Baghdad Caliphate of the Abbasid Dynasty. The fifth righteous caliph, the caliph during whose reign he flourished

Righteouscaliphate, as you know, is associated with the era of the reign of the four closest companions (sahaba) of the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w.): Abu Bakr al-Siddiq (r.a., ruled in632-634 according to Miladi),Umar ibn Khattab (r.a.,634-644),Uthman ibn Affan (r.a.,644-656) andAli ibn Abu Talib (r.a.,656-661).

That historical period is considered exemplary for Muslims, since it was the era of the reign of the righteous caliphs that was distinguished by the observance of all Islamic canons in the form in which the Almighty sent them down to people through the Messenger of Allah (s.a.w.).

During the 30 years of the reign of the four companions of the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w.), the Arab Caliphate transformed from a small state located on the territory of the Arabian Peninsula into a regional power, which also included the following regions: North Africa, the Middle East, Jerusalem, Palestine , Persia, Iberian Peninsula, Caucasus.

But at the same time, in the history of the Arab Caliphate, many historians especially highlight the era of the reign of another caliph - Umar ibn Abdul-Aziz (Umar II). For his outstanding services in public administration, as well as for his piety and imitation of the companions of the Prophet Muhammad (s.g.w.), he was nicknamed “the fifth righteous caliph.” At the same time, some Muslim theologians assigned this status to the grandson of the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w.) - Hasan ibn Ali, who ruled for several months after his father and the fourth righteous caliph

Umar II before ascending the throne

Umar ibn Abdul Aziz was born in 680 (according to another version in 682 -approx. Islam . Global ) in Medina. His father Abdul Aziz ibn Marwan was a representative of the Umayyad dynasty, which ruled at that time in the territory of the Arab Caliphate. However, he was the youngest son of Caliph Marwan and therefore his accession to the throne, as well as his sons, seemed unlikely at that time. That is why Umar ibn Abdul Aziz did not prepare for the throne and his accession to the throne came as a big surprise to him.

The predecessor of Umar II, Suleiman ibn Abdul-Malik, was his cousin, while the caliph at that time had several sons and siblings. Two years after ascending the throne, Caliph Suleiman, who was on a military campaign, became seriously ill. The ruler's position seemed almost hopeless, and then he seriously thought about his successor to the position of caliph.

Suleiman's eldest son, Ayyub, who was considered the heir to the throne, died shortly before his father's death. At the time of his father’s illness, the second son of the caliph was on a military campaign against the Byzantine Empire, and therefore few considered him as a possible heir to the throne. The remaining sons of Suleiman had not reached adulthood by that time, and therefore did not have the right to claim government.

In addition, Suleiman could transfer power to his brothers, but he was not on such close terms with them. In this situation, the choice of caliph fell on his cousin, Umar ibn Abdul-Aziz, whose candidacy was approved by the majority of the country's largest military leaders, which served as a guarantee of the stability of the state.

"Strange" ruler

Having become the head of state, Umar ibn Abdul Aziz abandoned luxury and life in the large palace in Damascus, in which all his predecessors lived, and settled in a small, modest two-room house. In addition, he donated all his wealth to the state treasury. The family estates of Umar II were no exception, which, in his opinion, were acquired illegally by his father. He also freed all the slaves who were due to him as a ruler, and abandoned a large number of court servants. Umar II returned all the lands taken by his predecessors to their rightful owners. His wife Fatima also followed her husband’s example and donated all her jewelry, given to her by her father, to the needs of ordinary people.

Throughout his reign, Caliph Umar led a rather modest lifestyle, and all the wealth and jewelry that he received as a gift went to the needs of the poor.

Prohibition of cursing against Ali (r.a.)

Upon coming to power, Umar II forbade pronouncing curses against the fourth righteous caliph Ali ibn Abu Talib (r.a.) and his family.

The fact is that the founder of the Umayyad dynasty, Muawiyah ibn Abu Sufyan, was the governor of Egypt and Syria at the beginning of the reign of Ali (r.a.). After the third righteous caliph (ra) died at the hands of rebels in 656, Ali ibn Abu Talib (ra) became the leader of the faithful. However, Muawiyah refused to swear allegiance to him, accusing him of organizing a conspiracy against Caliph Uthman (r.a.).

As a result of disagreements that arose in the Arab Caliphate, Muawiyah ibn Abu Sufyan rebelled against the new ruler of the Muslims, but he failed to overthrow the fourth righteous caliph. After the death of Ali (r.a.), his son, Hassan ibn Ali (r.a.), became the successor, who a few months later was forced to transfer power in the country to Muawiyah ibn Abu Sufyan, who had great support in the country from many influential people.

In addition, the Shiite opposition, which did not recognize the Umayyads as legitimate rulers, called Muawiyah and his successors usurpers of power. According to Shiites, only the descendants of Ali ibn Abu Talib (r.a.) have the right to govern a Muslim state.

Thus, the disagreements that arose among the first Umayyads with one of the closest Sahaba of the Messenger of Allah (s.a.w.) and his followers led to the fact that in the Arab Caliphate, at the direction of the authorities, they began to publicly blaspheme Caliph Ali (r.a.) and his descendants. When he came to power, Umar II banned this practice, as he considered it unworthy to publicly insult the companions of the Prophet Muhammad (s.g.w.).

Umar ibn Abdul Aziz paid special attention to the needs of ordinary people. During his reign, many wells were repaired, which was especially important for residents of the hot provinces of the caliphate. In addition, many roads were built and communications between populated areas of the country were improved. During the time of Umar II, many ordinary people managed to return their property, which was illegally taken from them under previous rulers.

Reforms in the religious sphere

Caliph Umar II also paid serious attention to the religious component, since he himself had extensive knowledge in the field of Islamic theological thought. In particular, under him, a large number of mosques were built in different parts of the caliphate, thanks to which residents of even the most remote cities and villages were able to perform. In addition, it was under Umar ibn Abdul Aziz that mihrabs appeared in mosques (special niches in the walls - approx. Islam . Global ) , indicating the direction of the Kaaba. In addition, he provided all possible support to scientists in the field of Islamic theology and encouraged the study of the Holy Quran and the Most Pure Sunnah.

In addition to supporting the activities of Muslim theologians, he waged a fierce struggle against those who, for their own selfish purposes, distorted religious canons and tried to sow hostility in a multi-religious state. He called on his governors in the provinces of the Arab Caliphate to be guided in their activities exclusively by the provisions of the Holy Scriptures and the Noble Sunnah. It was from this that many of the prohibitions adopted by Caliph Umar II flowed. For example, he stopped the collection of additional taxes and other payments from ordinary people that were not provided for in Islamic primary sources. In addition, Umar ibn Abdul Aziz prohibited the collection of fees from representatives of the clergy and religious institutions.

Death of Caliph Umar II

Three years after his accession to the throne, Umar II's physical condition deteriorated sharply. According to some historians, he suffered from cancer. On the first day of the month of Rajab in the year 101 Hijri (720 Miladi), Caliph Umar passed on to the next world. After his death, he left his children neither palaces nor countless riches, as was the case under his predecessors. However, in just three years of his reign, he significantly improved the lives of ordinary people, including through personal material contributions. For his numerous successes during his reign, as well as for leading a modest lifestyle, strictly following the biography of the Prophet Muhammad (s.g.w.) and the righteous caliphs, he received the honorary nickname “the fifth righteous caliph” in the history of Islam.

