Personal activity concept main types. Assessment of social activity

In psychology, activity is considered as one of the most important categories characterizing the active state of a person; a comprehensive characteristic of life, determined by innate needs acquired in ontogenesis and in the process of socialization of the individual. Activity is always aimed at eliminating either internal contradictions of the organism, or contradictions between the organism and the environment, between the subject and the environment, between the individual and the social environment. It manifests itself inside the body in the form of physiological, neurophysiological, mental processes, and outside the body - in the form of reactions, actions, behavioral acts, behavior, activity, communication, cognition, contemplation at the individual-subjective, individual-personal levels. The elimination of contradictions occurs either with a change in the subject himself or with a transformation of the environment.

Activity- the active state of living organisms as a condition for their existence in the world.
An active being is not simply in motion, it contains within itself the source of its own movement, and this source is reproduced in the course of the movement itself. In this case, we can talk about restoring the energy, structure, properties, processes and functions of a living being, its place in the world, generally speaking - about reproducing any dimensions of its life, if only they are considered essential and integral. Bearing in mind this special quality - the ability for self-movement, during which the individual reproduces himself - they say that he acts as a subject of activity. In the formation and existence of the human individual as a subject, such manifestations as activation, unconditional and conditioned reflex acts, search activity, Search modeling in behavior are presented, voluntary acts, will, acts of free self-determination and self-positing of the subject. In correlation with activity, the activity of the subject is defined as a dynamic condition of its formation, implementation and modification, as a property of its own movement.
Activity is characterized by such properties as spontaneity, that is, the conditioning of the acts performed by the specificity of the internal states of the individual at the moment of action, in contrast to reactivity as their conditioning by the previous situation; arbitrariness, that is, the conditionality of what is being done, the actual goal of the subject, in contrast to field behavior, supra-situationalism, that is, going beyond the boundaries of the preset, in contrast to adaptability, as the limitation of actions within the framework of a given one; effectiveness, that is, stability in relation to the goal being realized, in contrast to passivity as a tendency of non-resistance to circumstances that must be encountered in the future. The phenomenon of activity as a unity of spontaneity, arbitrariness, supra-situationalism and effectiveness cannot be comprehended within the framework of the traditional “cause-and-effect” scheme, as well as according to the “target causality” scheme. Apparently, it is necessary to single out a special type of causality, determined by the specifics of the individual’s current state at the moment of action. This kind of causation can be called relevant. In contrast to determination from the side of the “past” (usual cause-and-effect relationships) or from the side of a possible “future” (“target” determination), in this case the determining significance of the “moment” is emphasized. The correct form of description of this type of causality is contained in the works I. Kant - in his ideas about the “interaction” (or “communication”) of substances.

The normal state of a person, unless he is sleeping, is an active, active state. While a person lives, he constantly acts, does something, is busy with something - he works, plays sports, plays, communicates with people, reads, etc. new, he shows activity - external (movements, operations, muscle efforts) or internal (mental activity that is observed even in a motionless person when He thinks, reads, remembers, etc.). However, it is possible to distinguish between external and internal activity only conditionally. As research has shown, the work of thought, even when a person is not outwardly active, is associated with speech-motor micromovements (which can be registered). What we call “thinking to oneself” is speaking “to oneself,” since the thinking of a normal adult person exists in speech form. Therefore, any human activity is always associated with external movement, the movement of his muscles.
Activity is a person’s activity aimed at achieving consciously set goals related to meeting his needs and interests, and fulfilling the requirements for him from society and the state.
Without activity, human life is impossible. In the process of activity, a person learns about the world around him. Activity creates the material conditions of human life, without which he cannot exist - food, clothing, housing. In the process of activity, spiritual products are created: science, literature, music, painting. In the process of activity, a person changes the surrounding reality, with his work transforms the world around him: deserts become blooming gardens, rivers change their course and direction, cities arise in the tundra and taiga. A person’s activity shapes and changes him, his will, character, and abilities.
Human activity is fundamentally different from animal behavior, even if this behavior is quite complex. Firstly, human activity is conscious in nature - a person is aware of the goal and methods of achieving it, and foresees the result. Secondly, human activity is associated with the manufacture, use and storage of tools. Thirdly, human activity is of a social nature; it is carried out, as a rule, in a group and for a group. In the process of activity, a person enters into complex relationships with other people.
Animal behavior is neither conscious nor social (in the full sense of the word) in nature. Even higher animals do not plan their behavior and do not use tools.
Activity is determined (determined) by socio-historical conditions. A person cannot separate his activities from the life around him, from the demands of the society in which he lives. And his activities take on a different character depending on the demands of society. Consider, for example, human labor activity. At all times and eras, people have been engaged in labor activities that provide a product that satisfies the needs of society or the personal needs of a person. But in a capitalist society, a working person becomes an appendage of the machine, and his activity is directed by the capitalist only to obtain greater profits.
In our country, due to changing social conditions, work itself is becoming more and more a human need; it reveals the best sides of the personality of Soviet people. They will know the happiness of work.
The nature of this type of activity as teaching has also changed. The pre-revolutionary school taught the younger generation what was necessary to consolidate the rule of the oppressor class. And the teaching itself was in the nature of cramming and drilling. Teaching in a Soviet school is of a completely different nature. It gives the titles necessary for a person to fulfill his social duty - work for the common good. And the education itself is developmental in nature, it is aimed at developing active, independent, creative thinking in schoolchildren.
Necessary conditions for human activity are mental processes. They are, on the one hand, a mandatory characteristic of any human activity: whether a child plays, whether a schoolchild studies, whether a person works - all types of activity are always inextricably linked with attention, perception, memory, thinking, imagination, without which no human activity can be carried out . On the other hand, all mental processes occur, are formed and are regulated in activity. This is how the relationship between mental processes and human activity is realized. The child’s psyche determines his activities and is formed in his activities. In the play activity of a preschooler, one can trace the formation of his perception, memory, attention, and thinking. For a schoolchild, educational activity becomes of greatest importance, and under the influence of this activity, the student’s mental processes change qualitatively - his attention, cognitive processes become more and more intentional, controlled and regulated, their scope expands, their mobility, flexibility and other qualities improve.

