In linguistics there are such concepts as literary and spoken languages. The language in which intelligent people with a high level of education communicate and write is called literary. Works of fiction, articles in newspapers and magazines, and TV and radio presenters broadcast on it. The basis of the language is orthoepy and its norms. After all, orthoepy is translated from Greek as “correct (orthos) speech (epos).” Understanding the basics of oratory is also impossible without knowledge of literary norms.

What is orthoepia?

Unfortunately, today most people do not have the concept of orthoepy. Many are accustomed to speaking in the dialect that is common in the region of their residence, distorting words, placing emphasis in the wrong place. From a conversation, you can easily determine a person’s position in society. Anyone who is familiar with what orthoepy studies will never pronounce [document], instead of the correct [document]. is the first goal for someone who wants to become a respected business person.

Goals and objectives of orthoepy

The subject and tasks of orthoepy are impeccable pronunciation of sounds and learning how to correctly place stress. There are many cases where vowels and consonants in colloquial speech change from voiceless to voiced, and vice versa. For example, they pronounce mu[e]y, but they should say mu[e]y, or computer with a soft [t] instead of a hard one.

There are many cases of incorrect accent placement. All this distorts speech and makes it sound ugly.

This is most typical for people of the older generation, which grew up and was brought up in a period when intelligent, educated people were rejected by society, and a slightly distorted colloquial language was in fashion.

The rules for pronunciation of orthoepy are designed to correct the situation and help all modern people (and not just writers and teachers) speak a beautiful language. And avoid mistakes in pronunciation. The main task of this science is to teach each person not only to pronounce sounds, but also to correctly place emphasis on adjectives, verbs and other parts of speech.

In the modern world, when there is fierce competition in the labor market, literate people with impeccable speaking skills are most in demand. Only a person who correctly emphasizes words and pronounces sounds clearly can become a successful businessman, politician, or make a career in any other field. Therefore, orthoepy, as a branch of linguistics, is becoming increasingly important today.

Rules and regulations of orthoepy

Errors in pronunciation are especially noticeable in the speeches of prominent political figures and some other celebrities, when they, knowingly or unknowingly, pronounce words with the wrong accent. But mistakes can be easily avoided if, before a speech, you look into the rules of spelling of the Russian language or a regular spelling dictionary.

The versatility of the Russian language allows us to establish orthoepic norms that allow for different pronunciation options for consonant sounds before the letter [e]. But at the same time, one of the options is considered preferable, and the other is marked in dictionaries as acceptable.

The basic rules of spelling and spelling norms of the Russian language are developed by philologists, and before approving a particular pronunciation option, they carefully study its prevalence, connection with the cultural heritage of past generations and compliance with the laws of linguistics.

Orthoepy. Pronunciation styles

1. Literary style. It is spoken by ordinary educated people who are familiar with the rules of pronunciation.

2. Style book, which is characterized by clear pronunciation of phrases and sounds. Recently it has been used only for speeches in scientific circles.

3. Colloquial. This pronunciation is typical for most people in ordinary informal settings.

Pronunciation standards are divided into several sections. This is done to make it easier to master the literary language.

Orthoepy sections:

• pronunciation of vowel sounds;
• pronunciation of consonants;
• pronunciation of specific grammatical word forms;
• pronunciation of borrowed words.

Phonetics and orthoepy

The vocabulary of the Russian language contains a huge amount of information about stress in words and their pronunciation. Therefore, without special knowledge it is difficult to understand all phonetic patterns.

Pronunciation standards depend on the phonetic laws in force in the Russian language. Phonetics and orthoepy are closely related.

They study the sound of speech. What distinguishes them is that phonetics can allow several variants of pronunciation of sounds, and the orthoepy of the Russian language determines the correct version of their pronunciation according to the norms.