Empire that ruled between 750-1258. Founded by the descendants of Abbas (may Allah be pleased with him) - the uncle of the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him)

Political history

Due to the fact that this caliphate takes its name from the uncle of the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) - Abbas bin Abdulmuttalib bin Hashim (may Allah be pleased with him), this caliphate is also called the Hashemite.

In the Islamic world, after the Abbasids came to power to replace the Umayyads, many changes took place in the administrative, military, political and scientific spheres. The year 750, the year of the Abbasid accession to the throne, was one of the most important turning points in Islamic history. The Abbasids' rise to power became possible as a result of the actions of a large organized group and coordinated agitation on the part of the leaders of these groups, among those segments of the population that were not happy with the rule of the Umayyads. The political views and laws by which the Umayyads lived for a hundred years gave rise to multiple masses dissatisfied with the government among the greatly expanded Islamic society, which ultimately contributed to the loss of power by the Umayyads.

The Islamic state created by the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) consisted mainly of Arabs and a small number of “non-Muslims” lived on the territory of this state. As a result of the conquests made during the time of the righteous caliphs, the territory of Islam spread to Egypt, Syria, Iraq and Iran. Conquests continued under the Umayyads and the borders of the caliphate reached Andalusia and the interior of Central Asia. The Arab conquerors recognized the right of local residents to practice their religion and then they paid jizya (a tax on “non-Muslims”), and local residents who converted to Islam became the owners of the same rights as the Arabs. This rule was taken directly from the “body of Islam” and was strictly observed during the time of the Rightly Guided Caliphs. However, the Umayyads, instead of the supremacy of the state provided for by Islam, introduced a government based on a certain cohort of people - Arabs by nationality, thus, the Caliphate, which spread its borders widely, little by little became a state based on an ethnic group. During the Umayyad era, the Arabs became a separate social class, they were exempt from land taxes and only Arabs were recruited into the army to found new border cities. Most of the military leaders are Arabs, and only they received all kinds of monetary allowances, monthly, annual salaries, shares of war spoils, etc.

In the conquered lands, the population who converted to Islam, but were not Arabs, were a kind of “second-class” citizens in terms of social, economic and career opportunities. These people theoretically had the same rights as the Arabs, but in reality this was not the case. Despite the fact that they were Muslims, in order to replenish the treasury, all sorts of taxes were collected from them, even going so far as to collect “jizya” from them - a tax that non-Muslims must pay. For wars of conquest they were taken as soldiers, but their remuneration was less than that of Arab warriors and their share in the spoils was also less. This policy towards non-Arab Muslims was carried out by the Umayyad caliphs and, although it was canceled by Caliph Umar bin Abdulaziz, it was resumed after his death. This practice has caused the emergence of strong opposition to the current government.

As history has shown, the events that happened after the death of Caliph Osman (may Allah be pleased with him) became the cause of unrest in the Islamic world for many centuries to come. The Umayyads, represented by the founder of this dynasty, the governor in Syria, Muawiya bin Abu Sufyan, refused to swear allegiance to Caliph Ali due to the fact that the killers of Osman (may Allah be pleased with him) had not yet been found and punished. But due to the events that began from that moment, the Battle of the Camel and the Battle of Siffin happened, where the Muslims fought among themselves and shed the blood of their brothers. After the death of Caliph Ali (may Allah be pleased with him) and the renunciation of the caliphate by his son Hassan (may Allah be pleased with him) in 661, the “caliphate” of Muawiya (may Allah be pleased with him) became obvious. However, supporters of Ali (may Allah be pleased with him) stood in strong opposition to the current government. The harsh actions of Muawiyah's governor in Iraq, Ziyad bin Abih, only increased tensions between the parties. The tragedy near Karbala, which led to the murder of xs. Hussein (may Allah be pleased with him) in 680, intensified the struggle against power even more. Quite quickly, the Shiite teaching became widespread and Shiite supporters appeared in large numbers in the eastern regions of the Caliphate. Non-Arab Muslims favorably accepted the idea of ​​a legitimate caliph from among the descendants of the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him), as the Shiites demanded. Thus, there was a unification of non-Arab Muslims with Shiites to fight against the Umayyads in power. Among other things, the Kharijites, who appeared after the Battle of Siffin, periodically rebelled, which gradually reduced the authority of the state.

One of the weak points of the Umayyads was that the constant struggle between the Arab tribes was not stopped and, moreover, the Umayyads themselves were involved in this struggle. This struggle consisted of mutual hostility between the “northern” and “southern” Arabs. Intertribal rivalries and wars ended with the adoption of Islam, but the political and economic benefits after the campaigns of conquest caused the old enmity to flare up with renewed vigor. The first conflicts (i.e. after the adoption of Islam) between the northern and southern tribes occurred during the reign of Muawiyah (may Allah be pleased with him). During periods of weakening authority of the central government, these conflicts turned into bloody clashes.

After the death of Caliph Yazid, the question of a new caliph arose. The “southern” Arabs from the Kelb tribe supported Marwan bin Hakam from the Umayyad family, the “northern” Arabs from the Qais tribe supported Abdullah bin Zubeir. The bloody war of these two tribes in 684 at Marjahim ended in victory for the Banu Kelb, i.e. the Umayyads. In this war, the Umayyads lost their neutrality and took direct part in inter-tribal wars. Later, under Caliph Walid I (705-715), the position of the Qais tribe, which supported Hajjaj, strengthened, in contrast to him, the Yemenis supported Walid's brother, Suleiman. Yezid III, who succeeded Walid II as caliph, played the most important role in removing his predecessor from the throne and did so while gaining the support of the Yemenis. The fact that the caliphs began to turn to this method led to the fact that they became representatives of a limited group of people, and not the caliphs of a single and integral Empire. This led to their rapid downfall.

Among the reasons for the weakening of the Umayyads, it is also necessary to mention the internal disagreements in the ruling family that arose after the overthrow of Walid II. Connected with this is the division into two camps of Syria, which was ruled by the Umayyads for many years. This confrontation led to the fact that the last of the Umayyad caliphs, Marwan II, left Damascus and made Harran the capital of the caliphate. We should also not forget that the last caliphs did not show much success in the development of the caliphate.

In addition to all this, the Abbasids were another destructive force. The Abbasids masterfully used all the conditions to gain the Caliphate and took slow but sure steps towards their goal. Taking advantage of the dissatisfaction of the population that spread throughout the entire Empire, the Abbasids quickly found themselves at the helm of protest movements. Although the caliphate was subsequently named after him, the uncle of the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) Abbas (may Allah be pleased with him) and his son Abdullah did not participate in political maneuvers, but were engaged in the dissemination of knowledge. Abdullah's son Ali also chose the path of his father and grandfather, but under pressure from Walid I, he was forced to leave Damascus in 714 and settle in the town of Humayma, which was located on the route of pilgrims from Syria. It was from Humaima that the agitation began, perhaps the oldest and most sophisticated in the political confrontation.

Even before the Abbasids began to do anything, the Shiites, who are the real force in Khurasan, were already acting. The Shiites wanted the caliph to be from the family of the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him). During that period of time, the Shiites rallied around Abu Hashim, the son of Muhammad bin Hanafi, who was the third son of the fourth righteous Caliph Ali (may Allah be pleased with him). Abu Hashim moved to Humayma and came into contact with the Abbasids. According to one version, he bequeathed the “imamate” to Muhammad bin Ali bin Abdullah after his death. Thus, the Abbasids, at the very beginning of their actions, enlisted the support of the Shiites.

