Entente 1904 agreement between. Military-political coalitions on the eve of the First and Second World Wars: comparative analysis

(fr. entente — agreement), a military-political bloc of states - Great Britain, France and Russia, otherwise called the “Triple Entente”; formed mainly in 1904-1907 and completed the demarcation of the great powers on the eve of the First World War.

The term arose in 1904 initially to refer to the Anglo-French alliance, using the expression l'entente cordiale ("cordial agreement") in memory of the short-lived Anglo-French alliance in the 1840s, which bore the same name. The creation of the Entente was a reaction to the creation of the Triple Alliance and the general strengthening of Germany and an attempt to prevent its hegemony on the continent, initially from Russia (France initially took an anti-German position), and then from England. The latter, in the face of the threat of German hegemony, was forced to abandon the traditional policy of “brilliant isolation” and move to - however, also traditional - a policy of blocking against the strongest power on the continent. A particularly important stimulus for this choice of England was the German naval program, as well as the colonial claims of Germany. In Germany, for its part, this turn of events was perceived as “encirclement” and served as an incentive for new military preparations, which were perceived as purely defensive.

1891-93 conclusion of the Russian-French alliance in response to the creation of the Triple Alliance of 1882 - a military bloc led by Germany.

in 1904 an Anglo-French agreement was signed. followed by Russian-English

in 1907 Russian-English.

These agreements actually formalized the creation of the Entente.

Military-political alliances in Europe before the outbreak of the First World War.

By the end of the war, the states of the anti-German coalition (not counting Russia, which withdrew from the war after the October Revolution) included: England, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Haiti, Guatemala, Honduras, Greece, Italy, China, Cuba, Liberia, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Portugal, Romania, San Domingo, San Marino, Serbia, Siam, USA, France, Uruguay, Montenegro, Hijaz, Ecuador, Japan.

After the victory over Germany, the Supreme Council of the Entente practically performed the functions of a “world government”, organizing the post-war order. However, the failure of the Entente's policy in Russia and Turkey revealed the limit to its power, undermined by internal contradictions between the victorious powers. In this political capacity of “world government,” the Entente ceased to exist after the formation of the League of Nations, while militarily a new, post-war system of alliances emerged.

The Bolshevik revolution in Russia initially interested the Entente primarily in the sense of catastrophic military prospects for it (Russia's exit from the war and its transformation into a raw material appendage of Germany); Subsequently, the issue of overthrowing the Bolshevik government was understood as a matter of principle - “defense of civilization.” Of course, this did not exclude the possibility that the main powers participating in the intervention also pursued pragmatic political-economic interests. Already on December 23, 1917, England and France signed an agreement on joint intervention in Russia. On March 9, 1918, the British, under the pretext of a (however real) German threat to Murmansk, landed the first detachment there; On August 1, they occupied Arkhangelsk. The Czechoslovak legions, which rebelled in May 1918, were also officially considered part of the Entente forces and were directly subordinate to its Supreme Council. After the defeat of Germany in November 1918, the Entente tried to fill the military-political vacuum created with the withdrawal of German (and Turkish - in Transcaucasia) troops, occupying the Black Sea cities: Odessa, Sevastopol, Novorossiysk, as well as Transcaucasia. The interventionist troops consisted, in the popular expression of one of the most active adherents of intervention, Winston Churchill, from representatives of 14 states; first of all, these were: England, France, USA, Serbia, Greece, Romania, Italy; Poland, Finland, Latvia and Estonia did not participate in the landings, but fought against Lenin's government. In the Far East, Japan actively acted on behalf of the Entente, pursuing its own interests, but, however, restrained in this regard by the Americans. In Transcaucasia, the Entente, represented by England, had almost complete control, which, however, cannot (contrary to the Soviet historical tradition) be considered an intervention in Russia, since Transcaucasia was not part of Russia at that time. However, having discovered that maintaining a presence in Russia is impossible without large-scale military operations, and lacking real opportunities for a new big war with goals unclear to the masses, the Entente countries were forced to withdraw their troops from most of the occupied areas (except for the Far East) in the spring of 1919. Active material, economic, and partly still military (volunteer) assistance to the White movement continued until the beginning of 1920, when its futility became obvious. The idea of ​​overthrowing the Bolshevik government was replaced by the idea of ​​a “cordon sanitaire”, and the Polish-Soviet war of 1920, which Poland fought with the active support of France, can be considered the last major anti-Bolshevik enterprise associated with the Entente.

