The name Al Biruni means "man from the suburbs", it immediately betrays his simple origins, he took such a name to express disdain for the nobility. Al-Biruni divided his impoverished childhood between the search for a piece of bread and knowledge. A few scientists from the suburb of Kyat generously shared their knowledge with him. And then he himself absorbed knowledge from books and folk wisdom - poems, legends, sayings.

He was interested in everything: chemistry, astronomy, physics, mathematics, botany, geography, geology, mineralogy, history, philology, customs of different peoples, philosophy. Over time, he wanted to see with his own eyes the countries and people about whom he had read and heard legends. For this reason, he hired himself to a caravan owner. And what a blessing that one of the roads brought young Biruni together with the outstanding scientist Ibn Iraq.

Khorezmshah's cousin, Emir Abu Nasr Mansur ibn Iraq, became Al Biruni's mentor, and he was surrounded by attention in the family of the outstanding scientist. The help of a mentor made it possible for Biruni to get an education. As a seventeen-year-old boy, he began independent scientific research as an amateur astronomer, and at the age of 21-22 he designed astronomical instruments and used them to determine the coordinates of settlements in Khorezm.

At the same time, the young scientist observes a solar eclipse, builds one of the first terrestrial globes, determines the angle of inclination of the ecliptic, and writes astronomical treatises. Together with Ibn Iraq, Biruni conducts research on spherical trigonometry.

Two passions captivated the scientist for the rest of his life - an insatiable thirst for new knowledge and the desire to convey to others the discovered laws of nature.

War

Soon, turbulent political events and bloody wars interrupted scientific studies. In the early 990s, the rulers of Khorezm, the Khorezmshah of Kyata, Muhammad and the emir of Urgench, Mamun, were drawn into a war of nomads, and then began an internecine struggle. Mamun's troops arrived in Kyata and mercilessly dealt with the population. The local ruler was killed. Then for the first time Biruni experienced the difficult path to a foreign land.

In 992 he escapes to Rey near Tehran. After the death of Mamun, Biruni returned to Kyata for a short time, and then moved to Gurgan, the capital of the principality of the same name. There were hopes that at the Court of the ruler of Gurgan, Qaboos, who acquired a reputation as a patron of science, there would be an opportunity to engage in scientific research.

To some extent, these hopes were justified. Here Biruni lived for about six years and created one of his outstanding books, “Chronology” (“Monuments of Past Generations”), in which he collected and critically revised the achievements in astronomy known to him.

Separate sections of the work are devoted to the history of culture and literature of different peoples. After this book, Biruni became known far beyond Gurgan. Here he wrote a treatise devoted to the refutation of astrological predictions, and other works.

He tried to measure the degree of the earth's meridian, but without material support he could not carry out his plan. The troubles began after the scientist refused to take the high post of vizier, wanting to continue to engage in science,

Biruni rejected the honorable offer, and this spoiled his relationship with the ruler. In addition, Biruni’s origin influenced his socio-political views and scientific position, and they largely diverged from the dogmas of official Islam. He was called an apostate, a heretic, and a devil.

Mamun Academy

In 1004, the scientist accepted the invitation of the new Khorezmshah Mamun II and settled in his capital, Urgench. Here he met his teacher Ibn Iraq, the outstanding physician and philosopher Ibn Sina (Avicenna), physician, philosopher and astronomer al Masih, whom he called his mentor. In Urgench, scientists organized the scientific circle “Mamun Academy”, which contributed to the intensive scientific research of Al Biruni and other scientists. For several years, Al Biruni was also a close adviser to Khorezmshah, making many efforts to maintain peace and independence of the country.

The period of relative calm was short. The strong sultan of the city of Ghazni (now a small city near Kabul), the religious fanatic Mahmud, predatorily encroached on the fertile lands of Khorezm. He set ever new and daring ultimatums to Khorezmshah. Among them was the demand that all famous scientists be brought to him in Ghazni.

Khorezmshah gave scientists the opportunity to decide for themselves how to act. Avicenna and Masih, dressed in rags, went to Gurgan. When they crossed the Karakum desert, the fugitives were captured by a terrible sand hurricane. Masih could not withstand the hardships of the road and died; only Avicenna reached the city. Al Biruni decided not to leave Khorezmshah, who treated him kindly, in difficult times.