The Abbasid agitation and their secret actions began in 718 from Kufa. Historical sources indicate that the movement began in 100 AH (718) and spread from Arabs to Arabs. However, it is very difficult to say anything specific on this issue. In addition, the data on the first actions is very confusing. In the early days, the Abbasids received heavy blows from the Umayyads, but did not give up their actions. The Abbasid movement proceeded secretly, having at its core 12 “naqibs” (head, elder) and 70 “dai” (preacher) standing under them.

The first successes in Khorasan were achieved by a preacher-agitator named Khidash. Being a supporter of radical ideas, he quickly gathered around him many like-minded people. Shiites from Merv also joined him. Despite some successes, Hidash was caught and executed in 736. In the same year, even before Hidash's uprising, Ali bin Abdullah bin Abbas died and his son Muhammad bin Ali led the movement in his place. Muhammad put even more effort into strengthening the Abbasid movement. On the one hand, he did not recognize Khidash’s merits, and on the other, he attributed all the mistakes of the protest movement to him, and thereby ensured the stability of his authority. The elders and preachers of the Abbasids called themselves not so much the opposition of the caliph, striving for power, but called themselves the means through which Allah would bring about the desired changes. The Abbasids declared that they were the truth that fought against disorder and took the oath not in their own name, but in the name of that member of the Prophet’s family who would join them and lead their movement a little later.

On August 26, 743, Imam Muhammad bin Ali bin Abdullah dies and, according to his will, his son Ibrahim takes his place. Ibrahim, having taken the reins of the revolutionary movement in Khorasan, sent Abu Muslim there in 745, calling him a representative of the “sacred family.” The nationality of Abu Muslim is not known for certain, but it is more likely that he was an Arab. Before joining the Abbasids, he lived in Kufa, either as a slave or as a freedman. Despite his young age, he attracted the attention of the leaders of the movement and one of the elders advised Imam Ibrahim bin Muhammad to bring Abu Muslim into the ranks of the Abbasids. Ibrahim brought Abu Muslim closer to him, directed his thoughts in the right direction and sent him to Khorasan as his representative.

The arrival of Abu Muslim in Khorasan and the beginning of his control of the Abbasid movement was a turning point in the revolutionary movement. At this time, the confrontation between the Arab tribes in Khorasan reached the point of open war. Abu Muslim traveled to all the cities of Khorasan, gripped by revolutionary sentiments, became the leader of the Shiites after the death of their chief imam Suleiman bin Kathir al Khuzai and maintained constant contact with Imam Ibrahim. Finally, in 747, a black flag sent by Imam Ibrahim was flown in Safizanj, a city where a large number of supporters of Suleiman bin Kathir lived. For some time Abu Muslim remained in Safizandj, from there he went to Alin, and then to Mahiyan. Abu Muslim, without giving the Umayyad supporters the opportunity to gather together, attacked and occupied Merv, at that time the capital of the Khorasan province. The mayor of Merv, Nasr bin Sayar, was forced to retire to Nishapur. As a result, cities such as Merv, Mervuruz, Herat, Nasa and Abiverd were occupied by the Abbasids. At the same time, returning from Ibrahim, the newly appointed chief commander of the Abbasid troops, Qahtaba bin Shabib, defeated Nasr bin Sayyar near the town of Tus. From now on, the Umayyad forces in Khorasan were broken. In June 748, Nasr left Nishapur and Abu Muslim moved his center there.

Nasr and the Arab tribes who rallied around him tried to hold on to the city of Kumis. At this time, Caliph Marwan II ordered the governor in Iraq, Yezid bin Umar bin Khubair, to send additional forces to Khorasan to help Nasr, but the troops sent were defeated before they could unite with Nasr. Kakhtaba and his son Hassan, blocking Kumis, headed west and captured Ray and Hamadan. In the spring of 749, Nasr was defeated at Isfahan and for Kakhtaba the road to Iraq became open. He sent his son Hasan ahead, and he himself followed. Hassan bypassed Ibn Hubeira, who had set up headquarters in Jelul, crossed the Tigris and went towards Kufa. Kakhtaba, on August 27, 749, made a lightning attack on the headquarters of Ibn Hubeyra and defeated it, Ibn Hubeyra was forced to retreat to the city of Vasyt. That night, Qahtaba, who brought the first military victories to the Abbasids, was killed, his son Hasan took command and on September 2 he captured Kufa. From now on, the hidden Abbasid administration in Kufa could gain operational space. Abu Salama al Hallal, with the rank of vizier of the Prophet's family, stopped hiding and took control. The Abbasids decided that the time had come for an open struggle for the caliphate. While revolutionary activities were actively taking place in Khorasan, Caliph Marwan arrested Ibrahim and sent him to Harran. According to legend, Ibrahim bequeathed his mission to his brother, Abu Abbas. The Abbasid family came there after the capture of Kufa, but they were not greeted very warmly in Kufa.

Abu Salama tried to stall for time as Ali held his son. The inhabitants of Khorasan understood this and swore allegiance to Abu Abbas. The oath was taken on November 28, 749, Friday, in the central mosque of Kufa. Abu Abbas, in his first sermon as caliph, tried to prove that the right to be caliphs belonged to the Abbasids, citing various evidence. From the first days of preparation for the coup, the Abbasids tried to show that they were at one with the Shiites and did not show their true intentions. But having gained power, the Abbasids turned their backs on them. Abu Abbas moved his headquarters to Hammam Ayn, away from Kufa, where Shiites lived in large numbers, and with the help of Abu Muslim, he got rid of Abu Salama and Sulayman bin Kathir.

As Qahtaba and his son Hasan advanced towards Kufa from the south, at the same time a second army under the command of Abu Abbas's uncle, Abdullah bin Ali, marched towards Syria from the north. Caliph Marwan II gathered a large army from the Arabs of Syria and al-Jazeera and met Abdullah's troops at the Great Zab River. The battle began on October 16, 750 and lasted 10 days. Due to internal disagreements among Marwan's troops, Abdullah's warriors were victorious. Marwan, having suffered defeat, first retreated to Harran, but realizing that he could not stay there for long, he headed to Damascus, and from there to Abufutrus in Jordan. Abdullah bin Ali, without meeting any resistance, approached the walls of Damascus and, after a short battle, captured the city. (April 26, 750). The troops pursuing Marwan overtook him near the town of Busir in Upper Egypt, and during the battle in August 750, Marwan was killed. Towards the end of 750, when Ibn Hubair, who lived in Vasyt, surrendered, the Umayyad Caliphate ceased to exist.

After the success of the coup and the Abassids coming to power, representatives of the Umayyads were brutally executed in all parts of the Empire. It got to the point that they tried to “take revenge on the bones” of the previous caliphs; the graves of all the caliphs were opened, except for the graves of Muawiyah and Umar bin Abdulaziz (may Allah be pleased with them). The greatest crime committed against the Umayyads occurred in Syria, where Abdullah bin Ali was at that time. Abdullah invited representatives of the Umayyad family, who lived in Abufutrus, to visit. During lunch, Abdullah, suddenly angry at one of the lines of the verse he read, ordered the killing of 80 Umayyad people.

Different opinions have been expressed about the nature of the Abbasid coup and the motives of its perpetrators. Some Western historians of the 19th century consider the struggle between the Abbasids and the Umayyads to be a struggle with national overtones between Arabs and Iranians. However, later studies refuted this point of view, because Even though the revolutionary movement began in Khorasan, where the majority of the population is Iranian and the first successes were made there, the Arabs were at the head of this movement. Of the twelve elders, eight are Arabs, four are “non-Arabs.” In addition, many Arabs lived in Khorasan and most of them took their places in the Abbasid armies. As mentioned above, the Abbasid coup was successful thanks to the united movement of various parts of society - opponents of the Umayyad dynasty. The force that gave impetus to the movement and led it to success was based not on chauvinism, but on the combination of interests of different groups.

