted. So their armorial shields are placed in the wall arcades of the aisles flanking the liturgi- cal choir. The timetable for reconstruction was not just driven by money, there were symbolic reasons too. Edward"s shrine had been moved once before defining his greatest feast day on 13 October, which was a Sunday in 1163. Henry freed himself to a large extent from the control of the ba- ronial council by 1263. He now had a target date for the translation of the shrine – 13 October 1269, which was also a Sunday. Such symmetry and calculated days might seem coincidental, but David Carpenter provides evidence that there was a great deal of credence placed on this. Apart from this date setting the agenda, Henry was getting old and was concerned for his salvation. He was also hoping for help from Edward the Confessor with the disorder in the kingdom and his financial difficulties (added to which, he wanted to send his son Edward on a crusade). So 1269 was to be the greatest event of his reign and he knew he was "meant" to live that long. The reconstruction work was completed, including the pavement in 1268, but the event itself did not go off well. Quarrels broke out during the ceremony and the bishops did not form a procession behind the body of Edward the Confessor. This carried on afterwards, so while Henry may have gained some prestige, the remaining three years of his reign were not smooth. THE CONTEXT AND FABRIC OF THE WESTMINSTER ABBEY SANCTUARY PAVEMENT Richard Foster"s book on the pavement was the one that first interested me in the subject. It makes a companion book for these papers, explaining the reasons why the pavement was built and providing a great more detail on the structure and symbolism of it. This paper ex- tends the book. In its description, he prefers the term opus sectile rather than Cosmati, seeing the former as a broader term and contrasting it with the technique of mosaic, where the pieces are the same size. He fills in the background on the why and how Cosmati work came to Westminster rather than the adopting the local technique of glazed tiling described above. The largest stretch of undisturbed Cosmati pavement is in the crypt of Anagni cathedral. Richard de Ware arrived at Anagni in 1260 for papal confirmation as the new abbot of Westminster. The Cosmati work there had been completed around 1230 and he was obviously impressed enough to bring back workmen and marble at his own expense to Westminster. The master was probably Petrus Oderisius who created Pope Clement IV"s tomb in Santa Maria in Gradi. Having established this, he goes on to support Christopher Norton"s ideas of the tradition of using opus sectile work for shrines and then gives a brief discussion of the geometry. When I met him after the conference and asked him about the geometry of the pavement he was shy of discussing it, perhaps seeing me as the type of "sacred geometer" that gives the study of such a geometry a bad name. I still do not see that there has been enough study of the geometric detail of the Great Pavement and the quincunx design on and around Edward the Confessor"s tomb related to the wider use of such designs in Cosmati work. The middle part of his paper is concerned with the identification of the materials. It is set in Purbeck marble as described in Christopher Norton"s paper. There are various other stones brought from Italy. Identification of many of the materials has been helped by a set of marble samples collected by the Roman lawyer Faustino Corsi that he gathered and catalogued from the decorative marbles in Rome in 1825. Corsi"s collection of 1000 samples is now in the Uni- versity Museum in Oxford. As well as cut stone there are smaller amounts of opaque and transparent glasses. The analysis of the opaque ones shows the closest match (with a high sodium and low potassium content) is found to be with enamels at Limoges. The transparent ones (with high potassium and low sodium) are typical of northwestern Europe. This again shows the wide international communication taking place at this time. The Great Pavement is unique in having an inscription. Richard Foster only goes into this briefly since his book on the pavement details it at length. This is also the best place to go for the cosmological significance of the pavement as whole. He is concerned here with the chemical analysis of the remaining letters and shows that they were probably cast at the same Royal Foundry that cast steelyard weights, the standards issued to merchants by the crown. The latter part of the paper is a chronology of the various restorations it has undergone in past 750 years. It is remarkable that so much has survived. (The next paper, by Nicholas Dur- nan brings this up to date.) There are over 50 notes and references. THE CONDITION AND CONSERVATION OF THE COSMATI PAVEMENTS AT WESTMINSTER ABBEY In 1997–98 Nicholas Durnan directed a survey, practical trials and remedial work on the pavements. The Great Pavement was particularly difficult to assess since you need to look down from the triforium to see it as a whole but down on your knees to get close enough to ap- preciate the intricate detail and workmanship. In the Great Pavement, the team was able to identify different geological material. Some dating from around 1268 as described by Richard Foster. Another two groups were from 1660 – 62 repairs and some late seventeenth/early eighteenth century ones and then the 1867–68 works by Gilbert Scott, which could be differentiated by mechanical cutting. Mortar varies from origi- nal hard opus signinum (with Roman Brick dust) with later soft lime motor and Scott"s Portland cement. For Edward the Confessor"s shrine area, much 1268 material is present with later repairs and some early twentieth-century, poorly worked, reconstruction. The condition of the pavement was remarkable considering its date. It was very dirty (espe- cially from the covering carpet) with some discolouring of the mortar. Although there are parts
Topic: The Architecture of England
Тема: Архитектура Англии
Like any other art form, the architecture of the state is , by which the inhabitants of other countries can judge the level of its cultural development and the peculiarities of its citizens’ character. England’s architecture is aristocratic and conservative. An eclectic diversity - these two words are the best to formulate the main feature of England’s architecture.