Khorezm Mamun Academy

Captivity of Al Biruni

But soon Mamun II died as a result of a palace conspiracy, and the hordes of Mahmud broke into Khorezm. They destroyed people and destroyed priceless buildings. Biruni, together with his teacher Ibn Iraq, was captured and taken to Ghazni. Here imprisonment, trial and a cruel sentence awaited him. As an infidel, he was to be thrown from the fortress wall. But at Mahmud’s court there were also friends of the scientist who saved him from death.

They laid bags of cotton against the wall at the site of the fall, and the scientist only hurt himself a little and dislocated his finger. The superstitious sultan did not dare to execute a man to whom Allah himself had given life. In difficult conditions, Al Biruni continued his scientific research, although storm clouds of the ruler’s anger and the insidious intrigues of the courtiers gathered over his head more than once during the 13 years of captivity.

It was during this period that the scientist created his main works. Several times he asked permission to visit his homeland. But the Sultan was afraid that Biruni would rebel against him, and refused every time. But he managed to visit the northern regions of India conquered by Mahmud, where local scientists favorably greeted the Khorezmians. After all, they too were prisoners.

Indian period

In India, Biruni measured the length of a degree of the earth's meridian, and after studying Sanskrit, he became acquainted with the scientific works of Indian scientists. He translated Euclid's Elements, Ptolemy's Almagest, his treatise Astrolabes into Sanskrit, and in 1030 he completed the large book India.

Writing this work was a real scientific feat, the heroism of a scientist and humanist. Orthodox Islam viewed the Indians as enemies - infidels whose culture should be destroyed, or, at best, deserving of disdain. Biruni, in his work, assessed the achievements of Indian scientists without any bias.

The position of the scientist improved only after 1030, when Mahmud died, and Mahmud’s son, Masud, became the sultan. Biruni dedicated his main work “Masuda’s Canon on the Astronomy of the Stars” to him, which he completed in 1036-1037. In 1038, the scientist wrote a major work, “Mineralogy, or the Book of Summaries for the Knowledge of Jewels,” which provides detailed information on many metals, their alloys, ores and minerals known at that time. However, fate has not yet exhausted all the trials allotted to the scientist.

The Ghazni state was attacked by Seljuk nomads. Masud was captured and killed in 1040; most of his empire became part of the Seljuk state. Masud's son, Maududi, received only a small possession. At the court of Maududi, Al Biruni spent the last years of his restless life.

It is difficult to name a scientific field in which Al Biruni would not work. Among the sciences that attracted the scientist’s attention was mathematics. He worked practically in all branches of contemporary mathematics.

The scientist died in 1048. The name of a fiery patriot, a courageous fighter against religious fanaticism, a fearless seeker and champion of truth in science and justice in life will forever remain in the history of science.

, writer

Abu Reyhan Muhammad ibn Ahmed al-Biruni(September 4, city of Kyat, Khorezm, - December 9, Ghazni, modern Afghanistan) - a great scientist from Khorezm, author of numerous major works on history, geography, philology, astronomy, mathematics, geodesy, mineralogy, pharmacology, geology, etc. Biruni mastered almost all the sciences of his time. According to information, the posthumous list of his works, compiled by his students, took up 60 finely written pages.

Biography

Al-Biruni received a broad mathematical and philosophical education. His teacher in the ancient capital of the Khorezmshahs, Kyat, was the outstanding mathematician and astronomer Ibn Iraq. After the capture of Kyat by the emir of Gurganj in 995 and the transfer of the capital of Khorezm to Gurganj, al-Biruni left for Ray, where he worked for al-Khojandi. Then he worked in Gurgan at the court of Shams al-Ma'ali Qabus, to whom he dedicated the "Chronology" around the year 1000, then returned to Khorezm and worked in Gurganj at the court of the Khorezmshahs Ali (997-1009) and Mamun II. From 1017, after the conquest of Khorezm by Sultan Mahmud of Ghaznavi, he was forced to move to Ghazna, where he worked at the court of Sultan Mahmud and his successors Masud and Maudud. Al-Biruni took part in Mahmud's campaigns in India, where he lived for several years.

He was dying in full consciousness and, having said goodbye to all his friends, asked the latter: “What did you once explain to me about methods of calculating unjust profits?” “How can you think about this in such a state?” - he exclaimed in amazement. "Oh you! - Biruni said barely audible. “I think that leaving this world knowing the answer to this question is better than leaving it ignorant...”

Scientific works

In his very first work, “Chronology, or monuments of past generations” (1000), al-Biruni collected and described all the calendar systems known in his time, used by various peoples of the world, and compiled a chronological table of all eras, starting from the biblical patriarchs.