Questions 42-43.The formation of the Triple Alliance and the Entente and their military-political confrontation at the beginning of the 20th century.

Franco-Prussian War 1870-1871 greatly changed international relations in Europe and determined the rise of Germany as one of the leading players on the international stage. After this war, Germany set out to establish its hegemony in Europe. She considered France to be the only obstacle. Ruling circles believed that France would never come to terms with the loss of Alsace and Lorraine and would always strive for revenge. Bismarck hoped to strike a second blow at France in order to reduce it to the level of a minor power. Bismarck begins to isolate France, to make sure that it has as few sympathetic countries as possible that would come to its aid. Bismarck pursues an active policy to create an Anti-French Alliance, choosing Russia and Austria-Hungary. For Russia, there was an interest in getting rid of the consequences of the Crimean War (as a result, Russia was prohibited from having a Black Sea Fleet). In the 1870s. Russia's relations with Great Britain are complicated over problems in the East. Austria-Hungary sought to gain German support in order to dominate the Balkans.

IN 1873 is created Alliance of Three Emperors(If one of the states is attacked, the other two will help it in the war).

Bismarck began putting pressure on France - in 1975 he provoked Franco-German alarm 1975(in France, a number of priests promoted revenge on E. and Lot. Bismarck accused the French authorities that this was their initiative, and began to prepare a war against the French). Alexander 2 specially arrived in Berlin to personally tell Wilhelm that he did not support Germany in its war with France. This was one of the first blows to S3imp. It was also undermined by contradictions between Russia and Austria-Hungary over rivalry in the Balkans. And in 1879, a customs war broke out between Russia and Germany.

Formation of the Triple Alliance began with registration in 1879 Austro-German Confederation. This rapprochement was facilitated by the deterioration of Russian-German relations (Russia stood up for France during the war of alarm in 1875. And in 1879, after the introduction in Germany of high duties on grain imported from Russia, the latter followed retaliatory measures, which led to Russian- German customs war).

On October 7, 1879, in Vienna, the German Ambassador Reis and the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Austria-Hungary Andrássy signed a secret treaty of alliance. This treaty obliged each of its participants to assist the other with all military forces in the event of an attack by Russia and not to enter into separate negotiations with it. If the attack was carried out by some other party, then neutrality. However, if the attacking power was supported by Russia, then the parties must act together and with all their might. The alliance was concluded for 5 years, but was subsequently extended until the World War.

The next stage in the creation of a military-political bloc of Central European powers was joining Austro-German Union of Italy (1882). The latter was prompted to sign the treaty by the deterioration of relations with France (in 1881, France established a protectorate over Tunisia, which was perceived negatively in Italy).

Despite claims against Austria-Hungary, Italy concluded the so-called Triple Alliance in 1882. According to it, the parties pledged not to take part in any alliances or agreements directed against one of the parties to the treaty; Germany and Austria-Hungary provided Italy with military support in the event of a war with France. Italy assumed similar obligations in the event of a French attack on Germany. Austria-Hungary in this case remained neutral until Russia entered the war. The parties adhered to neutrality in the event of a war with anyone other than France, and the parties provided support to each other in the event of an attack by two or more great powers.

Formation of the Entente began after the Franco-Russian rapprochement. In 1893, the parties signed a secret military convention.

At the beginning of the twentieth century. Relations between France and England began to improve. England needed continental troops in case of war with Germany. France just had a large land army and acute conflict relations with Germany. It was impossible to count on Russia yet, because... Britain supported Japan in the Russo-Japanese War.