Как и любой другой вид искусства, архитектура государства является своего рода визитной карточкой, по которой жители других стран могут судить об уровне его культурного развития, особенностях характера его граждан. Архитектура Англии аристократична и консервативна. Эклектичное многообразие – эти два слова как нельзя лучше формулируют главную особенность архитектуры Англии.
Eclecticism or, in other words, historicism, suggests the presence At the same time, the British eclecticism tends to have its distinctive traits inherent to different stylistic schools of those times. These styles had been formed and developed sequentially. This continuity can be traced by examining the buildings of the Tudor, Georgian, Victorian and Edwardian periods.
Эклектика или, другими словами, историзм, предполагает присутствие в архитектуре Англии 15-18 веков основных черт европейской архитектуры. В то же время, британской эклектике свойственны неповторимые отличительные черты, присущие разным стилевым школам того времени. Эти стили формировались и развивались последовательно. Эту преемственность можно проследить, рассматривая здания Тюдоровского, Георгианского, Викторианского и Эдвардианского периодов.
Another outstanding feature of England’s architectural monuments which survived to our times is a pronounced functionality of the buildings. The thing is that the majority of large-scale structures of the most productive period in the development of the British architecture were defensive and religious buildings - fortresses, churches and monasteries. Of course, the purpose of the building could not but affect its appearance.
Другой яркой особенностью архитектурных памяток Англии, сохранившихся до наших времён, является также ярко выраженная функциональность зданий. Дело в том, что большинство масштабных сооружений самого продуктивного периода в развитии Британской архитектуры представляли собой оборонительные и культовые постройки – крепости, церкви, монастыри. Безусловно, предназначение здания не могло не отразиться на его внешнем облике.
The oldest and, accordingly, the fewest in England are the reminders of the Tudor period (16th century). Tudor-style buildings can be recognized by black wooden frames and steep roof arches surmounted by groups of chimneys decorated with ceramic ornaments. Another characteristic feature of this period’s buildings is the presence of small windows and narrow tall doors.
Самыми древними, а соответственно, и самыми немногочисленными в Англии являются памятки Тюдоровского периода (16 век). Здания Тюдоровского стиля можно узнать по крутым сводам крыш, увенчанным группами дымоходных труб разной формы с керамическими украшениями. Ещё одной характерной особенностью зданий этого периода являются небольшие окна и узкие высокие двери.
Gothic traits borrowed from the French architecture of the same period are manifested by the elongated, aspiring to the sky cathedral buildings with multiple lancet arches and wall-bounds. The most outstanding examples of Tudor architecture are considered to be The royal palace of Hampton Court near London and the buildings of Oxbridge colleges.
Готические черты, заимствованные у французской архитектуры того же периода, проявляются в вытянутых, устремленных к небу зданиях соборов с многочисленными стрельчатыми дугами и настенными переплётами. Самыми яркими примерами Тюдоровского зодчества считаются королевский дворец Хэмптон-Корт под Лондоном и колледжи Оксбриджа.
Modesty and nobility of this style inspired the British architects so much that in 19-20 centuries there emerged the style, imitating the old days’ trend – the Tudorbethan style. Such buildings as Liberty department store near Oxford Circus and numerous pubs on Fleet Street in Soho are designed in this style.