Having come to power, the Abbasids were greeted as purveyors of the ideals and thoughts of a true caliphate, that is, a state based on religion, in opposition to the Umayyads, who personified the “property state.” During Friday prayers, the Caliph wore the “jubba” (cloak) of the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him). He kept religious experts in his circle, with whom he consulted and whom he took under the protection of the state. Despite the fact that the Abbasids, like the Umayyads, thought in worldly categories, they did not forget to appear to the people as religious and ascetic.

The Abbasids established the center of the caliphate in Iraq instead of Syria. The first caliph, Abu Abbas al-Saffah, lived for some time in the small town of Hashimiya on the eastern bank of the Euphrates. But he soon moved the capital to Anbar. The second caliph of the Abbasid dynasty and the full founder of this dynasty, Abu Jafar al Mansur, founded a new city, which became the permanent capital of the caliphate, near the ruins of the old capital of the Sassanids - the city of Madain at the mouth of the Tigris. The new city was called Madinatussalam, but everyone began to call it by the name of the ancient Iranian settlement that was located there - Diyanbagdad. The transfer of the capital of the caliphate brought important results. With the transfer of the capital, the center of gravity of government shifted from Mediterranean Syria to the irrigated, fertile valley, the intersection of many trade routes, which was Iraq, and the influence of Iran became stronger than that of Byzantium.

With the coming to power of the Abbasids, the era of rule by the Arabs and especially the Syrians ended. The difference between Arabs and Muslim “non-Arabs” was erased and in some places the “non-Arabs” even outnumbered the Arabs. The residents of Khorasan, who bore the heavy burden of the coup on their shoulders, took high positions in the state. The leader of the movement, Abu Muslim, had great authority and great opportunities. The first Abbasid caliphs lived, as it were, in his shadow. Caliph Mansur, unable to tolerate the rule of Abu Muslim, ordered his death. However, this did not weaken the influence of Iranians in the state. The vizier dynasty of the Barmakids was very influential for a long time, starting from the reign of Caliph Mansur. Now the Barmakids have become as powerful as the caliph himself. And only in 803 did Harun ar-Rashid find a reason to eliminate the Barmakid family. The struggle for the throne between the sons of Harun al-Rashid, Emin and Ma'mun, after the death of their father, was at the same time a struggle between the power of the Arabs and the Iranians. The Arabs supported Emin, both of whose mother and father were Arabs, and the Iranians supported Ma'mun, since his mother was a concubine of Iranian origin. As a result of Ma'mun's coming to power, the Arabs were completely removed from government.

Ma'mun, in the first years of his reign, was in Merv and, falling under the influence of Iranian figures, made decisions that were harmful to himself. However, the development of events in a negative way for him awakened the caliph and he was forced to change his policy. First of all, he moved to Baghdad and took control into his own hands. The events that occurred while he was in Merv shook his confidence in the Arabs and Iranians, he needed new personnel and new forces on which he could rely. The Turks, with whom he had the opportunity to become acquainted during his stay in Khorasan, were the only force capable of resisting the influence of the Arabs and Iranians and, from the point of view of political experience and military skill, could become a balancing element in the empire. In the last years of his reign, Ma'mun began to recruit Turks into military units and made it part of state policy. Historical sources indicate that in the last years of Ma'mun's reign there were from 8,000 to 10,000 Turks in the caliph's troops and the command staff of the army also consisted of Turks.

After the death of Caliph Ma'mun, his brother Mu'tasym ascended to the post of caliph thanks to the assistance of the Turks. He, like his elder brother, continued to attract detachments of Turks from various countries and thus, in a short time, the caliph’s troops, for the most part, began to consist of Turks. In 836, he founded the city of Samarra and moved the capital of the Caliphate and his troops there. Thus began the “Age of Samarra,” which lasted until 892. Turkic commanders gradually began to occupy responsible positions and have weight in government. Starting with the Caliph Mutawakkil, they appointed the Caliph from candidates they liked, and removed those they did not like from this position. On the other hand, the caliphs tried to get rid of the oppression of the Turks and, at every opportunity, killed commanders from among them. This confrontation between the Turks and the caliphs continued until the capital was moved again to Baghdad in 892. However, the transfer of the capital of the caliphate did not bring any changes to the institution of the caliphate, in terms of its authority and power. If the situation improved under Caliph Mutazid, then with his death everything returned to its previous place. Only now, the Caliphate was also being destroyed by rivalry between government officials. Caliph Razi, in 936, to end internal rivalries, appointed Muhammad bin Raik al Hazari to the post of “amir ul-umar” (supreme commander), giving him great powers similar to those of the caliph. However, this move did not bring the expected result. By that time, the Empire had become fragmented and the Caliph's orders, in principle, applied only to part of Iraq. The worst thing for the Abbasids was the occupation of Baghdad in 945 by the Buyids (Buwaykhids). The Buwayhids are a Shia family from Iran, by the mid-9th century they established rule in the territories of Persia, Khuzistan (a province in southwestern Iran), Kirman (a province in southeastern Iran) and Jibal. Under their pressure, the Abbasid Caliph Mustakfi was forced to hand over the post of supreme commander to Muezzidudaul Ahmed from the Buwayhid family. Thus, the Abbasid Caliphate came under the influence of the Shia family. The Buwayhids ruled Baghdad for a century, and the caliphs under them remained in the role of puppets, having lost all political and military authority. The Buwayhids kept caliphs from among the Abbasids only to ensure the appearance of legitimacy of the central government and spiritual power over the people. However, they appointed as caliphs those whom they themselves considered necessary, and, without visible effort, they could leave those they did not want. Now Baghdad was no longer the center of the Islamic world. In the middle of the 11th century, the Buwaikhs lost their strength and at that time Arslan al Basasiri began to preach the Friday sermon in Baghdad on behalf of the Fatimid Caliphate.

During this period of time, when attempts were being made to completely eradicate the Abbasid Caliphate, another force emerged in Iran. These were the Seljuk sultans who professed the Sunni faith. The delivery of the Friday sermon by Arslan al Basasiri on behalf of the Fatimid Caliph brought the Seljuqids into action. Sultan Tugrul saved Baghdad from Arslan al Basasiri in 1055 and restored religious respect to the Caliph. For another half century, the caliphs continued to exist under the political rule of the Seljuk sultans. The Seljuks cleared not only Baghdad of the Fatimids, but also the whole of Iraq and Syria. At the same time, madrassas are being founded in Baghdad and other large cities, in which Shiite ideology is being rebuffed. Later, when the Seljuks began an internal dispute over the throne of the Sultan and weakened their influence, the Abbasids began actions aimed at restoring physical power. However, the Abbasids, and especially the governors of Caliph Nasir, did not have so much strength to implement his policies, so the Abbasid Caliphate very soon returned to its previous level. In 1194, the Seljuk Sultan of Iraq Tughrul was defeated by Kharezmshah Tekis and the territories under his possession passed to the Kharezmshahs. The Abbasid caliphs were left alone with the Kharezmshahs. According to some sources, Caliph Nasir decided that the new rival was more dangerous than the previous ones and turned for help to Genghis Khan, who by that time had captured all of Asia. Indeed, Kharezmshah Muhammad, who came to power after Alaaddin Tekis, planned to wipe out the Abbasid Caliphate from the face of the earth, and only the Mongol invasion prevented him from fulfilling his plan.