France felt the need for a strong ally. Russia's positions were weakened by the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905. and the beginning of the revolution.

On April 8, 1904, an agreement on basic colonial issues was signed between the governments of Britain and France, known in history as the Anglo-French Entente. According to it, the spheres of influence of the countries in Siam were established (England - the western part, France - the eastern part). The most important was the declaration on Egypt and Morocco. In fact, the colonial rule of England in Egypt and France in Morocco was recognized.

The 1904 treaty did not contain the terms of a military alliance, but still the Anglo-French Entente was directed against Germany.

By 1907, an Anglo-Russian rapprochement had begun. Russia's turn to Great Britain is largely due to the deterioration of the former's relations with Germany. Germany's construction of the Baghdad Railway posed a direct threat to Russia. Petersburg was concerned about the German-Turkish rapprochement. The growth of hostility was largely facilitated by the Russian-German trade agreement of 1904, imposed on Russia under pressure from Germany. Russian industry began to be unable to withstand the competition of German goods. Russia wanted to raise its international prestige through rapprochement with England, and also counted on loans from the British side.

The British government considered Russia as a double ally - in a future war with Germany and in the suppression of the revolutionary and national liberation movement in the East (in 1908, Russia and Britain acted together against the revolution in Persia).

In 1907, the Anglo-Russian agreement was signed. In the presence of the Franco-Russian (1893) and Anglo-French treaties (1904), the Anglo-Russian agreement of 1907 completed the creation of a military-political bloc directed against the coalition of powers led by Germany.

Military-political confrontation between the countries of the Entente and the Triple Alliance in the last thirdXIX - beginningXXV.

Germany, together with Austria-Hungary, intensified its expansion in the Balkans and the Middle East, invading the sphere of interests of Russia and Great Britain. IN 1908 Austria-Hungary annexed long occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina(In 1908 - the Young Turk revolution in Turkey, during which the liberation movement of the Slavic peoples begins. Having decided to occupy B. and Hertz., A-B buys a concession from Turkey for the construction of a railway to the city of Thessaloniki - Exit to the Aegean Sea. Then she officially declares annexation and Russia protests. However, weakened after the Russo-Japanese war, Russia cannot do anything and suffers a diplomatic defeat) and proposed that Bulgaria and Romania be divided. on three Serbia. Serbia was preparing to repel any invasion, counting on Russian support. But Russia was not ready for a war with Austria-Hungary, on whose side Germany stood, which in 1909 directly pledged to help the Habsburg Empire if Russia intervened in Austro-Serbian relations. Under pressure from Germany, Russia recognized Austria-Hungary's rule over Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Russia tried in vain to weaken the rapprochement between Germany and Austria-Hungary, and Germany was unable to tear Russia away from the Entente.

The strengthening of the alliance with Austria-Hungary and the relative weakening of Russia allowed Germany to increase pressure on France. 1st Moroccan crisis 1905-1906 In 1905, Germany proposed the division of Morocco. She stated that she would reclaim the port of Agadir. Wilhelm 2 goes on a trip to Palestine (Germany is the protector of Muslim peoples) - part of the population of Morocco is imbued with sympathy for Germany and demands the convening of an international conference on the Muslim issue. In 1906 in Spain in Alziserass a conference was held, the result of which was that no one supported Germany in its claims.

Taking advantage of the French invasion of Morocco in 1911 (suppression of unrest in the city of Fess), Germany sent its warship to Agadir (" Panther jump") and declared its intention to seize part of Morocco. The conflict could lead to war. But Germany’s claims were resolutely opposed by Great Britain, which did not want the appearance of German colonies near Gibraltar. Germany then did not dare to clash with the Entente and had to be content with the part of the Congo that was ceded to it France in exchange for recognition of its power over Morocco. But since then it has become obvious that war between the European powers could break out even over the colonies, not to mention more serious mutual claims.