The universal characteristic of life is activity - the active state of living organisms as a condition for their existence in the world.

Activity as an active state of the subject is determined from the inside, on his part relations to the world, and is realized outside– in processes behavior.

The fundamental difference between activity and activity is that activity comes from the need for an object, and activity comes from the need for activity.

4.1.Internal characteristics of activity. When talking about human activity, researchers usually mean that they can answer the following questions:

*If someone is active, then for what? (motivational basis of activity);

*Activity – in what direction? (target basis);

*How, through what psychological mechanisms, is activity realized? (instrumental basis).

The internal organization of human activity, according to A.V. Petrovsky, includes motivational, goal-oriented, and instrumental bases of activity.

Motivational basis of activity. Every living being, including the human individual, carries within itself an internal image of its life relationships with the world. For a person, these relationships are very diverse: responding to the needs of other people, feeling like a part of Nature, etc. n. All these are diverse forms subjectivity person.

Firstly, the subject of activity represents the “individual self” of a person. A person’s activities, as he himself believes, are motivated by his own interests and needs: “I do this because I want this,” “I do this for myself.”

Secondly, the subject of activity is the “I of the other in me,” when the “presence” of the other is experienced as a kind of invasion into one’s inner world.

Thirdly, the subject of activity is such that he cannot be identified with any of the people specifically - he is supra-individual. But at the same time, it relates to everyone, expressing what should be characteristic of all people - “the human in man”: conscience, reason, goodness, beauty, freedom.”

Fourthly, the subject of activity is impersonal and is identified with the natural body of the individual, “not I”: he is immersed in the element of the natural. In psychoanalytic concepts, this active principle is designated by the term “It” (S. Freud) and is considered as the focus of the forces of love (instinct of procreation) and death (instinct of destruction, aggression). “Not I,” however, with this view is not limited to purely biological motives: creativity, altruism and even religious aspirations are sometimes considered as manifestations of a purely natural principle.

In addition to the four indicated aspects of the motivational basis of activity, the internal organization of human activity consists of needs. Needs are the source of human activity.

Needs – This is the state of a living being, expressing its dependence on specific conditions of existence and serving as a source of its activity.

Human needs include vital needs and aspirations (from ‘vita’ - life): the need for food, water, sleep, a sense of security, etc.; social interests: the need to belong to a group of other people, to enter into emotional contacts, to have a certain status, etc.; existential urges:“to be the subject of your own life”, to feel self-identity, etc.

Target basis of activity. The process of satisfying the subject's needs presupposes the achievement of certain goals (final or intermediate).

Activity presupposes the presence of a conscious goal in a person’s activity.

A goal is what one strives for, what is intended to be achieved.. It is important to distinguish between the goals and motives of human activity.

Motives are an incentive to activity, which is associated with the satisfaction of needs in which the subject’s activity is manifested, and its direction is also determined.

In motives, as well as in goals, a possible future is anticipated. IN motives as if it is written what activity is for the subject, what should happen to himself. Goals activities are oriented outward, they anticipate the result that should exist objectively– be it an artistic canvas, a turned part, a proven theorem.

In contrast to the motives goals human activity always conscious. Target there is a result anticipated in consciousness, accessible to the understanding of the subject himself, as well as other people. Motives however, this is the property, first of all, of the subject himself; they can be represented by his unique and deep experiences, which do not always find a response and understanding from anyone else.

It is necessary to distinguish final And intermediate goals.

Achievement ultimate goal is equivalent to satisfying a need. Intermediate goals include those set by a person as a condition for achieving the final goal. Thus, an artist, making sketches of a future painting, pursues an intermediate goal.

The goal delivery process is denoted as goal setting.

Instrumental basis of activity. Its important components are knowledge, skills and abilities.

Knowledge is not only a set of information about something, but also the ability of people to navigate the system of social relations, to act according to circumstances in various life situations.

Skills are methods of using certain means of activity mastered to a degree of automation. A person performs an action “mechanically”. Such automated elements of action are found in any field of activity that has become familiar to a person. Thus, the ways of writing and connecting letters in a word are automated, but the writing process itself remains a purposeful, deliberate action.

A fund is formed based on knowledge and skills skills person.

Skill is the ability to consciously perform a necessary action.“Knowing” something does not mean “being able to”: it is necessary to master the methods of transforming information about any subject into control actions - “commands”. Unlike skills, each of which is formed by a series of automatically following one another “commands”, determined knowledge person, skills manifest themselves in a person’s conscious use of certain “commands.” Skills form the basis of personal mastery.

Skills and abilities are divided into several types: motor, cognitive, theoretical, practical.

Motor skills and abilities include a variety of movements, complex and simple, that make up the external, motor aspects of activity. There are special types of activities, such as sports, that are entirely based on motor skills and abilities.

Cognitive– include abilities associated with searching, perceiving, remembering and processing information. They correlate with basic mental processes and involve the formation of knowledge.

Theoretical– associated with abstract intelligence. They are expressed in a person’s ability to analyze, generalize material, build hypotheses, theories, and translate information from one sign system to another. Such skills and abilities are most manifested in creative work associated with obtaining an ideal product of thought.