The Umayyad rulers expanded the borders of the Islamic Empire from the interior of Turkistan to the Pyrenees Mountains, from the Caucasus to the Indian Ocean and the Sahara. With such borders, this Empire was the largest in the history of mankind. But if you look at the conditions of that era, it becomes clear that managing such an Empire is very difficult. So, with the Abbasids coming to power, splits began from the very first years of their reign. Having managed to escape from the Abbasid massacre, Abdurrahman bin Muawiya, the grandson of Caliph Hisham, was able to escape to Andalusia through Egypt and North Africa. Abdurahman took advantage of the chaos that reigned in Andalusia and began to rule as a sovereign ruler in 756. Caliph Mansur, although he gathered troops against Abdurrahman, was unable to achieve success, and Andalusia was thus completely separated from the Empire. After the independence of Andalusia, the whole of North Africa gradually broke up into independent and semi-independent states. Thus, we can mention the “Kharijites” Midrarites, who gained independence in 758, the Rustamids in Western Algeria broke away in 777, the Idrisids created a state in Morocco in 789, and the Aglebites, who created their state in Tunisia in 800.

Beginning in the mid-9th century, Abbasid influence did not extend beyond Egypt. In addition, the Turkic tribes of the Tolunogullars from 868 to 905 and the Ikhshidis from 935 to 969 captured Egypt and Syria, thereby narrowing the western border of the Empire. The situation in the eastern provinces was not much different. Starting from 819, the Samanites in Khorasan and Mawarannahr, from 821 Tahirits in Khorasan, although they were nominally under the authority of the caliph, in reality, they were free in matters of domestic and foreign policy. The Saffarites, having arisen in 867 in the Sistan region, waged a long struggle with the Baghdat Caliph. The Hamdanites of Syria and al-Jazira gained independence in 905. Thus, towards the middle of the 9th century, the caliph's administrative influence was limited to Baghdad and its environs.

During the Abbasid era, there were frequent uprisings on political, economic and religious grounds. So in 752 there was an uprising in Syria, the rebels wanted to restore the rights of the Umayyad dynasty. The uprising was quickly suppressed, but supporters of the Umayyads, who believed that the Umayyads would someday return and restore justice, raised riots from time to time, which, however, did not reach serious proportions. The Shiites could not come to terms with the Abbasids coming to power, since it was the Shiites who played a large role in the success of the coup and therefore they openly declared their rights to the caliphate. So Muhammad an-Nafsu-zakiya and his brother Ibrahim, being descendants of Hasan, the son of Hazrat Ali, began actions to seize power. For a long time they worked secretly and, to escape the persecution of the caliph, often changed their places of residence, but unable to withstand the pressure on their family, they came out of the shadows and openly opposed Caliph Mansur. However, in 762, Muhammad, and a year later his brother Ibrahim, were caught and executed. The Shiite uprisings did not end there; at every opportunity they rebelled, but did not achieve results. But, more important than all this, there was a series of uprisings launched in Iran due to the assassination of Abu Muslim in 755 by Caliph Mansur. To some extent, these riots were based on nationalist ideas. The religious and ideological component of these riots originated from Iran. After news of Abu Muslim's death reached Khorasan, presumably one of Abu Muslim's inner circle, a certain general named Sunbaz captured Ray and headed for Hamedan. Sunbaz is defeated in a battle with the forces of the caliph, somewhere between Ray and Hamedan, and flees to Tabaristan, but is captured and executed. At the same time, Ishak at-Turki, also a man of Abu Muslim, raised a revolt in Mawarannahr, and for two years the caliph’s troops fought against him. In 757, there was a revolt led by Ustazsis, Herat, Badghis and Sistan rebelled, and the riot ended with the arrest of Ustazsis, a year after it began. The most dangerous revolt of Khorasan is the revolt of Mukanna. Mukanna's ideology was similar to that of modern communists; the revolt under his leadership was suppressed only in 789. During the reign of Caliph Mahdi, many more riots took place to revive the old religions of Iran. Because of these events, a new department, “Divan-u Zenadyk” (Council for the Affairs of Atheists), was created, which was engaged in suppressing the riots.

One of the most important revolts in terms of territory coverage, duration and equipment during the era of Abbasid rule was the revolt of Babek al-Hurrami. The supporters of Babek, who had respectable qualities in the political and military spheres, were mostly peasants. Babek promised them large plots of land and kept his promises. Babek rebelled in 816 in Azerbaijan, for a long time defeated the forces of the caliph sent against him, thereby further strengthening his influence, and was eventually caught by the commander of the caliph Mutasym, Afshin, a Turk by origin, and executed in 837 .

On the other side. The Zenj revolt, a revolt of dark-skinned slaves in 869-883, occurred for economic and social reasons. Slaves in the Basra region, working in fields and plantations, lived in very difficult conditions. Ali bin Muhammad, who claimed that he was descended from the descendants of Hazrat Ali, raised them to revolt, giving out all kinds of promises. This movement expanded very quickly, acquiring new groups. The black military movement was initially very successful. Having captured strategically important areas in southern Iraq and southwestern Iran, they entered Basra and Wasyt. Thus, they began to threaten Baghdad as well. This rebellion was suppressed with great effort and as a result of long battles.

The social crisis in which the empire arrived at the beginning of the 10th century reached its apogee. Despite the fact that the rebellion of dark-skinned slaves was suppressed, its effect continued for a long time and, in addition, the Ismaili ideology was actively spreading. In 901-906, armed Ismaili groups known as Qarmatians overran Syria, Palestine and al-Jazeera. In Bahrain, the Qarmatian movement developed even more dangerously; it is known that in their center, the city of al-Akhsha, about 20,000 armed sectarians lived. The Karmatians quickly moved north and entered Kufa. In 929, they attacked Mecca and took “Hajar ul-Aswad” to al-Akhsha; they managed to return the stone only after 20 years. In addition, they caused unrest in Syria. The Qarmatian rule in Bahrain lasted until the end of the 11th century.

The Abbasids did not wage many wars of conquest. The new dynasty, instead of expanding its already wide borders, took up the problems of internal well-being and succeeded in this. At the same time, after several years of calm after the overthrow of the previous dynasty, the Abbasids resumed their campaigns against Byzantium. Under Caliph Mansur, small-scale actions were carried out in Anadolu. The third Abbasid caliph Mahdi, in order to teach a lesson to the Byzantine Empire, which wanted to take advantage of the internal confusion in the caliphate, launched a large campaign against Istanbul in 782. The Islamic army under the command of Harun, the son of the caliph, reached Üsküdar and, having concluded peace and obliging Queen Irene to pay an annual tribute, returned back. Caliph Harun al-Rashid strengthened the border line from Tarsus to Malatya, repaired and equipped fortifications. Here he settled volunteers from various regions of the caliphate; later these fortresses on the border were united into a separate province of Avasym. Caliph Ma'mun, in the last years of his reign, organized three campaigns against the Byzantine Empire in 830-833 and himself participated in them. Then, in central Anatolia, the city of Tiana was captured and Muslims were settled there. From these actions it becomes clear that in this way outposts were prepared for subsequent campaigns in Anatolia. During the Abbasid era, the largest campaign against the Byzantine Empire was carried out by Caliph Mu'tasim. In 838, Mu'tasim entered Anatolia with a large army, passed through Ankara to the largest city of Anatolia at that time, Amorion, (near the present city of Afyon), surrounded and captured it. After Caliph Mu'tasym, military activity in the Byzantine direction began to decline. The weakening of the Abbasid Caliphate began in the middle of the 9th century and wars were already fought between the Byzantine Empire and the new states of Syria and Al Jazeera. In particular, the campaigns of Saifuddaulat from the Hamdan dynasty were of great significance. During this period, except for a few skirmishes on the Turkestan and Khazar fronts, complete calm reigned. The Abbasids, due to the fact that the Mediterranean was far from the center of the empire, did not pay close attention there. However, the newly formed states of Egypt and North Africa controlled the Mediterranean Sea for several centuries. An example of this is the Aglebites, who ruled Sicily from 825 to 878.