Biruni devoted over 45 works to astronomy. A popular introduction to astronomical science is the “Book of Instruction on the Rudiments of the Science of the Stars,” written around 1029 and extant to us in two versions: in Arabic and in Farsi. This book consists of 530 questions and answers on geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, geography, chronology, the structure of the astrolabe and astrology.

Illustration from the book of al-Biruni in Persian. The different phases of the moon are shown.

Biruni's main work on astronomy is “Ma'ud's Canon on Astronomy and Stars.” The plan of this work is close to the standard plan of Arabic zijas, but unlike them, detailed experimental and mathematical proofs of all the stated provisions are provided here; Biruni refutes a number of provisions of his predecessors, for example, the assumption of Thabit ibn Korra about the connection between the movement of the apogee of the Sun and the anticipation of the equinoxes, and in many issues he comes to new conclusions. He considered the hypothesis of the movement of the Earth around the Sun; he argued for the same fiery nature of the Sun and stars, in contrast to dark bodies - planets, the mobility of stars and their enormous size compared to the Earth, and the idea of ​​gravity. Biruni conducted observations on a wall quadrant with a radius of 7.5 m built by al-Nasawi in Ray, performing them with an accuracy of 2′. He established the angle of inclination of the ecliptic to the equator, calculated the radius of the Earth, described the change in the color of the Moon during lunar eclipses and the solar corona during solar eclipses.

Biruni paid much attention to mathematics, especially trigonometry: in addition to a significant part of the “Canon of Mas'ud”, he dedicated to it the works “On the determination of chords in a circle using a broken line inscribed in it” (here a number of theorems belonging to Archimedes are considered, which were not preserved in Greek manuscripts ), “On the Indian Rashikas” (this book discusses the so-called triple rule), “Spherics”, “The Book of Pearls on the Plane of the Sphere”, etc. The treatise “Shadows”, several treatises on the astrolabe and other astronomical instruments are devoted to issues of applied mathematics, a number of essays on geodesy.

As a researcher, Biruni emphasized the need for careful verification of knowledge by experience, contrasting experimental knowledge with speculative knowledge. From these positions, he criticized the Aristotelian and Avicennian concept of the “natural place” and the argument against the existence of emptiness.

In addition to his native Khorezmian language, Biruni spoke Arabic, Persian, Greek, Latin, Turkish, Syriac, as well as Hebrew, Sanskrit and Hindi. This knowledge contributed to his development of principles for translating natural science terminology from one language to another. The transcription system created by Biruni on the basis of Arabic graphics in many ways anticipated the modern system of transmitting Indian words into Urdu.

Works of al-Biruni

• Biruni Abu Reyhan. Monuments of past generations Per. and approx. M. A. Salye // Selected Works, Volume I. Tashkent: Fan, 1957.
• Biruni Abu Reyhan. India. Per. A. B. Khalidov, Yu. N. Zavadovsky. // Selected Works, Volume II. Tashkent: Fan, 1963. // Reprint: M.: Ladomir, 1995.
• Biruni Abu Reyhan. Collection of information for knowledge of jewelry (Mineralogy). Per. A. M. Belenitsky. L.: Ed. USSR Academy of Sciences, 1963.
• Biruni Abu Reyhan. Geodesy (Determination of the boundaries of places to clarify distances between settlements) Research, trans. and approx. P. G. Bulgakov // Selected works, Volume III. Tashkent: Fan, 1966.
• Biruni Abu Reyhan. Pharmacognosy in medicine / Research, trans. and approx. U. I. Karimova. // Selected Works, Volume IV. Tashkent: Fan, 1974.
• Beruni Abu Rayhan. Canon of Mas'ud. / Per. and approx. P. G. Bulgakov, B. A. Rosenfeld and A. Akhmedov. // Selected works, Volume V, parts 1-2. Tashkent: Fan, 1973. Book 1, chapter 1.
• Beruni Abu Rayhan. Book of admonition to the rudiments of the science of stars / Trans. and approx. B. A. Rosenfeld and A. Akhmedov. // Selected Works, Volume VI. Tashkent, Fan, 1975.
• Beruni Abu Rayhan. Mathematical and astronomical treatises. / Prev., trans. and comm. P. G. Bulgakov and B. A. Rosenfeld. // Selected Works, Volume VII. Tashkent: Fan, 1987.
• Star catalog of al-Biruni with the application of the catalogs of Khayyam and at-Tusi. Historical and astronomical research, issue 8, 1962, p. 83-192.
• al-Biruni Abu Rayhan. A treatise on determining chords in a circle using a broken line inscribed in it. In the book: , vol. 3, 1963, p. 93-147.
• al-Biruni Abu Rayhan. A book about Indian Rashikas. Per. and approx. B. A. Rosenfeld. In the book: From the history of science and technology in the countries of the East, vol. 3, 1963, p. 148-170.
• Beruni and Ibn Sina. Correspondence. Per. Yu. N. Zavadovsky. Tashkent: Fan, 1973. Ten questions from Beruni regarding the “Book of Heaven” and Ibn Sina’s answers.
• al-Biruni. On the relationship between metals and precious stones by volume. Per. B. A. Rosenfeld and M. M. Rozhanskaya. In the book: From the history of physical and mathematical sciences in the medieval East. M.: Nauka, 1983, p. 141-160.