Orthoepy. Examples

1. According to phonetic laws in borrowed words, the consonant sound before the letter [e] can be pronounced both softly and firmly. Orthoepic norms establish in which specific words a hard consonant sound should be used during pronunciation, and in which - a soft one. For example, in the words [tempo] or [decade], a hard [t] must be pronounced - t[e]mp, d[e]kada. And in the words [museum], [temperament], [declaration] the consonant sound before e is soft (mus[e]y, t[e]temperament, d[e]declaration).

2. According to the laws of phonetics, the combination [chn] in individual words can be pronounced as written, or can be replaced with the combination [shn] (kone[chn]o, kone[shn]o). And the norms of orthoepy require that they pronounce - [of course].

3. Orthoepy norms require pronouncing [ringing], not [ringing], [kitchen], not [kitchen], [alphabet], and not [alphabet].

Correct, literary pronunciation, knowledge of the norms and rules of orthoepy are an indicator of a person’s cultural level. Knowing the norms of orthoepy and regular practice will help you both in your personal life and at work.

You can learn about what orthoepy is from dictionaries and reference books of the literary language. All languages ​​of the world have certain lexical norms, which are examples of the correct use of words.

The science of spelling

Orthoepy studies the laws and rules of pronunciation of words. It is very similar to spelling, which deals with the laws of the correct spelling of words. The term "orthoepy" includes two Greek words: orthos - "true", "correct", "straight" (direction) and epos - "speech", "conversation". Therefore, to the question of what orthoepy is, one can give an answer directly translated from Greek: correct pronunciation.

Orthoepy rules

Various deviations from the norms of use and pronunciation interfere with communication, distract the listener from the meaning of the spoken speech and significantly complicate the assimilation of the spoken text. Following the rules of pronunciation of words is just as important as adhering to the rules of spelling. Orthoepy will tell you the correct pronunciation of a particular lexical unit. The rules of this science make it possible to determine how to pronounce a particular word and the scope of its lexical application. Indeed, in a world where oral speech is a means of widespread communication, it must be impeccable, from the point of view of the rules of spelling.

History of Russian orthoepy

Russian orthoepy took shape already in the mid-17th century. Then the rules for pronunciation of certain words were approved, and standards for constructing phrases and sentences were laid down. Moscow became the center of the new literary language. On the basis of North Russian dialects and southern dialects, Moscow pronunciation was formed, which was taken as the basis of the lexical norm. The science of how to correctly pronounce this or that word came from Moscow to the remote hinterlands of Russia.

At the beginning of the 18th century, the new capital of Russia, the city of St. Petersburg, became the center of the political and cultural life of the country. Gradually, pronunciation norms changed, and clear, letter-by-letter pronunciation of words became the rule among the intelligentsia. But among the general population, Moscow pronunciation continued to be considered the norm.

Orthoepy studies such norms of pronunciation of the Russian language as stress, norms of pronunciation of individual sounds and combinations, melody and intonation of spoken language.

Accent

What orthoepy is can be discussed using the rules for placing stress in Russian words. The question is not as simple as it might seem. In French speech, in the vast majority of cases, the stress is placed on the last syllable. In Russian, the stress is movable, it can fall on an arbitrary syllable, and change its location depending on the gender and case of a given word. For example, city, but cities, train, but trains, will accept, but accepted.

Sometimes incorrect pronunciation is so ingrained in spoken language that it takes a lot of effort to eradicate the error. For example, everywhere we hear calls instead of calls, contract, instead of the correct contract. The orthoepy of the word insists on: catalog, necrology, quarter instead of the established incorrect versions of these words.

Sometimes surprise helps correct stress. For example, in the mid-50s of the 20th century, the use of the word “youth” instead of the correct “youth” was widespread. The widely popular song “Anthem of Democratic Youth” helped correct the error. The song was created by composer Novikov based on poems by the poet Oshanin. The chorus of the anthem contained the words: “Young people sing this song.” The widespread “youth” did not fit into the rhythm or text of this musical work, so the incorrect pronunciation of the popular word was replaced by the correct one.