The friendly relationship between the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid and King Charlemagne at the beginning of the 9th century was based on mutual benefit. Charlemagne considered Harun al-Rashid a possible ally in the war against Byzantium, and Harun al-Rashid wanted to use Charlemagne against the Umayyads of Andalusia, who were able to create a powerful and sovereign state in Spain. According to Western scholars, the relationship was strengthened by a bilateral exchange of gifts and delegations. Mention is made of an unusual and skillfully made watch that Harun al-Rashid gave to Charlemagne. At the same time, Islamic historical sources do not report anything about the relationships in 797-806 that Western historians point to.

On the other side of the empire, the Mongols of Genghis Khan, after successful campaigns against China in 1218, headed west and began to occupy the territory of the Islamic world. After the destruction of the Kharezmshahs, there were no forces left in Iran and Iraq capable of resisting the Mongol invasion. The Mongols razed Samarkand, Bukhara, Tashkent, Kharezm, Belkh and continued to move west. After the death of Genghis Khan, the Mongol invasion did not stop. One of his grandsons, Hulagu, having broken the last resistance in Iran, approached Baghdad in January 1258 and surrounded it. There was no strength to resist in Baghdad. After offers of peace were rejected, the last Abbasid caliph, Musta'sim, was forced to surrender along with all government officials. Hulagu ordered the execution of all those who surrendered, and Baghdad, which served as the capital of the Islamic world for five centuries, was destroyed. As in other Islamic cities in Baghdad, the invaders committed unspeakable atrocities, all government entities were destroyed. Mosques were reduced to ruins, libraries were destroyed, books were burned or thrown into the Tigris. The capture of Baghdad by the Mongols is regarded as one of the worst disasters in the history of Islam. This catastrophe caused harm, more than in a political sense, in a civilizational sense, and after this event, Islamic culture began to stagnate and fade.

The Abbasid dynasty, which ruled from 750 to 1258, is the second longest reign after the Ottoman Empire. Islamic culture experienced its heyday during the Abbasid era. The Abbasids held power in the political arena for a long time and, except for one or two periods of time, were also the spiritual leaders of the Islamic world until the end of their days. The Abbasid Caliphate occupies a worthy place both in the history of Islam and in world history.

The reign of the Abbasid caliphs

1. Abu Abbas al-Saffah 132,750
2. Abu Jafar al Mansur 136 754
3. Muhammad al Mahdi 158,775
4. Musa al Hadi 169 785
5. Harun al-Rashid 170 786
6. Al Amin 193 809
7. Al Ma'mun 198 813
8. Al Mu'tasim - Billah 218 833
9. Al Wasiq - Bills 227 842
10. Al Mutawakkil - Alyallah 232 847
11. Al Muntasir - Bills 247,861
12. Al Musta'een - Bills 248,862
13. Al Mu'taz - Bills 252,866
14. Al Muhtadi Billah 255 869
15. Al Mu'tamid - Allah 256 870
16. Al Mu'tazid - Bills 279 892
17. Al Muqtafi - Bills 289 902
18. Al Muqtadir - Bills 295 908
19. Al Qahir - Bills 320,932
20. Ar-Raza - Bills 322,934
21. Al Muttaqi-Lillah 329 940
22. Al Mustakfi Billah 333 944
23. Al Muti-Lillah 334 946
24. At-Tai - Lillyah 363 974
25. Al Qadir Billah 381 991
26. Al Qaim-Biamrillah 422 1031
27. Al Muqtadi-Biamrillah 467 1075
28. Al Muztazhir Billah 487 1094
29. Al Mustarshid Billah 512 1118
30. Ar-Rashid Billah 529 1135
31. Al Muktafi-Liemrillah 530 1136
32. Al Mustanjid - Billah 555 1160
33. Al Mustazi-Biamrillah 566 1170
34. Al Nasir-Lidinillah 575 1180
35. Az-Zahir-Biamrillah 622 1225
36. Al Musta'sim - Bills 640-656 1242-1258

The Mongol disaster was stopped at Ainijalut in 1260 by the Mamluk commander, Baybars. In the same year, Baybars kills the Mamluk Sultan Qutuz and ascends the throne himself. Sultan Baybars brings to Cairo Ahmad, the son of the Abbasid caliph Zahir, who fled to Damascus when the Mongols destroyed Baghdad, with magnificent celebrations declares Ahmad caliph and swears allegiance to him. (9 Rajab 659/9 June 1261). Thus, the Abbasid Caliphate was created anew, after a three-year break in the five-century spiritual leadership of the Islamic world. Ahmad, who took the name “Mustansir,” the same year went with Sultan Baybars to Damascus for a liberation campaign against Baghdad, but Baybars was forced to return and Mustansir, left alone with the Mongol governor, was killed in battle. Then Baybars declares another representative of the Abbasids, also named Ahmad, but called "Al Hakim" as caliph; thus, Baybars provided spiritual support for his political power. The Abbasid caliphs of Egypt are descended from Hakim. The names of these caliphs were minted on coins and their names were said at Friday prayers along with the names of the sultans, but the caliphs had no real power. The caliphs managed only property and funds intended for religious purposes and performed some rituals when new sultans ascended the throne.

The Abbasid caliphs from Cairo sent orders to certain Islamic rulers for their appointment and, whenever possible, intervened in the political affairs of the empire. So, in 1412, after the death of Sultan Nasir, Caliph Adil declared himself Sultan, but he was Sultan for only three days. Sultan Muayed Khan dethroned him and killed him. Some caliphs were removed due to their disagreement with the sultans. Eventually, in 1517, the Ottoman ruler Yavuz Sultan Salim occupied Egypt, and upon returning to Istanbul, he took the last caliph Mutawakkil with him. Thus, the Egyptian Abbasid Caliphate ended its existence.

Abbasid caliphs of Egypt

1. Al Mustansir-Billah Abu Kasym Ahmad 659 1261
2. Al Hakim-Biamrillah Abu Abbas Ahmad I 660 1261
3. Al Mustakfi Abu r-Rabi’ Suleiman I 701 1302
4. Al Wasik-Billah Abu Ishaq Ibrahim 740 1340
5. Al Hakim Biamrillah Abu Abbas Ahmad II 741 1341
6. Al Mu'tazid-Billah Abu Fath Abu Bakr 753 1352
7. Al Mutawakkil-Allalah Abu Abdullah (1st reign) 763 1362
8. Al Mu'tasim-Billah Abu Yahya Zakaria (1st reign) 779 1377
9. Al Mutawakkil-Allalah Abu Abdullah (2nd reign) 779 1377
10. Al Wasik Bill Abu Hafs Umar 785 1383
11. Al Mu'tasim-Billah Abu Yahya Zakaria (2nd reign) 788 1386
12. Al Mutawakkil-Allalah Abu Abdullah (3rd reign) 791 1389
13. Al Musta'in Billah Abul Fazl Abbas 808 1406
14. Al Mu'tazid-Billah Abu Fath Dawood 816 1414
15. Al Mustakfi-Billah Abu r-Rabi’ Suleiman II 845 1441
16. Al Qaim-Biamrillah Abul Bek Hamza 855 1451
17. Al Mustanjid-Billah Abul Mahasin Yusuf 859 1455
18. Al Mutawakkil-Allalah Abul-Iz Abdulziz 884 1479
19. Al Mustamsik-Billah Abu sSabr Yaqub (1st reign) 903 1497
20. Al Mutawakkil-Allallah Muhammad (1st reign) 914 1508
21. Al Mustamsik-Billah Abu sSabr Yaqub (2nd reign) 922 1516

Al Mutawakkil-Allah Muhammad (2nd reign) 923 1517

To be continued...