Amid rising tensions, another attempt by Britain to negotiate an agreement with Germany under which each would agree not to engage in an unprovoked attack on the other failed. German leaders proposed a different formula: each side would pledge to remain neutral if the other became involved in the war. This would mean the destruction of the Entente, which Great Britain did not dare to do. In reality, mutual neutrality between Germany and Great Britain was out of the question, as economic competition became fiercer and the arms race intensified. The Anglo-German negotiations of 1912 gave hope for the settlement of only minor contradictions over spheres of influence, but created the illusion among the German ruling circles that British neutrality in the European war was not excluded.

The further weakening of the Ottoman Empire, long considered the “sick man of Europe,” led to the emergence of a bloc of Balkan states directed against it ("Little Entente"). It was created on the initiative of Serbia, supported by Russia and France. In the spring of 1912, the Serbian-Bulgarian and Greek-Bulgarian treaties were signed (followed by Montenegro), in solidarity with which Montenegro acted, which was the first to begin military operations against the Ottoman Empire on October 9. The armed forces of the Balkan states quickly defeated the Turkish army ( First Balkan War 1912-1913). In October 1912, these 4 states began a war with the Turks, with Bulgaria making a major contribution. In November 1912, Bulgarian. the army reached Constantinople. In November, Türkiye turned to the great powers for mediation.

The successes of the Balkan bloc alarmed Austria-Hungary and Germany, who feared the strengthening of Serbia, especially the accession of Albania to it. Both powers were ready to confront Serbia with force. This would cause a clash with Russia and the entire Entente, which was confirmed by Great Britain. Europe was on the brink of war. To avoid it, a meeting of the ambassadors of the six great powers was held in London. At it, the Entente patronized the Balkan states, and Germany and Austria-Hungary patronized the Ottoman Empire, but they still managed to agree that Albania would become autonomous under the supreme authority of the Sultan and Serbian troops from she will be taken out.

After long and difficult negotiations, only May 30, 1913 signed between the Ottoman Empire and the Balkan states peace treaty. The Ottoman Empire lost almost all of its European territory, Albania and the Aegean Islands.

However, conflict broke out between the victors over these territories. The Montenegrin prince besieged Scutari, not wanting to cede it to Albania. And Serbia and Greece, with the support of Romania, which demanded compensation from Bulgaria for its neutrality, sought from Bulgaria part of the territories it inherited. Russian diplomacy tried in vain to prevent a new conflict. Encouraged by Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria turned against its former allies. broke out Second Balkan War 1913. Austro - Hungary prepared to support Bulgaria with armed force. Only warnings from Germany, who considered the moment unfortunate, and Italy kept her from speaking. Bulgaria, against which the Ottoman Empire also fought, was defeated.

Once again, the ambassadors of the great powers in London took up Balkan affairs, trying to win over the Balkan states to their blocs and backing up their arguments with loans. On August 18, 1913, a peace treaty was signed between the participants in the Second Balkan War, according to which Serbia and Greece received a significant part of Macedonia, Southern Dobruja went to Romania, and part of Eastern Thrace went to the Ottoman Empire.

The Balkan Wars led to a regrouping of forces. The Austro-German bloc strengthened its influence on the Ottoman Empire, secured by sending a German military mission there, and attracted Bulgaria to its side. And the Entente retained predominant influence in Serbia, Montenegro and Greece and attracted Romania to its side. The Balkans, the center of intertwined interests and conflicts, have become Europe's powder keg.

Great Britain's choice was the German naval program and Germany's colonial claims. In Germany, in turn, this turn of events was declared an “encirclement” and served as a reason for new military preparations, positioned as purely defensive.

The confrontation between the Entente and the Triple Alliance led to the First World War, where the enemy of the Entente and its allies was the Central Powers bloc, in which Germany played a leading role.

Key dates

The full composition of the anti-German coalition

Some states did not declare war on the Central Powers, limiting themselves to breaking diplomatic relations.