Transcription

The spoken word can be written down using transcription. This is the name given to recording the audible words and sounds of a language. In transcription, along with ordinary letters, special ones are also used, for example, the letter [æ] denotes an open stressed vowel, something between “a” and “e”. This sound is not used in Russian speech, but is often found when studying languages ​​of the Germanic branch.

Nowadays, special dictionaries will help you put the correct stress in a word.

Pronunciation of individual sounds

You can explain what orthoepy is using the example of the pronunciation of vowels in words of the Russian language. For example, the norm in the Russian language is reduction - weakening of the articulation of vowels in some words. For example, in the word “box” only the third sound “o” is clearly heard, and the first one is pronounced muffled. The result is a sound that resembles both [o] and [a] at the same time.

If an unstressed [o] is at the beginning of a word, it is always pronounced as [a]. For example, in the words “fire”, “window”, “glasses”, [a] is clearly pronounced in the first case. The stressed [o] does not change its meaning: the words “cloud”, “island”, “very” are pronounced with an expressed [o] at the beginning.

The sound of some consonants

The existing rules of orthoepy say that voiced consonants at the end of spoken words sound like their paired voiceless ones. For example, the word “oak” is pronounced [dup], “eye” - [voice], “tooth” - [zup], and so on.

The consonant phrases “zzh” and “zhzh” are pronounced as a double soft [zhzh], for example, we write I’m coming, we pronounce [priezhzhyayu], rattling - [rattling] and so on.

The exact pronunciation of a particular word can be found in special spelling dictionaries.

For example, Avanesov presented quite a serious work on orthoepy. The deeply researched publications by linguists Reznichenko, Abramov and others are interesting. Spelling dictionaries can be easily found on the Internet or in special departments of libraries.

Studying pronunciation norms orthoepy. Orthoepy means correct pronunciation. Russian orthoepy is a branch of the science of the Russian language that studies the norms of literary pronunciation. In Russian orthoepy, a distinction is made between “senior” and “younger” norms in the pronunciation of individual sounds, sound combinations, words and their forms. The “senior” norm retains the features of Old Moscow pronunciation. The “younger” norm reflects the features of modern literary pronunciation. The listener tries to perceive the meaning of what is said. Errors in the pronunciation of certain words hurt the ear, distract from the essence of the presentation, and can cause misunderstanding and indignation.

By the way a person speaks, how he puts emphasis, one can determine, for example, his place of birth or residence. There are such dialect features as “akanye” or “okanye”, etc. In any case, the correct pronunciation of words is an indicator of the level of education of the speaker.

Among the pronunciation norms, two of the strongest can also be distinguished. First norm– this is a quantitative and qualitative reduction of vowel sounds in an unstressed position. This norm excludes the so-called okanye, i.e. pronouncing the sound [ O] in an unstressed position. You can’t say [milk?, dear?y, z?loto], etc. You need to say: [melak?, dear?y, z?lta].

Attention should be paid to difficult cases of reduction.

After soft consonants in the first pre-stressed syllable in place of letters a, e, i pronounce the sound [ ie]: watch. This is called "hiccupping". It is found in neutral and colloquial styles. “Ekanye” (pronunciation of the sound [ hey]) characterizes stage speech: V[ hey]nets, t[ hey]new. Pronunciation h[ And]sy- outdated, h[ A]sy– dialectal.

In a few words of foreign language origin, not completely assimilated by the Russian language, in place of the letter O, in contrast to the Russian orthoepic norm, in an unstressed position the weakened [ O], i.e. without reduction: for the sake of [ O]. Too distinct [ O] is perceived as mannered, on the other hand – a distinct pronunciation [ O] in “Russified” book words ( sonata, short story) is also undesirable, as it gives the pronunciation a colloquial connotation.

Causes difficulty in the functioning of the sound [ O], indicated on the letter by the letter e. Letter e proposed to use the Russian historian N.M. Karamzin, simplifying the complex design of a letter that previously existed in the alphabet. However, the letter e Now we can only find it in primers and textbooks for foreigners studying the Russian language. The absence of this letter in books and periodicals leads to incorrect pronunciation of words. You should pay attention to words in which the vowel [ O], designated by the letter e, sometimes mistakenly replaced with percussion [ uh], whitish, maneuvers pronounced as whitish, maneuvers. Sometimes, on the contrary, the drum [ uh] is mistakenly replaced with [ O] e: grenadier, scam pronounced as grenadier, scam. This pronunciation is not normative.