Islamic Encyclopedia

Baghdad Caliphate of the Abbasid dynasty

The Abbasids were descendants of al-Abbas ibn Abd al-Mutallib ibn Hashim, who was the uncle of the Prophet. They believed that they were also related to the Prophet, like the family of Ali. Their claims to power first emerged under Omar II. The Abbasids created secret societies in Kufa and Khorasan and, taking advantage of the strife between the Umaids, began an armed struggle. In 749 they seized power in the city of Kufa, and then in many other lands of the Muslim state. In the fall of 749, in Kufa, Muslims swore allegiance to the first caliph of the new dynasty, Abu al-Abbas al-Saffah. His successor, Caliph al-Mansur, who reigned from 754 to 775, founded a new capital, the City of Peace, or Baghdad. Baghdad was built on the Tigris River in 762.

At the beginning of the reign of this dynasty in 751, in the battle of the Central Asian river Talas, Muslims defeated a huge Chinese army, after which Islam in Central Asia was finally consolidated and the boundaries of the Caliphate no longer expanded. Iran became the main province of the Abbasid Caliphate. In the structure of administration, finance, and postal services, the Abbasids followed the example of the Sasanian kings. Those close to the Abbasids were predominantly Iranians.

The Arabs in the Baghdad Caliphate, except for the descendants of the Prophet, lost their exclusive position in society. They were given equal rights with all Muslims, among whom the majority were Turks and Iranians. The Abbasid dynasty ruled for almost five hundred years, three hundred of which were marked by the flowering of Muslim culture and science.

Early Abbasid rule In 750, the Arab faction destroyed the Umayyad Caliphate and founded the Abbasid dynasty. They maintained control over northern Bactria. The Abbasids not only continued the policy of granting dhimmi status to local Buddhists, but also

Rebellions against the Abbasids The early Abbasids were plagued by rebellions. Caliph al-Rashid died in 808 on his way to Samarkand, the capital of Sogdiana, where he went to suppress a rebellion. Before his death, he divided the empire between his two sons. Al-Mamun, who accompanied his father on a campaign to

4. THE BAGHDAD PACT AND THE ARAB LEAGUE A. The Baghdad PactThe Baghdad Pact plays a large role in the politics of the Middle East. It was conceived by England, which, having cleared its possessions or mandated countries, still intended to play a role in the Middle East. East, considering itself a power

RELIGIOUS STRUGGLE IN THE ABBASID CALIPHATE F. Engels gave the following description of the social foundations of the internal struggle that took place in Islam over the centuries: “Islam is a religion adapted for the inhabitants of the East, especially for the Arabs, therefore, with

Victorious Caliphate “Farewell, Syria, forever! - said the emperor, sailing from Byzantium. “And this beautiful land should belong to my enemy...” Mourn the Sassanid dynasty, power and glory, the throne of so many sovereigns! The times of Omar have come, faith has come,

Caliphate of Hisham Revolt of the House of Ali. Conspiracies of the House of Abbas Hisham, the fourth son of Abd al-Malik to become caliph, was harsh, stingy and unyielding. He accumulated wealth, closely monitored the cultivation of land and the raising of thoroughbred horses. In the races that he

The emergence of the Abbasid Caliphate and the foundation of Baghdad “The more power, the less nobility” - this is what Abu Abbas said. The Abbasid dynasty became famous for its treachery and betrayal. Intrigue and cunning replaced strength and courage in this family, which is especially

Baghdad Caliphate of the Abbasid Dynasty The Abbasids were descendants of al-Abbas ibn Abd al-Mutallib ibn Hashim, who was the uncle of the Prophet. They believed that they were also related to the Prophet, like the family of Ali. Their claims to power first emerged under Omar

Cordoba Caliphate The Cordoba Caliphate lasted the longest in the West, where the Umayyad dynasty dominated from the mid-8th century. The founder of this dynasty was Abderrahman I, who escaped from the Abbasid assassins and fled to the south of Spain to Cordoba. Greatest prosperity

The Baghdad Thief An old Baghdad thief, sharing a meal with his son, taught him, asking: “Do you know how to steal gold from the treasury without the walls of Baghdad collapsing?” I will teach you.” He collected the bread crumbs from the table into a pile and, pointing to it, continued: “This is the treasury of the city of Baghdad.” Take from

1230 years ago, on September 14, 786, Harun al-Rashid (Harun al-Rashid), or the Just (766-809), the fifth Baghdad caliph from the Abbasid dynasty, became the ruler of the Abbasid Caliphate.
Harun turned Baghdad into the brilliant and intellectual capital of the East. He built a luxurious palace for himself and founded a large university and library in Baghdad. The Caliph built schools and hospitals, patronized the sciences and arts, encouraged music studies, and attracted scientists, poets, doctors and musicians, including foreigners, to his court. He was interested in science and wrote poetry. Under him, agriculture, crafts, trade and culture achieved significant development in the Caliphate. The reign of Caliph Harun al-Rashid is believed to have been marked by economic and cultural prosperity and is remembered by Muslims as the “golden age” of the Baghdad Caliphate.

As a result, the figure of Harun al-Rashid was idealized in Arab folklore. He became one of the heroes of the Arabian Nights fairy tales, where he appears as a kind, wise and fair ruler who protects ordinary people from dishonest officials and judges. Pretending to be a merchant, he wandered the night streets of Baghdad so that he could communicate with ordinary people and learn about the true state of affairs in the country and the needs of his subjects.

True, already during the reign of Harun there were signs of a crisis in the caliphate: major anti-government uprisings occurred in North Africa, Deilem, Syria, Central Asia and other areas. The caliph sought to strengthen the unity of the state on the basis of official Islam, relying on the clergy and the Sunni majority of the population, and carried out repression against opposition movements in Islam and pursued a policy of limiting the rights of the non-Muslim population in the caliphate.

From the history of the Arab Caliphate

Arab statehood originated on the Arabian Peninsula. The most developed area was Yemen. Earlier than the rest of Arabia, the development of Yemen was caused by the intermediary role it played in the trade of Egypt, Palestine and Syria, and then the entire Mediterranean, with Ethiopia (Abyssinia) and India. In addition, there were two more large centers in Arabia. In the west of Arabia, Mecca was located - an important transit point on the caravan route from Yemen to Syria, which flourished due to transit trade. Another major city in Arabia was Medina (Yathrib), which was the center of an agricultural oasis, but there were also traders and artisans. So, if by the beginning of the 7th century. most of the Arabs living in the central and northern regions remained nomads (steppe Bedouins); then in this part of Arabia there was an intensive process of decomposition of the tribal system and early feudal relations began to take shape.