After the victory over Germany in 1919, the Supreme Council of the Entente practically performed the functions of a “world government”, organizing the post-war order, but the failure of the Entente’s policy towards Russia and Turkey revealed the limit to its power, undermined by internal contradictions between the victorious powers. In this political capacity of a “world government,” the Entente ceased to exist after the formation of Ukraine on March 3, 1918. The Entente declared non-recognition of this agreement, but never began military action against the Soviet government, trying to negotiate with it. On March 6, a small English landing party, two companies of marines, landed in Murmansk to prevent the Germans from seizing a huge amount of military cargo delivered by the Allies to Russia, but did not take any hostile actions against the Soviet regime (until June 30). In response to the killing of two Japanese citizens, two companies of Japanese and half a company of British landed in Vladivostok on April 5, but they were returned to their ships two weeks later.

The aggravation of relations between the Entente countries and the Bolsheviks began in May 1918. Then Germany demanded that Soviet Russia strictly comply with the conditions of the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty - in particular, to intern, that is, completely disarm and imprison in concentration camps, all military personnel of the Entente countries and its allies located on Soviet territory. This led to the uprising of the Czechoslovak corps, the landing of 2,000 British troops in Arkhangelsk in August 1918, and the advance of the Japanese in Primorye and Transbaikalia.

Japan continued until the Treaty of Versailles, which formalized Germany's defeat in the war. After which, the assistance of the Western allies to the White movement gradually ceases. Emperor Wilhelm II in his memoirs claims that in fact the Entente bloc took shape back in 1897, after the signing of a tripartite agreement between England, America and France, known as the “Gentleman’s Agreement”.

In the book "The problem of Japan" anonymous author, published in 1918 in The Hague, allegedly written by an ex-diplomat from the Far East, contains excerpts from a book by Roland Asher, a history professor at the University of Washington in St. Louis. Usher, just like his former colleague, John Bassett Moore, a professor at Columbia University in New York, was often engaged by the State Department in Washington as an adviser on foreign policy, for he was a great expert in international issues relating to the United States, which not much in America. Thanks to a book published in 1913 by Roland Usher, a history professor at the University of Washington, the contents of a prisoner became known for the first time in the spring of 1897. "Agreement" or "Treat"(agreement or treaty) of a secret nature between England, America and France. This agreement established that if Germany, or Austria, or both together started a war in the interests of “pan-Germanism,” the United States would immediately side with England and France and provide all its funds to assist these powers. Professor Asher further cites all the reasons, including those of a colonial nature, that forced the United States to take part in the war against Germany, the imminence of which he predicted back in 1913. - Anonymous author "The problem of Japan" compiled a special table of points of the agreement concluded in 1897 between England, France and America, dividing them into separate headings, and thus depicting in a visual form the extent of mutual obligations. This chapter of his book is read with extreme interest and gives a good idea of ​​the events that preceded the world war, and of the preparations for it of the Entente countries, which, not yet acting under the name "Entente cordiale", already then united against Germany. The ex-diplomat notes: here we have an agreement concluded, according to Professor Usher, back in 1897 - an agreement that provides for all stages of the participation of England, France and America in future events, including the conquest of the Spanish colonies and control over Mexico and Central America, and the use of China, and the annexation of coal plants. However, Professor Usher wants to convince us that these events were only necessary to save the world from “Pan-Germanism.” It is unnecessary to remind Professor Asher, the ex-diplomat continues, that even if we were to admit the existence of the specter of “pan-Germanism,” then in 1897, of course, no one had heard of it, because by that time Germany had not yet put forward its large naval program, which was made public only in 1898 Thus, if England, France, and the United States really cherished those general plans which Professor Usher ascribes to them, and if they entered into an alliance for the implementation of these plans, it will hardly be possible to explain both the origin of these plans and their execution on such a weak pretext like, like the successes of “pan-Germanism”. So says the ex-diplomat. This is truly amazing. The Gauls and Anglo-Saxons, with the goal of destroying Germany and Austria, and eliminating their competition in the world market in an atmosphere of complete peace, without the slightest remorse, conclude a real division agreement directed against Spain, Germany, etc., developed to the smallest detail. This treaty was concluded by the united Gallo-Anglo-Saxons 17 years before the outbreak of the World War, and its objectives were systematically developed during this period. Now we can understand the ease with which King Edward VII could carry out his policy of encirclement; The main actors had already sung and were ready for a long time. When he christened this union "Entente cordiale"