Every problem has a solution - simple and convenient. And solving it requires knowledge and skills. G. Mencken

Practical – are formed in the course of a person’s practical activity, when he encounters not theory, but real life. They allow you to adapt to this life.

4.2.External organization of activity.Activity is the largest unit of analysis of external manifestations of activity, a holistic motivated act of behavior.

Under activities refers to the activity of a subject aimed at changing the world, at producing or generating a product of material or spiritual culture.

Human activity appears first as practical, material activity. Then theoretical activity is separated from it.

Every activity consists of a number of acts - actions or deeds, based on incentives or motives and aimed at a specific goal.

Under different conditions, a goal can be achieved in different ways ( operations) or paths ( methods), the action acts as a solution to the problem.

A person is characterized by a conscious separation of himself from nature, knowledge of its laws and a conscious influence on it.

A person as an individual sets goals for himself and is aware of the motives that encourage him to be active.

Any type of activity is associated with movements:

Muscular-muscular movement of the hand when writing, when performing a labor operation as a machine operator;

Or the movement of the speech apparatus when pronouncing words.

Movement is a physiological function of a living organism. Motor, or motor, function appears very early in humans.

The first movements are observed during the intrauterine period of development, in the embryo. The newborn screams and makes chaotic movements with his arms and legs; he also exhibits congenital complexes of complex movements; for example, sucking, grasping reflexes.

The infant's innate movements are not objectively directed and are stereotypical. As studies in childhood psychology show, accidental contact of a stimulus with the surface of a newborn’s palm causes a stereotypical grasping movement.

By physiological basis all human movements can be divided into two groups:

Congenital (unconditioned reflex);

Acquired (conditioned reflex).

The overwhelming number of movements, including movement in space, a person acquires through life experience, that is, most of his movements are conditioned reflex.

Only a small number of movements (screaming, blinking) are innate.

The motor development of a child is associated with the transformation of unconditionally reflex regulation of movements into a system of conditioned reflex connections.

The lifetime possibilities for the development of human movements are enormous. They are included in various types of work that serve interpersonal relationships.

Strengthened movement systems begin to express some individual personality characteristics.

Walking movements form the gait that distinguishes one person from another. Changes in gait and speed of movement are influenced by experiences.

A huge number of movements (facial expressions, gestures) convey feelings, thoughts, relationships. Gestures and facial expressions serve as sign language.

Speech sounds created by the movement of the larynx, tension of the vocal cords, and the oral cavity are movements that provide (through the sound of speech) information about a person’s mental states.

People's motor abilities vary. They are closely related to motor skills. In ballerinas, athletes, singers, and actors, their motor abilities are brought to such a degree of perfection that they become the object of aesthetic perception.

A system of movements aimed at an object with the aim of appropriating or changing it is called action.

IN difference from movements that are associated with the motor function of the body, actions are initially social in nature: they depend on objects created by previous generations that a person encounters.

The simplest steps are subject. The child learns to eat with a spoon, wash his hands with soap, and dry them with a towel. The objects themselves, created by human hands, contain a way of operating with them.

The child gradually masters the objective world, and his actions develop accordingly. From random contacts with objects, purposeful actions gradually develop.

The emergence of actions is associated with the selection of objects from the environment and their use in accordance with the needs of the child. In the first year of life, the selection of objects and operations with them are based only in a sensory image. With the development of speech, the word begins to direct and regulate the action, although the image remains its most important component.

Actions can be directed not only at the object, but also at surrounding people.

Then they become an act of behavior: an act if they correspond to the established norms of behavior in society, or a misdemeanor if they contradict them.

In psychology there is a distinction physical(external, motor) actions with objects and mental(internal, mental) actions with mental realities.

Research by psychologists L. S. Vygotsky, A. N. Leontyev, P. Ya. Galperin, N. F. Talyzina showed that mental actions are initially formed as external, objective ones and are gradually transferred to the internal plane.

The transfer of external action to the internal plan is called interiorization.

Let's look at this with an example. The child learns to count. First, he counts the sticks, placing them next to each other. Then a time comes when the sticks become unnecessary, since counting turns into a mental action, abstracted from the objects themselves and external action with them. The objects of operation are symbols: words and numbers.

The formation of a variety of mental actions ensures mental activity.

Mastery of mental activity leads to the fact that, before embarking on external activities aimed at achieving the desired goal, a person plans the action in his mind, using images and speech symbols.

External activities are directed and controlled by mental activity.

The implementation of mental action externally, in the form of actions with objects, is called exteriorization.

As already mentioned, activity is a dynamic system that is capable of change, and mutual transitions occur between the internal (mental) and external (physical) components.

The process of transition from external real action to internal ideal action is called interiorization.

Thanks to interiorization, the human psyche acquires the ability to operate with images of objects that are not currently in sight.

An important way of such a transition is the word, and the method of transition is a speech action.

The external side of activity - the movements with which a person influences the world around him - is determined and regulated by internal activity, motivational, cognitive and regulatory.

The process of transition from internal (mental) to external (objective) activity is called exteriorization. So, for example, after a thoughtful course of solving a problem, the student begins to write down the sequence of actions in a notebook.

External activities are controlled by an internal plan of action. A person compares the action being performed with the planned one, which exists in the form of images and thoughts.

The mental plan of real action and the regulation of movements and actions on its basis are called acceptor actions.

This mechanism allows you to compare the actual result with the desired one and make adjustments aimed at achieving the final goal.

P.K. Anokhin, who developed the concept action acceptor, defines it as an apparatus for monitoring the results of an action and comparing them with the set goal.

By degree awareness of goals(“why am I doing this”) and consequences (“what can this lead to”) actions are divided into impulsive And strong-willed.

Impulsive actions are characterized by a low degree of awareness of goals and possible consequences.

An image or word or command that appears in the mind immediately causes action.