Movies

Notes

Literature

• Biruni. Digest of articles. Ed. S. P. Tolstova. M.-L., 1950.
• Bulgakov P. G. Life and works of Beruni. Tashkent: Fan, 1972.
• Bulgakov P. G. “Geodesy” of Biruni as a historical and astronomical monument. , 11, 1972, p. 181-190.
• Bulgakov P. G. Biruni’s early treatise on the Fakhri sextant. Historical and astronomical research, 11, 1972, p. 211-220.
• Jalalov G.D. Indian astronomy in Biruni’s book “India”. Historical and astronomical research, 8, 1962, p. 195-220.
• Jalalova Z. G. The teaching of al-Biruni on the movement of the Sun. Historical and astronomical research, 12, 1975, p. 227-236.
• Matvievskaya G. P., Sirazhdinov S. Kh. Abu Rayhan Beruni and his mathematical works. M.: Knowledge, 1978.
• Matvievskaya G. P. Essays on the history of trigonometry. Tashkent: Fan, 1990.
• Rozhanskaya M. M. On the reconstruction of the complete text of al-Biruni’s treatise on specific weights. Historical and mathematical research, 7(42), 2002, p. 223-243.
• Rosenfeld B. A., Rozhanskaya M. M., Astronomical work of al-Biruni “The Canon of Mas’ud”. Historical and astronomical research, X, 1969, p. 63-95.
• Rosenfeld B. A., Rozhanskaya M. M., Sokolovskaya Z. K. Abu-r-Rayhan Al-Biruni, 973-1048. M.: Science. 1973.
• Rosenfeld B. A. Astronomical work of al-Biruni “Book of admonition to the rudiments of the science of stars.” Historical and astronomical research, XII, 1975, p. 205-226.
• Sadykov H. U. Biruni and his works on astronomy and mathematical geography. M.: GTTI, 1953.
• Timofeev I. V. Biruni. M. Young Guard, 1986.
• Sharipov A. The great thinker Abu Rayhan Biruni. Tashkent, Fan, 1972.
• Shchetnikov A.I. On the reconstruction of the iterative method for solving cubic equations in medieval mathematics. Proceedings of the third Kolmogorov readings. Yaroslavl: YAGPU Publishing House, 2005, p. 332-340.
• Shlomo Pines, Tuvia Gelblum. Al-Biruni's Arabic Version of Patañjali's Yogasutra// Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, 1977, Vol.29, No. 2, pp. 302-325.
• Scheppler B. Al-Biruni: Master astronomer and Muslim scholar of the eleventh century. Rosen, 2006.

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Al Biruni Photo of the Lunar Orbital Probe ... Wikipedia - (October 4, 973 - December 13, 1048, according to other sources - after 1050), Central Asian scientist and encyclopedist. Wrote in Arabic. Born in Khorezm. In 1018 (or 1017) he was taken by Mahmud of Ghazni to Ghazni, where he remained until the end of his life. B.’s works include... ...