Second strongest pronunciation norm- This is a softening of hard consonants before soft ones and before front vowels.

After the hissing [ and] And [ w] and sound [ ts] unstressed vowel [ A] is pronounced like a short [ A]: jargon, kings, but before soft consonants - like the sound [ ee]: regret, thirty. In rare cases [ ee] is also pronounced before hard consonants: rye, jasmine.

Consonants ts, f, w- hard sounds, followed by letters in place And pronounced [ s]: revolutionary[ s]i, f[ s]zn, w[ s]ry.

There are also a number of rules that regulate the correct use (application), i.e., pronunciation of consonants (most often combinations of consonants). Let's list some of them.

In masculine nouns – change consonant [ h] is pronounced firmly in all cases, including when softening the final consonant in D.p. and pp.: under capitalism.

Voiced consonants at the absolute end of a word and before voiceless consonants are deafened: shares[ With], pre[ T] acceptance.

Consonant [ G] can be pronounced like [ G] – year, [ To] – enemy, [ ? ] – God(r-fricative), [ X] – God, [ V] – whom.

Sound [ ? ] within the modern literary norm is pronounced in a limited number of words, but the pronunciation [ G]oh my God, a[ G]a, o[ G]o can be considered a variant of the norm.

In the Russian language there is a tendency towards adaptability of the sound appearance of borrowed words from e after a hard consonant, many such words have “Russified” and are now pronounced with a soft consonant before e: museum, cream, academy, overcoat, plywood, Odessa. But a number of words retain a hard consonant: antenna, business, genetics, detective, test. Variant pronunciation allowed: dean, claim, therapy, terror, track. The hard or soft pronunciation of a consonant is determined in dictionary order.

According to old Moscow standards, the spelling combination chn pronounced like [ shn]. Currently [ shn] is stored in words: of course, boring, scrambled eggs, on purpose, birdhouse, trifling and in female patronymics – ichna: Fominichna, Kuzminichna. In a number of words, double pronunciation is allowed: bulo[ chn]naya and boo[ shn]naya, although the latter is becoming obsolete.

According to the “senior” standard, the combination Thu pronounced like [ pcs] in a word What and words derived from it: nothing, something etc. Currently, this rule is maintained for all specified words, except something[ Thu]. In all other words, spelling Thu always pronounced like [ Thu]: mail, dream.

Combination railway in a word rain and its derivatives were pronounced according to the “senior” norm as [ w'f'] (at the end of the word – [ sh’sh’]). Modern pronunciation [ zhd'] (at the end of the word – [ pcs’]) is assessed as a variant of the literary norm.

According to the “senior” standard, spelling combinations zzh And LJ(yeast, later) worn out like [ w'f'] – long and soft hissing. Currently on site zzh And LJ pronounced hard hissing [ LJ]. And this pronunciation is assessed as a variant of the literary norm.

According to the rate of speech, complete and incomplete pronunciation styles are distinguished. The full style is characterized by a slow tempo and correct articulation. Sounds are pronounced clearly and clearly, for example: "Hello!" The incomplete style is characterized by a fast tempo and unclear pronunciation of sounds is allowed, for example: “Hello!” The incomplete style is appropriate for everyday, interpersonal communication.

According to another classification of styles, there are high, neutral and conversational styles. The choice of pronunciation style depends on the appropriateness of its use in a particular situation. You can pronounce words in conversation "only" like [toko], words "What"[che], etc. Obviously, in a public speech or official communication, such liberties are unacceptable.

You should also pay attention to the placement of the accent. Stress in Russian is not fixed, it is flexible: in different grammatical forms of the same word, the stress can be different: end - final - finish.