Impulsive actions are often found among younger schoolchildren and adolescents - these are common cases of non-malicious, accidental violation of discipline.

Strong-willed actions presuppose thoughtfulness of goals and possible consequences.

A set of actions united by a common goal and performing a specific social function constitutes activity.

Action is a relatively completed element of activity aimed at achieving an intermediate conscious goal.

The action can be either external, which is performed with the participation of the motor apparatus and sensory organs, or internal - mental. The term “action” describes behavioral processes that correspond to the goals set by the subject. Actions are conscious because their purpose is conscious. The object towards which the action is directed is also realized. An action is a target act of behavior of a subject.

An action within an activity is a more fractional unit of its analysis than an activity; however, it can also be represented as a combination of smaller fragments of behavior – operations.

When behavior is considered in its relationship with the instrumental basis of activity, it appears as a sequence of operations.

The same action can be performed using operations that are completely different from each other. For example, the difference in the operations performed when playing different musical instruments: guitar, trumpet, flute. The performance of one and the same work is realized through completely dissimilar movements.

Considering any action, you can distinguish it motor, sensory and central components. Accordingly, the functions that these components perform during actions can be determined like execution, control and regulation.

Methods of performing, monitoring and regulating actions are called methods of activity.

Each of the listed functions can be implemented by a person both consciously and unconsciously. For example, the system of movements of the larynx necessary for pronouncing words is not at all conscious to the person. Although the grammatical forms and content of the phrase that a person is about to pronounce are always first realized.

The opposite phenomenon is also possible, when actions first require detailed conscious regulation, and then begin to be performed with less participation of consciousness - they become automated. It is this partial automation of the execution and regulation of human movements that is called a skill.

The formation of a skill is never an independent, isolated process. Each skill functions and consists of a system of skills that a person already possesses. Some of them help a new skill to form and function, others make it difficult, and others modify it.

As you know, an action is determined by its goal, object and conditions (situation). The action is performed as a system of necessary techniques for motor execution, sensory control and central regulation.

The general pattern of skill development is that, having received a new task, a person first strives to use techniques that he already knows. The success of transferring activity techniques depends on how accurately the similarity of tasks is assessed in terms of methods for solving them. Two extreme cases can be distinguished.

The first is when the goal or objects, or conditions of two actions are perceived by a person as similar, although in fact these actions are different in methods of execution, control and central regulation. In such a situation, ineffective methods of action appear. Then they talk about negative transfer, or interference, of skills.

For example, a dramatic demonstration of the interference mechanism was observed on a massive scale in Sweden. There it was announced that all transport would be transferred from left-hand traffic to right-hand traffic. Which led to negative consequences: errors while driving and a record number of accidents.

Another possible extreme case is when the goal, objects or conditions are externally different, while the actions necessary for the correct decision are similar to the methods of execution, control and regulation.

Thus, having good skills in using a file among schoolchildren makes it much easier for them to master the techniques of cutting metal with other tools. In this case, in the presence of different objects and goals, the action has similarities in execution techniques and sensory control. In this situation they say about positive transfer, or induction, of skills.

Another element of the activity is it's a habit. It differs from ability and skills in that it represents a so-called unproductive element of activity. If skills and abilities are associated with solving a problem, involve obtaining a product and are quite flexible, then habits are an inflexible part of an activity that a person performs mechanically and does not have a conscious goal or a clearly expressed productive conclusion.

Activity is the largest unit of analysis of external manifestations of activity - a holistic motivated act of behavior. The result of activity is the dynamics of experiences that express the relationship between the subject of the need and its object.

Human activity is realized in his actions.

Action. This term describes behavioral processes that correspond to the goals set by the subject.

Actions are conscious, because their goal is realized. The object is also conscious, to which the action is directed. Objects of action are “things” as carriers of meaning in which the totality of human experience is crystallized. So, action is the target act of behavior in the field of values of the subject. The result of action is transformation or knowledge of a life situation. In this regard, they talk about subject-transformative and subject-cognitive acts.

In the first case (subject-transformative act), a person changes the situation according to his ideas about what it should be.

In the second case, the objective situation should be, as it were, untouched, the activity of the cognizing subject has the character of assimilation to the object. In both cases, thanks to action, a closer connection between a person and the world is achieved.

Saying that the object of an action is a thing as a carrier of meaning, they emphasize the possibility of a common understanding by people of the effects of the action performed. If such “reading” is difficult, the action gives the impression of absurdity, that is, in the eyes of others it ceases to be an action itself. In psychological texts devoted to the problem of activity, they cite, for example, such a wonderful episode told by Kurt Lorenz. A famous ethologist once took a brood of ducklings “for a walk”, replacing their mother. To do this, he had to squat and quack.

The reaction of bewilderment on the faces of tourists can be understood as evidence of the impossibility of establishing the meaning of the action.

An action within an activity is a more fractional unit of its analysis than an activity; however, it can also be presented as a combination of smaller fragments of behavior - operations.

Operations. When behavior is considered in its relationship with the instrumental basis of activity, it appears as a sequence of operations. The construction of interactions between means that meet the goal of the subject belongs to the field of operations.

Thus, activities, actions, operations, manifesting themselves in external motivational, goal-oriented, instrumental relationships of the individual, create a flexible dynamic system.

4.3. Types of activities. Modern man has many different types of activities, the number of which approximately corresponds to the number of existing needs. In practice, it is very difficult to characterize all species, since their number is very large. There are three main parameters of needs - strength, quantity, quality.

Under by force of need This refers to the meaning of the corresponding need for a person, its relevance, frequency of occurrence and motivating potential. A stronger need is more significant, occurs more often, dominates other needs and forces a person to behave in such a way that this particular need is satisfied first.