England, France, Russia, Italy, the USA were actively looking for allies in case of war. This ultimately led to the formation of military-political groups opposing each other. Germany was the first to take this path. After the completion of the unification of the country and the formation of Germany. In 1879, Germany signed a treaty of alliance with Austria-Hungary. The agreement was clearly anti-Russian in nature. Article one stated that if one of the contracting parties is attacked from outside, the others are obliged to come to the aid of each other with all their armed forces and not make peace without mutual consent. At the same time, article two provided that if one of the contracting parties is attacked not by Russia, but by some other power, the parties are only obliged to maintain neutrality, and only if Russia intervenes in the conflict will paragraph one of the treaty come into force. The contract, initially concluded for a period of 5 years, was then extended several times. The Austro-German Treaty was the first step towards the creation of a military bloc led by Germany. After Italy joined the treaty in 1882, the Triple Alliance was formed. Thus began the division of Europe into two warring camps, which was one of the main reasons for the future world war. After the formation of the Triple Alliance, countries that were opponents of Germany began to formalize their military obligations. At the end of the 80s. XIX century There was a sharp deterioration in Franco-German relations, which forced France to look for ways of rapprochement with Russia. For its part, the Russian government was also interested in rapprochement with France and Europe. When the threat of German aggression against France arose in 1887, she

appealed to Russia. German Chancellor Bismarck demanded guarantees of neutrality from Russia in the event of a war over the disputed border territories between Germany and France. Russia refused, and Bismarck was forced to retreat. Further developments brought France even closer to Russia, as Germany increasingly tried to influence European conflicts. The tension between the countries grew more and more.

For example, Russian-German contradictions led to the so-called “customs war.” At the same time, the Triple Alliance again extended its agreements against Russia. There were even rumors about England joining it due to disputes with Russia over territories in the Middle East. Thus the ground arose for the conclusion of a Russian-French agreement. The parties agreed to consult in case of danger and take joint measures in the event of a threat of attack from Germany and its allies. Later, this agreement was supplemented by strictly defined military circumstances. According to the military convention, the parties pledged to act so that in the event of war Germany would have to fight simultaneously in both the east and the west. The final step in formalizing the Franco-Russian alliance was the ratification of the military convention in 1893. The political rapprochement between Russia and France was reinforced by closer financial relations. The next step in formalizing the Entente was the signing of the Anglo-French agreement of 1904. By signing the agreement of 1904, the parties mutually recognized the rights of England in Egypt and France in Morocco, and did not rule out annexation (i.e. complete seizure) of these territories . And finally, the Anglo-Russian agreement of 1907 was the final step in uniting countries against the Triple Alliance and in creating the Entente (England, France, Russia). The tsarist government, weakened by the Russo-Japanese War and the revolution of 1905-1907, alarmed by the growth of German militarism, sought support from England. However, the negotiations were difficult and were on the verge of breakdown more than once. The English side tried not to yield to Russia in dominance over the countries of the Middle East. The negotiations concerned Tibet, Afghanistan and Iran, where Anglo-Russian contradictions were especially strong. The Anglo-Russian agreement of 1907 turned out to be the most important stage in the final formation of the Entente, which was called the Triple Entente - as opposed to the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy).

Soldiers of the First World War

“Everyone is looking and not finding the reason why the war started. Their searches are in vain; they will not find this reason. The war did not begin for any one reason, the war began for all reasons at once” (Thomas Woodrow Wilson). The First World War covers the period from July 28, 1914 to November 11, 1918. It was a large-scale armed conflict. The war divided world history into two eras, opening a completely new page filled with social explosions and upheavals.
This name for the war became established in historiography after the outbreak of World War II in 1939. Before this, the name "Great War" was used. TheGreatWar, fr. La grande guerre), in the Russian Empire it was called the “Second Patriotic War,” and also informally (both before the revolution and after) - "German"; then to the USSR - "imperialist war".