In most cases, it is necessary to refer to the “Orthoepic Dictionary of the Russian Language”, ed. R.I. Avanesov, which gives the pronunciation of the word. This is the best way to learn the above norms: before using any word that causes difficulties in practice, you need to look into a spelling dictionary and find out how it (the word) is pronounced.

Orthoepy is a system of norms for correct pronunciation. Orthoepic norms are historically established and socially accepted rules for the pronunciation of words and grammatical forms of words. Orthoepic norms are no less important for a literary language than the norms for the formation of grammatical forms of words and sentences or spelling norms.

It is customary to distinguish between different spelling norms: “senior” and “younger”, as well as norms of high and neutral pronunciation styles.

The older norm, which primarily distinguishes the speech of educated older people, is characterized by the pronunciation of bulo[sh]aya, myag[ky], [z`v`]er. The younger pronunciation norm, observed in the speech of young people who speak a literary language, allows the pronunciation of bulo[chn]aya, soft[k`y], [zv`]vr.

The norms of a high pronunciation style (cf. the measured speech of a radio or television announcer, as well as an artist reading a solemn ode from the stage) allow, for example, the pronunciation of the unstressed sound [o] in borrowed words: p[o]et, s[o]net, nocturne. In a neutral style, these and similar words are pronounced according to the general rule of replacing the unstressed sound [o] with the sound [a]: p[a]et, s[a]net, n[a]cturn.

The system of modern norms of Russian literary pronunciation and the pronunciation features of more than 63,000 words and their grammatical forms are reflected in the “Orthoepic Dictionary of the Russian Language” edited by R. A. Avanesov (the first edition was published in 1983, after which there were a number of reprints). The compact “Dictionary of Russian Pronunciation Difficulties” by M. L. Kalenchuk and R. F. Kasatkina (M., 1997) is also useful for both the student and the teacher, which presents 15,000 of the most common Russian words, the pronunciation of which can cause difficulties.

To master the norms of correct literary pronunciation, it is important to take into account four sections of orthoepy: orthoepy of consonant sounds; orthoepy of vowel sounds; spelling of individual grammatical forms; spelling of borrowed words.

Norms of orthoepy. Orthoepic norms are also called literary pronunciation norms, since they serve the literary language, i.e. a language spoken and written by cultured people. Literary language unites all Russian speakers; it is needed to overcome linguistic differences between them. And this means that he must have strict norms: not only lexical - norms for the use of words, not only grammatical, but also orthoepic norms. Differences in pronunciation, like other differences in language, interfere with people's communication by shifting their attention from what is being said to how it is being said. Pronunciation standards are determined by the phonetic system of the language. Each language has its own phonetic laws according to which words are pronounced. For example, in Russian, the stressed sound [o] in an unstressed position changes to [a] (v[o]du - v[a]da, t[o]chit - t[a]chit); after soft consonants, stressed vowels [o, a, e] change to an unstressed sound [i] (m[ya]so - m[i]snoy, v[yo]l - v[i]la, l[e]z - get in); at the end of words, voiced consonants change to voiceless (du[b]y - du[p], moro[z]y - moro[s]). The same exchange of voiced for voiceless occurs before voiceless consonants (ru[b]it - ru[p]ka, slide - how much [s]ko), and voiceless consonants change to voiced before voiced ones (ko[s]it - goat, molo [t]it - young [d]ba). Phonetics studies these laws. Orthoepic norms determine the choice of pronunciation options - if the phonetic system in this case allows for several possibilities. Thus, in words of foreign language origin, in principle, the consonant before the letter e can be pronounced both hard and soft, while the orthoepic norm sometimes requires hard pronunciation (for example, [de]kada, [te]mp), sometimes soft (for example, [d] "e]claration, [t"e]perament, mu[z"e]y). The phonetic system of the Russian language allows both the combination [shn] and the combination [ch"n], cf. bulo[ch"n]aya and bulo[sh]aya, but the orthoepic norm prescribes to say kone[sh"o, and not kone[h"n]o. Orthoepy also includes stress norms: correctly pronounce document, not document, started, not started, zvont, not zvnit, alphabet, not alphabet). The basis of the Russian literary language, and therefore literary pronunciation, is the Moscow dialect. This is how it happened historically: it was Moscow that became the unifier of Russian lands, the center of the Russian state. Therefore, the phonetic features of the Moscow dialect formed the basis of orthoepic norms. If the capital of the Russian state were not Moscow, but, say, Novgorod or Vladimir, then the literary norm would be “okanye” (i.e. we would now pronounce in [o]da, and not in [a]da), and if Ryazan became the capital - “yakanye” (i.e. we would speak in [l "a]su, and not in [l "i]su). Orthoepic rules prevent errors in pronunciation and cut off unacceptable options. Pronunciation options recognized as incorrect, non-literary, may appear under the influence of the phonetics of other language systems - territorial dialects, urban vernacular or closely related languages, mainly Ukrainian. We know that not all Russian speakers have the same pronunciation. In the north of Russia they “okayut” and “yakayat”: they pronounce v[o]da, g[o]v[o]rit, n[e]su), in the south - “akayat” and “yakayat” (they say v[a] ]da, n[ya]su), there are other phonetic differences. A person who has not mastered the literary language since childhood, but is consciously mastering literary pronunciation, may encounter in his speech pronunciation features characteristic of the local dialect, which he learned in childhood. For example, people from the south of Russia often retain a special pronunciation of the sound [g] - they pronounce in its place a voiced [x] (a sound denoted in transcription by the sign [g]). It is important to understand that this kind of pronunciation features are a violation of norms only in the system of a literary language, and in the system of territorial dialects they are normal and correct and correspond to the phonetic laws of these dialects. More details in the specified source