Quantity- this is the number of various needs that a person has and from time to time become relevant for him. There are people who have a relatively small number of needs, and they quite successfully cope with their systematic satisfaction, enjoying life. But there are those who have many different, sometimes contradictory, incompatible needs. The actualization of such needs requires the simultaneous inclusion of a person in various types of activities, and conflicts often arise between equally directed needs and there is a shortage of time necessary to satisfy them. Such people usually complain about lack of time and experience dissatisfaction with life.

Under the uniqueness of the need This refers to items and objects with the help of which this or that need can be sufficiently fully satisfied for a given person, as well as the preferred way of satisfying this and other needs. For example, the cognitive need of one person can be satisfied as a result of systematically watching only entertainment programs on television. For others, to fully satisfy a similar need, reading books, newspapers, and watching TV shows is not enough. The third person, in addition to the above, needs systematic communication with people who are carriers of useful information.

In addition to the above, there is another way: to generalize and highlight the main types of activities characteristic of all people. This communication, play, learning, work.

Communication is considered as a type of activity aimed at exchanging information between communicating people. It also aims to establish mutual understanding, personal and business relationships. Communication can be direct and indirect (there is no direct contact between people), verbal and non-verbal.

Game – This is a type of activity that does not result in the production of any material or ideal product (with the exception of business and design games). There are several types of games: individual and group, subject and plot, role-playing and games with rules.

Teaching - the process of systematic acquisition of knowledge, skills, and abilities necessary to perform work activities.

Teaching– a type of activity whose purpose is to acquire knowledge, skills and abilities by a person. Learning can be organized (carried out in special educational institutions) and unorganized (an additional result of other types of activities). In adults, learning can have the character of self-education.

Work - activities aimed at creating a socially useful product that satisfies the material or spiritual needs of people.

It was thanks to labor that man built a modern society and created objects of material and spiritual culture.

When they talk about the development of human activity, they have the following aspects of the progressive transformation of activity:

1. Phylogenetic development of the system of human activity (phylogenetic transformation of the system of activity coincides essentially with the history of the socio-economic development of mankind. Integration and differentiation of social structures were accompanied by the emergence of new types of activity among people). The process of integrating a growing individual into the existing system of activities is called socialization.

2. Inclusion of a person in various types of activities in the process of his individual development (ontogenesis).

3. Changes occurring within individual activities as they develop.

4. Differentiation of activities, in the process of which others are born from some activities due to the isolation and transformation of individual actions into independent types of activity.

Modern education is experiencing an era of rethinking its foundations with the aim of further self-organization. In this regard, the question of a possible change in the position of the student as a subject of learning becomes relevant. How active a subject of intellectual activity can a schoolchild be? After all, activity is a necessary condition for successful learning.

Such a comprehensive definition outlines a fairly wide field of phenomena. Nevertheless, in relation to teaching, it should reveal the creation of such mechanisms that could, in turn, provide the conditions for the formation of the intellectual activity of students.

Studying the main approaches to education, we can identify those that take into account the activity of the subject of learning. These include approaches presented within the framework of the theories and concepts of M. N. Berulava, V. N. Marov and others, M. A. Kholodnaya, I. S. Yakimanskaya, R. Barth, A. Maslow, P. Nash, C. Patterson.

Thus, the methodological features of humanistic education are closely related to the views of the American researcher A. Maslow.

The theory of A. Maslow is based on the position of the initially given essence of a person, inherent in him from the moment of birth, as if in a “collapsed form”. In this case, the person is somehow subject to it and therefore does not have complete free will. Thus, the scientist came up with the idea of the primacy of the individual in relation to society, considering the main purpose of a person to be “the discovery of his identity, his true self.”

Forming a strategy for teaching a neo-humanistic direction, A. Maslow puts forward a number of fundamentally important provisions. Thus, the scientist says that “complete, healthy, normal and desirable development consists in the actualization of nature, in the realization of its potential capabilities and in its development to the level of maturity along the paths dictated by this hidden, poorly discernible basic nature. Its actualization should be ensured by growth from within, rather than formation from without.”

Education must be humanistic in the sense that it most fully and adequately corresponds to the true nature of the human personality. Thus, the main task is to “help a person discover what is already inherent in him, and not to teach him” by “casting” him into a certain form, invented by someone in advance “a priori”.

As a result of this approach to the educational process, teaching directed “from the outside” by society must give way to teaching directed “from within.” It is the teaching, guided by the individual himself, that opens up the most favorable conditions for self-realization.

The value of A. Maslow’s conceptual approaches in educational psychology is very great. Psychologists and educators in this direction call for the creation in schools of conditions “for self-knowledge and support for the unique development of everyone” in accordance with their inherited nature.

The function of teaching in this case means creating the necessary conditions for the child to realize his natural potential for self-actualization of his “I.”

The child acts as an active subject of educational activities. In this case, the basis of personality activity, and in particular intellectual activity, its primary determinants are recognized as the internal, immanently inherent structures of certain aspirations and motivations. A. Maslow associates different levels of human activity with the hierarchy of needs. The system of needs, according to A. Maslow, is the main source of personality activity.

Motivating the need for knowledge, maintaining curiosity gives birth to, in turn, emotionally charged intellectual activity of the child.

Creating conditions for this may be one of the tasks of reforming modern education.

Supporters of the anthropological concept of humanistic education defend the human right to autonomy in their own development. Practical psychologists and teachers implement these ideas in numerous alternative schools.

When studying the nature of intelligence and its activation in the context of a person’s spiritual world, theorists of the humanistic school take into account its complexity and “multifactoriality,” as well as the motivational sphere of the individual. Representatives of this school are against systematic teaching, believing that it fetters the initiative of the student and teacher. The main goal of the educational process in this case shifts to giving the school scope for a wide range of educational courses that were not previously studied in a traditional school.