Great Soviet Encyclopedia- , cf. Asian, learned encyclopedist. and thinker. One of the founders of experimental natural science, he advocated the distinction between the spheres of science and religion. Supporter... ... Russian Pedagogical Encyclopedia

Biruni, Beruni, Abu Reyhan Muhammad ibn Ahmed al-Biruni- (973 1048) Central Asian scientist, encyclopedist and thinker. Author of many, gl.o. Naturally scientific works (about 30 have survived) written in Arabic. Book of admonition to the beginnings of the science of stars (c. 1029) presentation of the fundamentals ... ... Pedagogical terminological dictionary

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Abu Reyhan Muhammad ibn Ahmed al-Biruni (973-1048) - Central Asian encyclopedist. Born on the outskirts of the city of Kyat, the capital of the ancient state of Khorezm (now part of Uzbekistan). Living under the dominance of the Muslim religion, which was hostile to science, he boldly opposed the religious worldview. Biruni believed that in nature everything exists and changes according to the laws of nature itself, and not according to divine command. These laws can only be understood with the help of science. For his progressive views, Biruni was persecuted and was forced to leave his homeland three times and live in exile.

Biruni's scientific works cover various fields of knowledge: astronomy and geography, mathematics and physics, geology and mineralogy, chemistry and botany, history and ethnography, philosophy and philology. The main works (over 40) are devoted to mathematics and astronomy, which was of great practical importance for the economic life of Khorezm - for irrigated agriculture and trade travel. The most important tasks of astronomy were the improvement of the calendar and methods of orientation on Earth by celestial bodies. It was necessary to be able to determine as accurately as possible the positions of the Sun, Moon, and stars in the sky, and also to measure with the greatest possible accuracy the so-called basic astronomical constants - the inclination of the ecliptic to the equator, the length of the solar and sidereal year, etc.

Every nation has distinguished itself in the development of some science or practice.

Al-Biruni

And this, in turn, required the development of mathematics, in particular plane and spherical trigonometry, on the one hand, and the improvement of tools for precise observations, on the other. Biruni's results and achievements in all of these areas remained unsurpassed for several centuries: the largest wall quadrant - a goniometric instrument that made it possible to measure the position of the Sun with an accuracy of 2`; the most accurate determination of the inclination of the ecliptic to the equator and the secular change of this value; a new method for determining the radius of the Earth - by the degree of depression of the horizon when observed from a mountain. Biruni almost accurately determined the radius of the Earth (more than 6000 km), based on the idea of ​​​​its spherical shape.

Biruni adopted and developed the progressive ideas of ancient Greek and ancient Indian philosophers on some general problems of astronomy: he asserted the same fiery nature of the Sun and stars, in contrast to dark bodies - planets; the mobility of stars and their enormous size compared to the Earth; the idea of ​​gravity. Biruni expressed reasonable doubts about the validity of Ptolemy’s geocentric system of the world.

Al-Biruni was born on September 4, 973 in the city of Kyat, the capital of the state of Khorezm. Full name: Abu Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni. Young Al-Biruni received an excellent education from the outstanding astronomer and mathematician Ibn Iraq. Education included not only mathematics, but also philosophy. In addition to Khorezm, he studied nine Eastern languages, including Sanskrit and Hindi, as well as Greek and Latin.

Al-Biruni was a man of very broad interests. He studied everything: history and geography, mathematics and astronomy, geodesy and philology, mineralogy and pharmacology - the list could be continued. He conducted independent research in all these areas and wrote 45 works in various disciplines.

Already in his first work on chronology, the scientist collected and analyzed all the calendar systems known at that time and compiled a voluminous chronological table.

Al-Biruni compiled descriptions of medicines known at that time, and in a work on mineralogy he described the properties of 50 metals, alloys and minerals. Conducted mathematical research. Developed a theory for translating scientific terms from one language to another...

While working on his main work - “Mas'ud's Canons on Astronomy and Stars” - the scientist calculated the radius of the Earth, established the angle of inclination of the ecliptic to the equator, described lunar eclipses with a change in the color of the Moon during them, as well as solar eclipses, analyzing the nature of the solar corona, expressed the idea of ​​the fiery nature of the stars and the sun, in contrast to the planets.

The tireless Al-Biruni visited many cities of the East and even lived for several years in India, where he reached with the campaign of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni. The result was an essay on the philosophical systems of India, including the theory of Samkhya, cosmic evolution, etc. The same book also contained the now famous legend about a sage, a king and grains laid out in geometric progression on each square of a board - the prototype of a chess and checkers board.

Dying on December 9, 1048 in the city of Ghazna, Al-Biruni was fully conscious and, although weak, held conversations on scientific topics. Saying goodbye to his friends, he asked the latter: “Oh yes, I kept wanting to ask what you once told me about methods for calculating unjust profits?” The amazed friend exclaimed: “Is this something to talk about now!” Al-Biruni, already losing his voice, whispered: “Oh, you! I think it is better to leave the world having learned the answer to this question than to leave ignorant...”