The term “orthoepy” is used in the science of language in two meanings: 1) a set of norms of a literary language associated with the sound design of words: norms of pronunciation of sounds, stress and intonation; 2) a science that studies the variation in pronunciation norms of a literary language and develops pronunciation recommendations (spelling rules). Orthoepy ensures the unity of the sound design of the national language, which promotes fast and easy linguistic communication. The rules of orthoepy have a long history and usually emerge as language norms late, when various forms of public speech develop and the share of oral speech in the life of society increases. Theater, which preserved the norms of orthoepy in its purest form, was of great importance in the development of literary pronunciation. Stage speech in many languages ​​is the basis of orthoepic norms. The importance of orthoepy increases with the development of sound cinema, radio, and television. The orthoepic norms of the Russian language developed in their most important features back in the first half of the 17th century as norms of the Moscow dialect, which later began to acquire the character of national norms. The norms of orthoepy were finally formed in the second half of the 19th century and are largely preserved today; Only some private rules have changed.

Lecture 4 Orthoepic norms

The lecture discusses the features of Russian literary pronunciation

Orthoepic norms

The lecture discusses the features of Russian literary pronunciation.

Lecture outline

4.1. Features of Russian accent.

4.2. Stress norms.

4.3. Pronunciation standards.

4.1. Features of Russian accent

A word may consist of one, two or more syllables. If there are several syllables, then one of them is necessarily pronounced differently than the rest. Such emphasis on one of the syllables serves as a condition for the phonetic design of the word and is called word stress. The syllable on which the stress falls is called the stressed or stressed syllable. Accent is indicated by the sign “?” above the letter corresponding to the vowel sound.

Phonetic stress type determined by the methods of highlighting a stressed syllable. Stress in the Russian language is forceful and quantitative at the same time. A stressed syllable differs from unstressed syllables both in its duration and in its strength (loudness).

Word stress endowed with an organizing function. A group of syllables connected by a common stress forms a special phonetic unit. It is called a phonetic word, for example: [head] head, [ná(gulva] on the head. Within the framework of a phonetic word, the stressed syllable turns out to be the starting point in relation to which the nature of the pronunciation of the remaining syllables is determined.