One of the leaders of the phenomenological direction, R. Barth, believes that every teacher should have a real opportunity to “discover, develop, improve and put into practice idiosyncretic approaches to teaching that are unique to him.” According to R. Barth, “there is very little evidence that one style, method or philosophy of teaching is better than any other. If pluralism is to be both a political and pedagogical asset, then schools must become a forum in which a wide range of pedagogical ideas and practices can be developed, studied and questioned."

In this regard, M. Wertheimer completely agrees with R. Barth, who believed that in an environment that does not postulate strict standards, a child can think productively.

The variety of forms and methods used in the school indicate the effectiveness of its development.

Humanization and democratization, systemic differentiation and individual approach, which have proven themselves to be necessary at the present time, are reflected in the pedagogical techniques and ideas of the modern school.

One of the leading theorists of humanistic education, S. Patterson, believes that “the meaning of knowledge lies in the student, and not in the content of the subject,” accordingly, the student “discovers this meaning for himself, and only then relates it to the content.”

The formation of mental abilities is possible, of course, only in the course of mastering knowledge, but the connection between both is far from clear-cut. In addition, not every acquisition of knowledge and not in all cases gives the same effect in the development of intelligence.

Training should not, of course, be reduced only to the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities. In this process, cognitive abilities must develop, students must acquire the ability to have a conscious, creative attitude towards acquiring knowledge, and become intellectually proactive and active.

In the traditions of Russian psychological and pedagogical science, a gap is excluded between the two sides of the single task of learning - mastering knowledge and developing mental abilities. Any stage of assimilation of vital knowledge should lead to the development of mental abilities and thereby create new opportunities for further assimilation and application of knowledge.

The American scientist S. Rogers put forward the concept of “freedom of learning,” when the content of an academic subject is perceived by each student through the prism of “direct relation to his own concerns, interests and goals.” This provision is fully consistent with Russian approaches that consider the subject’s personal experience as a necessary condition for the realization of the student’s intellectual capabilities and his success in learning.

Proponents of a humanistic approach to education widely popularize open learning.

Thus, according to Charles Rathbone, the main principles of open learning are, firstly, that each child is considered as an autonomous “self-actualizing individual”; secondly, there is no such knowledge that every child must master, since the significance of any knowledge is determined subjective perception.

One of the main theorists of open learning, G. Koll, talks about creating a flexible learning environment that is “open, natural and trusting”, but at the same time has “consistency and firmness”. With such “open” teaching, the teacher must abandon the traditional role of an authoritarian controller. In this case, the teacher is a self-actualizing person who openly expresses his feelings about the behavior of students and the progress of the educational process.

Within the framework of humanistic education, Charles Rathbone identifies six main aspects that determine the functional role of “didactic coordinates”, these include: 1) the importance of “active learning” and the acquisition by students of direct and valuable cognitive experience; 2) “personalized” knowledge as the only significant product of learning; 3) its focus on children’s mastery of learning, educational and cognitive activities, along with an emphasis on their individual needs as a condition for the development of independence, the ability to rely on their own strengths; 4) the role of the teacher as a “source of knowledge”; 5) an atmosphere of openness and mutual trust in the classroom; 6) respect for the child’s inalienable right to care and attention.

It must be emphasized that foreign school reformers strive to highlight precisely the “personological aspect” of humanistic education. This aspect may also be a priority in the conditions of Russian education.

A prominent figure in the humanistic movement, R. Nash, defines the basic idea of the “humanistic perspective.” In his writings, the scientist says that “the basic humanistic assumption is that people are free beings. But not in the sense that human behavior is causeless, arbitrary or uncontrollable. This also does not mean that people are not influenced by their environment, their life history or experiences. Rather, it means something else: that they can make their own meaningful choices, formulate their goals, become the initiators of certain actions and deeds, and in one way or another regulate the course of their own lives.

In general, the humanistic education program, aimed at activating the student’s personality, contains a number of psychologically substantiated provisions. Among the most rational ones are: 1. The school curriculum is characterized by an emotionally stimulating learning environment. At the same time, special importance is attached to students’ initiative in cognitive activity, as well as interdisciplinary approaches in relation to “human needs,” as well as self-regulation and “freedom with a sense of responsibility.” 2. Learning should take place in a positive environment, in an atmosphere of warmth, emotional sincerity, mutual acceptance, and the absence of biased judgments and threats from the teacher. A necessary condition is the establishment of constructive interpersonal relationships in the classroom, as well as mutual respect and trust between teachers and students. 3. The educational process is structured by the teacher and students on a “solidary basis,” that is, in such a way that there is mutual agreement regarding its intended goals. 4. The teacher cannot act in the thankless role of “controller”, dominating the educational process. He acts with the mission of a consultant and a valuable “source of knowledge” who is always ready to help in word and deed. 5. Each student gets a real opportunity to choose “cognitive alternatives,” and the teacher, without defining the lesson goals in advance, encourages children to self-realize in one form or another, depending on the current level of development. 6. The main criterion of the educational program is its capabilities in terms of maximum potential and stimulation of the individual’s creative abilities. The essence of the learning process is the accumulation of subjective experience of knowledge that permeates human life, enriching it with more and more new facets and meaningful elements. 7. In principle, the teacher does not evaluate academic performance; in any case, he does not use evaluations as a form of pressure on students, since this neuroticizes the individual. He also refrains from critical judgments, unless the students themselves ask for it. Problems of the cognitive process and methods for assessing it are discussed jointly by the teacher and students. This agreement is necessary to maintain a positive classroom environment.