In addition, the old religious ideology (polytheism) was in crisis. Christianity (from Syria and Ethiopia) and Judaism penetrated into Arabia. In the VI century. In Arabia, the Hanif movement arose, recognizing only one god and borrowing some attitudes and rituals from Christianity and Judaism. This movement was directed against tribal and urban cults, for the creation of a single religion recognizing one god (Allah, Arabic al-ilah). The new doctrine arose in the most developed centers of the peninsula, where feudal relations were more developed - in Yemen and the city of Yathrib. Mecca was also captured by the movement. One of its representatives was the merchant Muhammad, who became the founder of a new religion - Islam (from the word “submission”).

In Mecca, this teaching met opposition from the nobility, as a result of which Muhammad and his followers were forced to flee to Yathrib in 622. The Muslim calendar is based on this year. Yathrib received the name of Medina, i.e. the city of the Prophet (as Muhammad began to be called). The Muslim community was founded here as a religious-military organization, which soon turned into a major military-political force and became the center of the unification of Arab tribes into a single state. Islam, with its preaching of the brotherhood of all Muslims, regardless of tribal division, was accepted primarily by ordinary people who suffered from oppression by the tribal nobility and had long ago lost faith in the power of tribal gods, who did not protect them from bloody tribal massacres, disasters and poverty. At first, the tribal nobility and wealthy traders opposed Islam, but then recognized its benefits. Islam recognized slavery and protected private property. In addition, the creation of a strong state was also in the interests of the nobility; external expansion could begin.

In 630, an agreement was reached between the opposing forces, according to which Muhammad was recognized as the prophet and head of Arabia, and Islam as a new religion. By the end of 630, a significant part of the Arabian Peninsula recognized the authority of Muhammad, which meant the formation of the Arab state (caliphate). Thus, the conditions were created for the unification of settled and nomadic Arab tribes, and the beginning of external expansion against neighbors who were mired in internal problems and did not expect the emergence of a new strong and united enemy.

After the death of Muhammad in 632, a system of rule by caliphs (deputies of the prophet) was established. The first caliphs were companions of the prophet and under them a wide external expansion began. By 640, the Arabs had conquered almost all of Palestine and Syria. At the same time, many cities were so tired of the repression and tax oppression of the Romans (Byzantines) that they offered virtually no resistance. The Arabs in the first period were quite tolerant of other religions and foreigners. Thus, such major centers as Antioch, Damascus and others surrendered to the conquerors only on condition of maintaining personal freedom, freedom for Christians and Jews of their religion. Soon the Arabs conquered Egypt and Iran. As a result of these and further conquests, a huge state was created. Further feudalization, accompanied by the growth of the power of large feudal lords in their domains, and the weakening of central authority, led to the collapse of the caliphate. The governors of the caliphs, the emirs, gradually achieved complete independence from the central government and turned into sovereign rulers.

The history of the Arab state is divided into three periods according to the name of the ruling dynasties or the location of the capital: 1) The Meccan period (622 - 661) is the time of the reign of Muhammad and his close associates; 2) Damascus (661-750) - the reign of the Umayyads; 3) Baghdad (750 - 1055) - reign of the Abbasid dynasty. Abbas is the uncle of the Prophet Mohammed. His son Abdallah became the founder of the Abbasid dynasty, which, in the person of Abdallah's grandson, Abul Abbas, took the throne of the Baghdad caliphs in 750.

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Origin. Justification of claims to power

Claiming supreme power, the Abbasids argued that the Umayyads, although they came from the Quraysh tribe, did not belong to the family of the Prophet, that is, the Hashemites. The Abbasids traced their origins to the uncle of the prophet Abbas Ibn Abd al-Muttalib from the Meccan family of Hashim. The latter was the brother of Muhammad's father, Abdallah, and Ali's father, Abu Talib. Initially, the Abbasids did not play a significant role in government affairs. But as dissatisfaction with the ruling Umayyad dynasty grew in the Caliphate, the importance of this family increased. Due to their close relationship with the Alids, the Abbasids could count on the support of the Shiites in the struggle for power. Abbas's great-great-grandson, Muhammad ibn Ali ibn Abdullah, managed at the beginning of the 8th century to enlist the support of several Shiite clans, which recognized him as their imam. Ibn al-Tiktaq reports that Muhammad received the imamate from one of the Shiite imams, Abu Hashim Abdullah, who, dying, declared him his successor.

"Abbasid Revolution"

From that time on, the Abbasids began secretly preparing to overthrow the Umayyads, sending their agents everywhere. The real center of the anti-Umayyad movement was Kufa, but the Abbasids found particularly favorable soil for their propaganda in Khorasan and Transoxiana among the Shiites there. In 743, Muhammad was captured and executed. The Imamate passed to his son Ibrahim. Under him, the talented preacher and capable military leader Abu Muslim, a Persian by origin, went to Khorasan. He was a Shia by faith, but devoted all his strength to the Abbasid cause. In a short time, Abu Muslim managed to create a powerful organization of followers and win over to the side of the Abbasids not only the Kalbit Arabs who had been removed from power by this time, but also the overwhelming majority of the urban population of Iran who had converted to Islam. He was also supported by many Shiites, confident that after the overthrow of the Umayyads, power would pass to the descendants of Ali.

The success of the Abbasids was facilitated by the Umayyad civil strife that flared up after the death of Caliph Hisham in 743. In 747, an anti-Umayyad uprising began in Khorasan, led by representatives of the Abbasids - Ibrahim ibn Muhammad, and after his death - by his brother Abul-Abbas al-Saffah. On June 26, 749, the Abbasids won a victory at Nehavend, which opened the way for them to Baghdad. On November 28 of the same year, in the cathedral mosque of Kufa, Abu l-Abbas swore in his new subjects.

The last Umayyad caliph, Marwan II, ruled the western part of the caliphate for another six months, then fled to Egypt, where he was killed in 750. The Abbasids almost completely destroyed the Umayyads, and also destroyed their recent supporters in the anti-Umayyad movement - Abu Salam () and Abu Muslim ().

Collapse of the state

The collapse of the united Arab Caliphate, which began under the last Umayyads, continued under the Abbasids.

Appointed in 755 AD. Governor of al-Andalus, one of the few surviving Umayyads, Abd ar-Rahman, resigned and created the Emirate of Cordoba the very next year (776 AD). In 777 A.D. The Maghreb was separated from the caliphate, where the Ibadite imam Abd-ar-Rahman ibn Rustam founded the Rustamid state. In the period 784-789, Idris ibn Abdullah established power over the Berber tribes of western Ifriqiya, founding in its place the Shiite emirate of the same name. By 800 AD representatives of the Aghlabid clan established their power over the eastern part of Ifriqiya, recognizing the power of Baghdad only formally.

Thus, during the first half-century of the Abbasid rule (until the end of the reign of Harun al-Rashid), the entire western part (up to and including Egypt) was separated from the Caliphate. In the internal struggle for power, the descendants of al-Rashid in 809-827 AD. unleashed the Fourth Fitna; using the civil war as an excuse, in 819 AD. Khorasan and Transoxiana were separated from the Caliphate, where the Samanids came to power and created their own state. In 885 AD. Armenia broke away from the Caliphate, thus restoring its independence. It flared up in the early 900s AD. in the Aghlabid state, the Ismaili movement led not only to the fall of the Ifriqiya states, but also to the transition of Egypt to the Fatimid Caliphate from the Abbasid. At the height of the Abbasid-Fatimid War, in 945 CE, the Shia Buyid confederation effectively seized power in Iraq, recognizing Abbasid supremacy only nominally.

Buyid power

Seljuk power

Restoration of the political independence of the caliphate

Caliphs

The caliphs of the Abbasid Caliphate came from the Abbasid dynasty.