Unstressed words can behave differently. Some of them obey the usual rules of pronunciation of sounds: [da_sad] to the garden (cf.: [dasad] annoyance); [l’ e´j_къ] lei-ka (cf.: [l’ e´jкъ] watering can). Others, despite being unstressed, retain some phonetic features of an independent word. For example, they may contain vowels that are not typical for unstressed syllables: [what (nám] what do we need (cf.: [pants] pants); [t’e (l’isa] - those forests (cf.: [t’l’isa] bodies).

There are words in which, in addition to the main one, there is a side stress. It is weaker, falls most often on initial syllables and is fixed in words with a complex word-formation structure: construction materials, waterproof, aerial photography.

When characterizing stress, it is important to take into account its position in the word. If the stress is assigned to a certain syllable, it is fixed. So, in Czech the stress can only fall on the first syllable, in Polish - on the penultimate one, in French - on the last. The Russian language does not know such a pattern. Being heterogeneous (or unfixed), Russian stress can fall on any syllable and on any morpheme in a word: gold, water, milk, gilding, extraordinary. This makes possible the existence of words, as well as individual forms of words, the distinction of which is related to the place of stress: castle - castle, burden - burden, legs - legs, etc.

Russian accent has another feature - mobility. The mobility of stress in the formation of grammatical forms of a word is determined by the possibility of stress transition:

1) from base to ending and vice versa: countries-á - countries, head-á - head-y;

2) from one syllable to another within the same morpheme: derev-o - tree-ya, lake-o - lake-a.

The mobility of stress during word formation is determined by the possibility of moving the stress to another morpheme in the derived word compared to the producing one: red/red-from-á. The fixed word-formative stress falls on the same morpheme: birch-a / birch-ov-y.

Thus, we can distinguish the following main features of Russian accent:

1) force and quantity according to the phonetic type;

2) varied in the nature of the location in the word;

3) mobile according to the criterion of attachment to a specific morpheme (in the formation of grammatical forms and in word formation).

4.2. Stress norms

In one lecture it is impossible to consider all the norms of Russian accent. We will limit ourselves to only the main ones.

1) Many monosyllabic masculine nouns have an accent in the singular indirect cases at the end, For example:

- bandage - bandage, pancake - pancake, bob - bob, screw - screw, hump - hump, tourniquet - tourniquet, umbrella - umbrella, whale - kita, klok - kloka, fang - fang, ladle - ladle, hook - hook, cul - kulya?, tench - tench?, fruit - fruit, sickle - sickle, stack - stack, polecat - polecat?, flail - chain, pole - pole, stroke - stroke.

2) In the accusative case, feminine nouns have stress sometimes at the end, sometimes at the root. Wed:

- tops - tops, spring - spring, desna - gums, ash - ash, pick - pick, nora - nora, sheep - sheep, dew - dew, plow - plow, stopa - foot;

- mountain - mountain, board - board, winter - zoom, wall - wall, side - side, price - price, cheek - cheek.

3) With emphasis at the end some nouns are pronounced feminine when used with prepositions V And on in circumstantial meaning: in a handful, on the chest, on the door, in the blood, at night, on the stove, in a bundle, in a net, in the steppe, in the shade, on a chain, in honor.

4) In the genitive plural case the following are pronounced:

With accent based on: localities, honors, achievements;

With accent at the end: statements, fortresses, news, stories, taxes, tablecloths, sterlets, quarters.

Pronunciation varies steps(in the stairs) and steps(stage of development of something).

5) Sometimes prepositions take on stress, and then the noun (or numeral) that follows it turns out to be unstressed. Most often, prepositions take over the emphasis on, for, under, by, from, without. For example:

- ON: on the water, on the mountain, on the hand, on the back, on the winter, on the soul, on the wall, on the head, on the side, on the shore, on the year, on the house, on the nose, on the floor, tooth on tooth, on the day, on night, on the ear, on two, on three, on five, on six, on seven, on a hundred;

- FOR: for the leg, for the head, for the hair, for the hand, for the back, for the winter, for the soul, for the nose, for the year, for the city, for the gate, for the ear, for the ears;

- POD: under the feet, under the arms, under the mountain, under the nose, towards the evening;

- BY: in the forest, in the floor, in the nose, in the sea, in the field, in the ear;

- FROM: From the forest, from the house, from the nose, from the sight;

- WITHOUT: without news, without a year, a week, to no avail;

- FROM: hour by hour, by the hour.