According to A. Combs, the new humanism in education is “a systematic, conscious attempt to put into practice all the best that we know about the nature of people and their ability to learn.”

The scientist proves the viability of humanistic trends in education, putting forward the following arguments: 1) the interdependence of people in an increasingly complex high-tech civilization makes it “human problems” that are urgent; 2) the future increasingly demands that educational processes be directed primarily at the “inner life” of students, as it manifests itself in the value orientations, self-esteem and emotions they share; 3) teaching is nothing more than a “deeply human, personal, affective process,” and it is humanistic education that should come to the fore.

Taking into account the main arguments of A. Combs, it should be noted that their implementation will allow taking into account the personal experience of the subject in the context of education. However, what can serve as an indicator of the effectiveness of such an educational process?

Russian psychologist M.A. Kholodnaya believes that, probably, in the formation of criteria for assessing the effectiveness of the educational process, along with knowledge, skills and abilities (KUN), the concept “KITSU” introduced by her (competence, initiative, creativity, self-regulation, uniqueness) should also be taken into account mentality). KITSU is a specific system of indicators of individual intellectual development. At the same time: 1) K - intellectual competence as a special type of knowledge organization, providing the ability to make effective decisions in a certain subject area; 2) I - intellectual initiative as a desire to independently, on one’s own initiative, find new information, put forward certain ideas, and master other areas of activity; 3) T - intellectual creativity as the process of creating a subjectively new thing, based on the ability to generate original ideas and use non-standard methods of activity; 4) C - intellectual self-regulation as the ability to voluntarily manage one’s own intellectual activity and, most importantly, purposefully build the process of self-learning; 5) U - the uniqueness of the mindset as individually unique ways of intellectual attitude to what is happening, including individualized forms of mutual compensation of the weak and strong aspects of one’s intellect, the expression of cognitive styles, the formation of individual intellectual preferences, etc. .

Thus, KITSU are those characteristics of the intellectual sphere of an individual, by the presence of which one can judge the degree of effectiveness of school education.

M.A. Kholodnaya considered the issue of intellectual education in the conditions of modern school education. The essence of the intellectual education of M.A. Kholodnaya can be presented in a number of the following provisions: 1) every child is a bearer of mental experience; 2) the addressee of pedagogical influences in the conditions of school education are the features of the composition and structure of individual mental experience; 3) the mechanisms of intellectual development of the individual are associated with processes occurring in the space of individual mental experience and characterizing its restructuring and enrichment, which results in the growth of individual intellectual abilities; 4) each child has his own range of possible growth of intellectual strength, and the teacher’s task is to provide the necessary assistance by means of individualizing the child’s educational and extracurricular activities; 5) the criterion for the effectiveness of the educational process, along with ZUN (knowledge, abilities, skills) is associated with a measure of the severity of the main indicators of the level of intellectual development of an individual in the form of KITSU.

It seems quite likely that such an approach will be implemented within the framework of teaching rhetoric to schoolchildren in order to activate their intellectual capabilities.

Aristotle defined rhetoric as “the ability to find possible ways of persuasion regarding a given subject.” Rhetoric is a new curriculum in a modern school. Teaching rhetoric allows students not only to acquire knowledge of the structure of speech, but also the skills of the art of classical speech and “speaking.”

Research by Russian and foreign scientists, among whom are the works of L. A., L. G. Pavlova, Ch. Daletsky, H. Lemmerman, V. N. Marov, D. Kh. Vaganova, T. M. Zybina, Yu. Vinkova, V.V. Sokolova, are of interest in the field of development of rhetoric in modern school.

Thus, V. N. Marov, D. Kh. Vaganova, T. M. Zybina, Yu. V. Vinkov offer an original concept of rhetoricization of pedagogical communication, continuing the traditions of classical rhetoric and the latest rhetorical research. Based on the empathy and activity of the subject of learning, this concept allows, based on a dynamic model of communication, to achieve synchronization of the phases of communication between teacher and student. The result of encouraging students to engage in active dynamic communication is, in our opinion, intellectual activity. Activation of a student’s intellectual capabilities in a rhetoric lesson is carried out through the formation of independence and perseverance in finding arguments to convince the interlocutor, the value-semantic organization of the individual, and the sthenic emotional orientation to communication in students.

Summarizing all of the above, it should be noted that such a concept as the activity of the subject of learning is being updated in educational psychology at the present stage.

In our opinion, the need to reveal the essence of the concept of “intellectual activity,” which has been little studied and has not been properly reflected in the psychological and pedagogical literature, is quite justified.

Conclusions

The nature of human intelligence is multifaceted and unique.

That is why there are a number of definitions of intelligence.

They tried to resolve conceptual difficulties with the help of factor analysis, which made it possible to distinguish general and special abilities.

Representatives of cognitive theory suggest that intelligence is a component that interacts with information at different stages of processing at which unique operations are performed.

In the traditions of Russian methodology, such an approach to understanding intelligence and its development is of interest, which connects this process with the development of ways of representing knowledge, with the differentiation or hierarchical organization of cognitive structures.

The structural-integrative approach expands the understanding of the psychology of intelligence as a child’s own mental experience.

Within the framework of the theory of intelligence, the concept of “intellectual activity” has been poorly developed, reflecting the interrelationship of intellectual, volitional and emotional components.

Intellectual activity is a concept that is within the framework of the general problems of the theory of intelligence and the activity of the subject in the learning process.

In traditional teaching, this approach was not possible to implement.

From the standpoint of a humanistic approach to learning in a modern school, an active position of the student becomes possible, which, in turn, creates conditions for the development of his intellectual activity.