For almost the entire 19th century, the major powers were heading towards open conflict, as a result of which the fate of not just Europe, but the entire world, was to be decided. England, France, Russia, and a little later Germany and Austria-Hungary were not going to compromise.

The threat of war could not be prevented either by the numerous alliances formed, since almost all of them turned out to be fictitious, or even by the close relationship of almost all the reigning families. In fact, future enemies - the rulers of Russia, England and Germany - were cousins. But national interests for them stood above reason and family ties.

38 independent states out of 59 that existed at that time were involved in a military conflict on a global scale. And each side had its own reasons for participating in the war.

The First World War was a war between two coalitions of powers: the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey, Bulgaria) and the Entente (Russia, France, Great Britain, Serbia, later Japan, Italy, Romania, USA, etc.).

World at the turn of the century

At the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. capitalism developed into imperialism. The world was almost completely divided between the largest powers. But this section could not be final. There were always parts of disputed territories, remnants of crumbling empires (for example, the Portuguese possessions in Africa, which, according to a secret agreement concluded by Great Britain and Germany in 1898, were to be divided between the two powers; the Ottoman Empire slowly collapsed throughout the 19th century and represented tasty pieces for young predators). Having colonies means not only having markets and sources of raw materials, but also being a great and respected power.

The beginning of the 20th century was also marked by the emergence of a number of unifying trends: pan-Germanism, pan-Slavism, etc. Each of these movements demanded a vast, homogeneous space for itself and sought to break up the existing heterogeneous formations, primarily Austria-Hungary, a mosaic state united only by the belonging of each part to the Habsburg dynasty.

The global confrontation between the great powers, primarily England and Germany, intensified, and a struggle began for the redivision of the world, including the redistribution of colonies.

Contradictions appeared in certain regions: the confrontation in the Balkans between Russia and its ally Serbia and Austria-Hungary, together with allied Bulgaria, became particularly acute. The situation was aggravated by the fact that England, Germany, France and Italy also pursued their interests here. By 1914, Germany had emerged as the dominant military power in the Balkan region, bringing the Ottoman army under control. Russia's desire to master the Black Sea straits was now blocked not only by England, but also by the German-Turkish military alliance.

The new superpowers, the USA and Japan, sought to spread their influence in the Middle and Far East.

In Europe, the political and economic rivalry between Germany and France was obvious, as they fought for hegemony in the field of production and sales in Europe.

Interests of countries

Great Britain (as part of the Entente)

She was afraid of a potential German threat, so she switched to the policy of forming an anti-German bloc of states.

She did not want to put up with German penetration into areas that she considered “hers”: East and South-West Africa. She also wanted to take revenge on Germany for supporting the Boers in the Anglo-Boer War of 1899-1902. Therefore, in fact, it was already waging an undeclared economic and trade war against Germany and was actively preparing for war with it.

France (part of the Entente)

She wanted to recoup the defeat inflicted on her by Germany in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870. She wanted to return Alsace and Lorraine, separated from France in 1871. It fought with Germany for markets, but at the same time feared German aggression. It was also important for France to preserve its colonies (North Africa).

Russia (as part of the Entente)

The main interest for Russia was control over the Dardanelles Strait; it wanted to have free passage for its fleet in the Mediterranean Sea.

In the construction of the Berlin-Baghdad railway (1898), Russia saw an unfriendly act on the part of Germany, an encroachment on its rights in Asia, although in 1911 these differences with Germany were resolved by the Potsdam Agreement.

Austria's influence was growing in the Balkans, which Russia also did not want to put up with, as well as the fact that Germany was gaining strength and began to dictate its terms in Europe.

Russia considered itself the main one among the Slavic peoples, and tried to support the anti-Austrian and anti-Turkish sentiments of the Serbs and Bulgarians.