Cкромность и благородство этого стиля настолько вдохновляли английских архитекторов, что в 19-20 веках возник стиль, имитирующий старину – псевдотюдоровский. В этом стиле были оформлены универмаг Liberty близ площади Оксфорд Серкус, а также многочисленные пабы на Fleet Street и в Сохо
Georgian style, which was forming from the early 18th to mid-19th centuries, has witnessed the reign of King George the First, George The Second, George The Third and George The Fourth. The heyday of the British Empire explains the presence of some Georgian-style traits in the
Георгианский стиль, который формировался с начала 18-го по середину 19-го веков, стал свидетелем правления королей Георга Первого, Второго, Третьего и Четвёртого. Расцвет Британской империи объясняет присутствие черт Георгианского стиля в архитектурах стран, являвшихся её частями в этот период.
The Georgian style buildings are characterized by simple symmetrical layout and minimalistic decor presented by white ornament. The most outstanding examples of the Georgian style buildings are the famous Pushkin House, Hazlitts hotel in Soho and others. Such historic ensembles of central London as The Trafalgar Square, St James and Regent Street which were designed by John Nash, are deserving special attention. Many , located in the province of the British capital, are perfectly preserved and present popular objects of the real estate market.
Здания георгианского стиля характеризуются простой симметричной планировкой и минималистическим декором в виде белого орнамента. Яркими примерами георгианских зданий являются знаменитый Пушкин-Хаус, отель Хэзлиттс в Сохо и другие. Отдельного внимания заслуживают исторические ансамбли в центре Лондона, спроектированные Джоном Нэшем - Трафальгарская площадь, Сент-Джеймс и Риджент-стрит. Многие георгианские здания, расположенные в провинции британской столицы, прекрасно сохранились и являются популярными объектами рынка недвижимости.
The Victorian style of the British state’s highest degree of flourishing under the leadership of Queen Victoria from 1837 to 1901. This period in architecture can be described as the most motley, including the constructions from the neo-classical to neo-Gothic styles. You can dive into the atmosphere of the Victorian era going to one of such areas as Barnsberry Square, Gibson Square, Cloudsley Square, Lonsdale Square, Milner Square and Thornhill Square. Here you will see buildings with large windows and round "portholes", stained glass windows and moldings, unplastered facades and lancet windows, asymmetrical layout and quaint turrets. This is where the British eclectic was born.
Викторианкий стиль приходится на период пика расцвета Британского государства, достигнутого под руководством королевы Виктории – с 1837 по 1901. Этот период в архитектуре можно охарактеризовать как самый разношёрстный, включающий постройки от неоклассики до неоготики. Погрузиться в атмосферу викторианской эпохи можно, отправившись на одну из площадей - Барнсбери-сквер, Гибсон-сквер, Клаудсли-сквер, Лонсдейл-сквер, Милнер-сквер и Торнхилл-сквер. Здесь вы увидите здания с большими окнами и круглыми «иллюминаторами», витражами и лепниной, неоштукатуренными фасадами и стрельчатыми окнами, асимметричными планировками и причудливыми башенками. Именно здесь родилась английская эклектика.
The Edwardian style was developing during the reign of Edward the Seventh, who ascended to the throne after Queen Victoria and ruled for several decades. The buildings of this period carry the traits of baroque, neo-classical and Georgian architecture. They are designed in brighter colors and characterized by the simplicity of the layout as well as the modest ornamental load. The most notable Edwardian buildings in London are The Admiralty Arch, The Criminal Court "Old Bailey", County Hall on the South Bank of the Thames and the "Electric Cinema" in Notting Hill.
Эдвардианский стиль развивался во время правления Эдуарда Седьмого, взошедшего на трон после королевы Виктории и правившего на протяжении нескольких десятков лет. Здания этого периода носят черты барокко, георгианской архитектуры и неоклассики. Они выполнены в более светлых тонах, характеризуются простотой планировки и скромной орнаментальной нагрузкой. Наиболее примечательные лондонские эдвардианские здания – это Арка Адмиралтейства, уголовный суд «Олд Бейли», Каунти Холл на Южном берегу Темзы и кинотеатр «Электрик Синема» в Ноттинг Хилл.
They say, one look is worth a thousand words. Sightseeing tour on London’s architectural sights could become a perfect gift for a lover of architecture as well as for every English learner who wishes to learn more about the country of Albion and its people.
Как говорится, лучше один раз увидеть, чем сто раз услышать. Обзорная экскурсия по архитектурным памяткам Лондона могла бы стать прекрасным подарком как для любителя архитектуры, так и для любого ученика, изучающего английский и стремящегося узнать больше о стране Туманного Альбиона и её людях.