In our research work we are guided by the following definition of the concept of “intellectual activity”. Intellectual activity is one of the important categories of educational psychology, characterizing active behavior aimed at initiating independence, perseverance and success in considering and solving creative problems in the learning process. Intellectual activity is based on the student’s own mental experience and is interdependent with the emotional and volitional orientation of the individual, which contributes to successful educational activities.

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The article will examine the social activity of the individual and its types, factors of social activity, as well as the consequences it has for society. Attention will also be paid to its main characteristics and development paths.

General information

What is meant by activity? It should be noted that this is a generalized and at the same time complex concept. It is used to characterize living organisms. Generally speaking, activity is understood as the internal deterministic movement of living matter. But we are interested in a special case - the behavior of an individual in society. And, revealing the topic of the article, it should be said that the social activity of an individual is the need of an individual to have the foundations of his life maintained or changed, according to his worldview and the conditions and environment of manifestation is a complex of all factors that influence a particular individual in society. Social activity most often manifests itself in attempts to change the circumstances of people's lives (or oneself) so that a person (or group) receives a certain benefit. It should also be noted that there are ample opportunities for such activities. Of course, all types of activity are interconnected. But if a person can no longer walk, this does not mean that he will not take part in the life of society. This is possible due to the social nature of this type of activity.

Types and interactions

Social activity is most strongly associated with mental and physical manifestations. It determines their further development. At the same time, there are certain provisions on which the social activity of the individual most depends. Its characteristics can be expressed in three words: worldview, duty and will. True, different sciences have slightly different views on all this. To become familiar with them, you can read philosophical, psychological and sociological literature. Thus, activity can be considered not only as the activity itself, but also as a measure of its direction and the total ability of a particular subject to enter into diverse active relationships with the existing objective reality. However, there is no generally accepted interpretation of this phenomenon. There are generalized and narrower interpretations.

Interpretation

So, researchers do not have a single interpretation. The social activity of an individual in psychology, philosophy and other sciences is considered from the point of view of individual opinions. Bringing them all is quite problematic. Therefore, the author combined them into three groups, which will be designated within the framework of this article:

Social activity is a broader category than activity. In this case, it is implied that a person can exert a certain influence even by his mere presence.
Social activity is identified with activity. In this case, it is implied that everything that a person does is important for society.
Social activity is a narrower category than activity. Proponents of this statement are people who believe that not all human actions can be viewed from a social point of view.

Researchers' opinions

To better understand the topic of the article, I suggest you familiarize yourself with two approaches. The first is proposed by S. A. Potapova, who considers the worldview and activity of the subject as part of one whole - social activity. However, not every action can be viewed in this way. Only that activity is an indicator of social activity that has certain quantitative and qualitative characteristics that are interconnected. Independence is also a prerequisite. In other words, activity should not be imposed from the outside. It must be a product of human needs. That is, in order to recognize a particular individual as a socially active subject, you need to make sure that he consciously realizes his needs.

The methodological conclusion of V. G. Mordkovich is also interesting. He considers activity as an essential feature of the subject. If someone else’s will is imposed on a person, then he becomes a carrier of activity. In other words, the individual turns from a subject into an object that performs other people's tasks for which he has no need. To designate people of this type, the concept “socially passive” was introduced. At the same time, it is noted that not all needs have a driving influence on activity, but only those whose satisfaction has social significance or affects certain public interests. The structure of the behavioral model in this case depends on the goals pursued by the subject and the preferred levers of influence.

Division by spheres

We previously examined division based on theoretical study approaches. If we look at the practical result, social activity can manifest itself in the following areas of life:

Labor;
Socio-political;
Spiritual.

Each species has its own subspecies.

Features of theoretical consideration

Social activity can be considered in two main aspects. In the first, it appears as Social activity in this case is considered as one that is determined by natural data and characteristics that were formed and developed during the educational, educational, training and practical processes. In other words, this quality shows how a person relates to the social environment and how capable he is of solving problems that arise (both his own and other people’s). The second aspect considers activity as a certain measure of activity. In other words, a quantitative and qualitative assessment is given of the individual’s involvement in the existing and functioning system

Assessment of social activity

In order to assess how a person manifests himself, indicators such as diligence and initiative are usually used. The first is understood as the individual’s ability to perform assigned tasks at the required level in accordance with the requirements, norms and rules. Normativity is often used to characterize performance.

As an example, we can recall factories and the wage systems that exist there, where people are paid for the quantity of products created that is not lower than a certain level of quality. If diligence is brought up from an early age, then initiative begins in childhood and gradually develops. It reaches peak values in adulthood, when a person creates the largest number of different ideas. All of them are assessed by the quality of development, social value, direction of the initiative, responsibility of the performer, duration, sustainability and frequency of manifestations. Also, those in which a person acted as an organizer or performer can be considered separately. There are, of course, other assessment indicators, but these are the most universal. Let's look at a small example. In it we will combine the information presented earlier.

An example of growth in social activity

To model the conditions, let’s imagine that the actions will take place in the socio-political sphere. So we have a human individual. He does not take any active actions and is an ordinary ordinary man in the street. At one certain moment, the insight “descends” on him that something is going wrong in the social or political life of the state. He begins to collect information, attend various conferences, communicate with representatives of organizations that operate in this area. Thus, the individual person becomes a passive participant in public life: he participates in it, but his ability to influence it is close to zero. He is socially active, but is not yet a more or less significant participant; his social “weight” is very low. Over time, the individual begins to participate more actively in various events. Perhaps he even establishes his own public organization. This requires him to devote more time and effort to the matter. Thus, social activity will increase. Moreover, this will not be work in vain, but to achieve certain goals pursued by a person.

Conclusion

Social activity is an important parameter when studying the involvement of the population in the process of government. Also, if there are thoughts about large-scale government or public activities, then activating this characteristic of the population can serve very well.