100 famous scientists Sklyarenko Valentina Markovna

BIRUNI (BERUNI, AL-BIRUNI) ABU REIKHAN MUHAMMED IBN AHMED AL-BIRUNI (973 - 1048)

BIRUNI (BERUNI, AL-BIRUNI) ABU REIKHAN MUHAMMED IBN AHMED AL-BIRUNI

(973 – 1048)

“True courage lies in contempt for death (expressed in speech or action), in the fight against lies. Only the one who shuns lies and adheres to the truth is worthy of trust and praise, even in the opinion of liars..."

Abu Reyhan Muhammad ibn Ahmed al-Biruni was born on September 4, 973 on the outskirts of the city of Kyat, which at that time was the capital of Khorezm (now Kyat is renamed in honor of the great scientist and is called Biruni, located in Uzbekistan). Almost no information about the scientist’s childhood has been preserved. It is known that from an early age Biruni studied with the famous mathematician and astronomer Abu Nasr Mansur ibn Ali ibn Iraq, who was also the cousin of the Shah of Khorezm Abu Abdallah. In one of his poems, Biruni wrote: “I don’t know the truth of my genealogy. After all, I don’t really know my grandfather, and how can I know my grandfather, since I don’t know my father!” At the same time, from other works of the scientist it becomes clear that he knew the date of his own birth. Such a contradiction naturally seems strange. Trying to draw some conclusions about the origin of Biruni, researchers resort to the standard method in such cases - studying the names of the scientist. But in this case, this method gives little. For example, controversy erupted over a nickname, which was often given according to a person's place of birth. “Biruni” translated means “outside, outside.” The 12th-century historian Samani translated this part of the name as “man from the suburbs.” Following him, many researchers began to assume that Biruni was born outside the city walls. From the fact that artisans usually settled outside the fortress wall, it is in turn concluded that Biruni was born into a family belonging to this social group. For obvious reasons, this point of view was especially widespread in the USSR. But then it is unclear how Biruni, in early childhood, was able to get into a family that belonged to the ruling dynasty in Khorezm. Therefore, there is another interpretation of the appearance of this nickname. The word “Biruni” was often used to describe non-indigenous residents of a particular region. It is possible that the scientist received this nickname after returning to Khorezm after long wanderings. The name Muhammad and the father's name Ahmed also give us little information, since such names were sometimes given to children whose father was unknown.

We can say with confidence that already at the age of seventeen Biruni was engaged in serious scientific activity - in 990 he calculated the latitude at which the city of Kyat is located. By 995, when the young scientist was 22 years old, he was already the author of a large number of scientific works. Of these, “Cartography” has survived to this day, in which the young scientist considered ways to project an image of the surface of the globe onto a plane.

In 995, the calm course of life of the young scientist was disrupted. The fact is that at the end of the 10th and beginning of the 11th centuries the situation in the Arab world was turbulent. In Khorezm and the adjacent territories, civil strife broke out every now and then. During the next one, ruler Abu Abdallah was overthrown by the emir of Gurganj, the second largest city of Khorezm. How Abu Nasr survived these events is unknown. His student, Biruni, was forced to flee. Where exactly is unclear. It is only known that some time after his flight he settled in Ray (present-day Tehran). Biruni wrote that in Ray he had no patron (which was very important for a scientist at that time) and he was forced to live in poverty.

Nevertheless, he continued to engage in scientific activities, in particular, regularly conducted and recorded astronomical observations. This gave modern researchers the opportunity to determine some dates of Biruni’s life. For example, a scientist describes the lunar eclipse that he observed on May 24 in Kyat. Consequently, Biruni visited Khorezm at that time. But then he again, of his own free will or forcedly, left his homeland. It is quite possible that the scientist came to Kyat only to observe the eclipse. The fact is that at the same time, by agreement with Biruni, another astronomer observed the eclipse in Baghdad. Based on the timing of the eclipse, scientists determined the difference in the longitude of these cities. This means that Biruni wandered again and lived for some time in Gurgan, on the southeastern coast of the Caspian Sea. It is not known exactly when exactly he settled there, but around the year 1000 he wrote the book “Chronology”, which he dedicated to the ruler of Gurgana. In this work, the author refers to seven of his earlier works. On August 14, 1003, Biruni, still in Gurgan, observed an eclipse of the Moon, but on June 4, 1004, he was already in his homeland, as he described a similar phenomenon seen there.