Serbia (as part of the Entente)

She wanted to establish herself in the Balkans as the leader of the Slavic peoples of the peninsula, to form Yugoslavia, including all the Slavs living in the south of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

Unofficially supported nationalist organizations that fought against Austria-Hungary and Turkey.

German Empire (Triple Alliance)

Strove for military, economic and political dominance on the European continent. She sought equal rights in the colonial possessions of England, France, Belgium, the Netherlands and Portugal.

In the Entente she saw an alliance against herself.

Austria-Hungary (Triple Alliance)

Due to its multinationality, it played the role of a constant source of instability in Europe. She tried to hold on to Bosnia and Herzegovina, which she captured in 1908. It opposed Russia because Russia took on the role of protector of all Slavs in the Balkans, and Serbia.

USA before the First World War they were the world's largest debtor, and after the war they became the world's sole creditor.

Preparing for war

The state had been preparing for a world war as a means of resolving external and internal contradictions for many years, and the creation of a system of military-political blocs began. This began with the Austro-German treaty of 1879, the participants of which pledged to provide assistance to each other in the event of war with Russia. In 1882, Italy joined them, seeking support in the fight against France for the possession of Tunisia. Thus arose the Triple Alliance of 1882, or the alliance of the Central Powers, directed against Russia and France, and later against Great Britain. In contrast to him, another coalition of European powers began to take shape. The Russian-French alliance of 1891-93 was formed, which provided for joint actions of these countries in the event of aggression from Germany or aggression from Italy and Austria-Hungary, supported by Germany. The growth of Germany's economic power at the beginning of the 20th century. forced Great Britain to gradually abandon the traditional policy of “splendid isolation” and seek rapprochement with France and Russia. Anglo-French agreement of 1904 Disputes between Great Britain and France on colonial issues were settled, and the Anglo-Russian agreement of 1907 cemented the agreement between Russia and Great Britain regarding their policies in Tibet, Afghanistan, and Iran. These documents formalized the creation of the Triple Entente, or Entente- a bloc of Great Britain, France and Russia that opposed the Triple Alliance. In 1912, the Anglo-French and Franco-Russian maritime conventions were signed, and in 1913 negotiations began on concluding an Anglo-Russian maritime convention.

In preparation for a world war, states created a powerful military industry, the basis of which was large state factories: weapons, powder, shells, cartridges, shipbuilding, etc. Private enterprises were involved in the production of military products: in Germany - Krupp factories, in Austria-Hungary - Skoda , in France - Schneider-Creuzot and Saint-Chamon, in Great Britain - Vickers and Armstrong-Whitworth, in Russia - the Putilov plant, etc. The achievements of science and technology were put in the service of preparing for war. More advanced weapons appeared: repeating rapid-fire rifles and machine guns, which greatly increased the firepower of the infantry; In artillery, the number of rifled guns of the latest systems has sharply increased.

Of great strategic importance was the development of railways, which made it possible to significantly accelerate the concentration and deployment of large military masses in theaters of military operations and to ensure an uninterrupted supply of active armies with human replacements and all types of logistics. Road transport began to play an increasingly important role. Military aviation emerged. The use of new means of communication in military affairs (telegraph, telephone, radio) facilitated the organization of command and control of troops. The number of armies and trained reserves increased rapidly. In the field of naval armaments there was persistent rivalry between Germany and Great Britain. Since 1905, a new type of ship was built - dreadnoughts. By 1914, the German fleet was firmly in second place in the world after the British fleet. Other states also sought to strengthen their navies.

There was also ideological preparation for war: the people were instilled with the idea of ​​its inevitability through propaganda.

It is known that the reason for the outbreak of hostilities in 1914 was the murder of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife in Sarajevo by the Serbian nationalist, a member of the Young Bosnia organization Gavrilo Princip. But that was just an excuse. As one historian put it, this murder can be called setting fire to the fuse, behind which there was a barrel of gunpowder.