This time in Khorezm the scientist was received with dignity. Gurganj, the new capital of Khorezm, was ruled first by Ali ibn Mamun, and then by his brother Abu Abbas Mamun. Both rulers were patrons of science and maintained at their court a large staff of the best scientists, among whom Biruni took an honorable position. In addition, here the young scientist was able to work with his former teacher Abu Nasr Mansur, for whom he had the warmest feelings.

The happy and fruitful collaboration with the former teacher in his homeland continued until 1017. This year, Mahmud Ghaznavi, the ruler of the Ghaznavid state that had reached its peak at that time, captured Khorezm. Most likely, Biruni and Abu Nasr were taken away by Mahmud. There is no reliable information about how the relationship between scientists and the new ruler developed. But in one of the texts written by Biruni, there is a mention of some serious difficulties that he encountered at the beginning of his work under the auspices of Mahmud. Where exactly the scientist continued his work immediately after leaving Khorezm can again be evidenced by the astronomical observations he made. For example, the recorded results of observations made on October 14, 1018 in Kabul. The fact that Biruni used instruments made independently from improvised materials most likely indicates that Mahmud Ghaznavi was not a very generous patron. By the fall of 1019, Biruni found himself in Ghazna (the modern city of Ghazni in Afghanistan), as evidenced by the records of his observations of celestial phenomena. Here, most likely as a prisoner, Biruni lived and worked for the rest of his life, except for the fact that he accompanied Mahmud on some of his military campaigns. Around 1022, the ruler included the northern parts of India in his sphere of influence, and by 1026 his army reached the coast of the Indian Ocean. Biruni is believed to have visited the northern regions of India and even lived there for several years. He calculated the latitudes of eleven major cities in the Punjab and Kashmir region. But the main result of the trip to India was the major work “Explanation of the teachings belonging to the Indians, acceptable or rejected by reason.”

In 1030, Mahmud died and power passed to his son Masud. It seems that the new ruler treated Biruni much better than his father. There is much evidence that the scientist was able to travel freely. Tellingly, Biruni named one of his most famous astronomical works, “Masuda’s Canon on Astronomy and Stars,” in honor of his new patron. The scientist died in 1048 at the age of 75. Until his death, he did not stop engaging in scientific activities and writing scientific works.

These are practically all the facts from the life of one of the greatest scientists of the Middle Ages. We have already noted that usually much more is known about the works of ancient scientists than about them themselves. Biruni is no exception. Due to constant wanderings and a semi-free life, he had neither a family nor children. The main value of his life was books. “All my books are my children, and most people are fascinated by their children and poems,” he wrote.

In total, Biruni owns about 150 scientific works. Like most of his predecessors and contemporaries, he was a universal scientist. His scientific interests included almost all contemporary sciences. It is not for nothing that Biruni is often called the “great encyclopedist.” He is the author of works on history, mathematics, astronomy, physics, geography, geology, medicine, and ethnography. An important role in the development of science was played by the data obtained by Biruni himself, and by the fact that he was able to systematize and present the knowledge accumulated before him by scientists of the Arab world, Greece, Rome, and India. In addition to Arabic, the scientist spoke Persian, Sanskrit, Greek, possibly Syriac and Hebrew. This gave him a unique opportunity to compare and compile the knowledge of different peoples. Here is what Biruni himself wrote about this: “I present the theories of the Indians as they are, and in parallel with them I touch upon the theories of the Greeks in order to show their mutual closeness.” When translating texts, he worked very carefully, which distinguished him favorably from many contemporary translators. If most translations of that time contributed to the accumulation of errors and inaccuracies in the texts, then Biruni, on the contrary, often corrected earlier mistakes.

Twenty-seven books from Biruni’s works have survived to this day. Let's briefly talk about the most significant of them.

Biruni wrote one of his first major works around the year 1000. This is the “Chronology” we have already mentioned (“Monuments left over from past generations”). In this book, the scientist refers to his earlier work, “The Astrolabe” (“The Book of the Exhaustion of Possible Methods for Designing Astrolabes”). Around 1021, Biruni compiled the fundamental work “Shadows” (“Book on the isolation of everything said on the issue of shadows”). In 1025, he wrote the treatise “Geodesy” (“The Book of Determining Boundaries to Clarify the Distances between Settlements”), and by 1030 he wrote the book “Science of the Stars” (“The Clue of Enlightenment in the Rudiments of the Science of the Stars”).

The previously mentioned work “Explanation of Indian teachings acceptable or rejected by reason” deserves special attention. Without exaggeration, we can say that this book, written based on materials collected during the Indian military campaigns of Mahmud Ghaznavi, has become the most important source telling about the history of India, the development of its culture and science. In “Explanations...” Biruni compares the religion, culture and scientific achievements of the Hindus: “I will also add that the Greeks in the era of paganism, before the advent of Christianity, adhered to beliefs similar to those held by the Indians: the worldview of the Greek nobility was close to the worldview of the Indian nobility, and The idolatry of the common people in Greece is similar to the idolatry of the common people in India."

Among Biruni’s works, the treatise “Masuda’s Canon on Astronomy and Stars” is also of great importance. Firstly, this work is a kind of encyclopedia of astronomical knowledge. Secondly, the author places special emphasis on mathematical proofs of certain theories and on experimental data. Biruni considered the results of observations and calculations not as biased as many of his astronomer predecessors, who often neglected data that did not fit into one theory or another. In addition to astronomical theories and information, the Masuda Canon contains a large number of mathematical calculations that played an important role in the development of mathematics.

After 1041, Biruni wrote the works “Mineralogy” and “Pharmacognosy”. The last work included a description of more than 1000 medicines, information about which Biruni gleaned from the writings of 250 authors.

Of course, the famous Arab scientist not only studied and systematized the research results of other scientists, but also conducted his own research and put forward scientific theories. Biruni the researcher was very careful about the results obtained and encouraged his colleagues to do the same. Here are his words, which may well be the motto of modern scientists: “The observer must be attentive, more carefully review the results of his work, and double-check himself.”

Among the most significant theories put forward by Biruni, it should be noted that the Sun is a hot fiery body, and the planets and the Moon glow with reflected light. He argued that the speed of light rays cannot be felt, since there is nothing that moves faster than light rays; believed that the solar corona is similar in nature to smoke. Biruni adhered to the Ptolemaic system of the world, but at the same time believed that the theory of heliocentrism was also mathematically acceptable. He also explained the nature of dawn and dusk, suggesting that it is the result of the glow of dust particles.

Biruni's merits were also great in the development of new scientific methods in the design of measuring instruments. In The Canon of Masuda, Biruni describes his own method of calculating the radius of the Earth. For this purpose, the scientist climbed a mountain of known height and determined the angle formed by the ray of vision directed towards the horizon and its plane. Having the height of the mountain and this angle, Biruni quite accurately calculated the size of the globe. The scientist is the author of many methods of geodetic measurements. He improved the quadrant, sextant and astrolabe. For example, the fixed quadrant he built with a radius of 7.5 meters allowed measurements with an accuracy of two arc minutes and remained the most perfect in the world for four centuries. Many of the measurements he made, such as the angle of the ecliptic to the equator, also remained the most accurate data for hundreds of years. While working on the book “Mineralogy”, Biruni determined with exceptional accuracy the specific gravity of many minerals and even introduced a method for determining minerals by their density.

In his books, Biruni paid attention to astrology. But, as many quotes from his works show, he was very skeptical about this “science”. Apparently, he was forced to study astrology, as required by the interests of his patrons. “Once I saw a man who considered himself famous and learned in the art of divination by the stars,” wrote Biruni. “Because he wanted to receive the results of what the stars predetermine, he sincerely believed, in his ignorance, in the combination of the luminaries and sought in their connection the results of the impact on man and society.”

It is obvious that in Biruni’s works, not only the theories and data he presented are of great value, but also the demonstration to his followers of the very approach to science, which consisted of accuracy, precision and repeated verification of theoretical calculations with data obtained experimentally. Biruni also talked about science in general and its place in the world.

Let us finish our story about the great encyclopedist with another quote from his works: “There are many areas of knowledge, and there are even more of them when the minds of people in an era of ascending development turn to them in a continuous sequence: a sign of the latter is people’s desire for science, their respect for it and their representatives. This is, first of all, the duty of those who govern people, since it is they who must free hearts from worries about everything necessary for earthly life and excite the spirit to seek the greatest possible praise and approval: after all, hearts are created to love this and hate the opposite. However, in our time, the situation is rather the opposite.” One can only regret that these words, spoken a thousand years ago, are still relevant now. I would like to believe that over time, scientists will have less and less reason to speak in the same way about those in power.