6) In many verbs in the past tense in the feminine form, the emphasis is at the end, less often based on. Wed:

- took, was, took, forked, heeded, lied, drove, gave, got, tore, lived, asked, borrowed, called, lila, profited, hired, started, drank, sailed, understood, arrived, accepted, tore, distributed, reputed, removed, slept, etc.;

- bula, brula, dula, sting, lay, stole, wings, we?la, mja?la, fell, gave birth, shula.

7) Many passive past participles have an accent based on, except for the feminine singular form in which it is transferred at the end, For example:

- taken - taken - taken? that - taken? you; started - started - started - started; prúdan - dowry - prúdano - prúdany; accepted - accepted - accepted - accepted; sold - sold - sold - sold; will live - lived - lived - lived etc.

But from participles to -abused, -torn, -called the feminine form has an accent based on. Wed:

- selected, recruited, selected, created, selected, selected, selected, selected, disassembled, assembled, selected, chosen etc.;

- torn, torn, torn, torn, torn, torn, flayed, torn etc.;

- called, called, called, recalled etc.

4.3. Pronunciation standards

Orthoepy is a set of rules that determine the pronunciation norms of oral (sounding) speech and ensure a uniform and mandatory sound for all literate native speakers of all language units in accordance with the characteristics of the language phonetic system, as well as a uniform (or in the form of strictly regulated variants) pronunciation of certain or other linguistic units in accordance with historically established and established in public linguistic practice norms of pronunciation for a literary language.

The rules (norms) of pronunciation in the Russian literary language may relate to the pronunciation of individual sounds in certain phonetic positions, as part of certain combinations of sounds, in different grammatical forms, to the phonetic word and rhythmic structure (correct placement of stress). Thus, the basic orthoepic rules of the Russian language can be divided into those that determine:

Pronunciation of vowel sounds (in different positions in a word, as well as when determining the place of stress);

Pronunciation of consonant sounds (also in different positions in a word, in combinations of consonants, in combinations with some vowel sounds, in different grammatical forms).

Pronunciation of vowels

In the area of ​​vowels, modern pronunciation is associated with akan and hiccups.

When akaning, unstressed vowels alternating with stressed [ó] and [á] coincide in the first pre-stressed syllable after paired hard vowels in the sound [a]: n[a]chnoy = n[a]s y´pat (cf. test night and embankment).

When hiccupping, unstressed vowels alternating with stressed vowels [i?], [e?], [ó], [á] coincide in the first pre-stressed syllable after the soft ones in the sound [i]: h[i]tát = h[i]rv y´k = h[i]rnét = h[i]s y´ (cf. test read, worm, black, hour).

Another way of pronouncing unstressed vowels, characterized by the opposition of i-shaped and e-shaped sounds, is called ekan: ch[i]tát / ch[ie]rv ya´k = ch[ie]rnet = ch[ie]s y´ (in transcription uses the icon “and, inclined to e”). The current norm is outdated and is not currently used.

In the position of the first pre-stressed syllable, after the hard sibilants in place of the letter a, the vowel [a] is pronounced: zh[a]rá heat, sh[a]gát stride, champagne champagne. However, there are several exception words in which [s] sound: losh[y]dy horses, zh[y]ly pity, unfortunately, twenty [s]twenty. The words jacket and jasmine allow for two pronunciations.

In addition, it is necessary to pay attention to some more pronunciation norms in the vowel area:

• In some words of both Russian and foreign origin, there is hesitation in the choice of [e] or [o] after soft consonants and sibilants: maneuvers - maneuvers, bile - bile, faded, but faded.
• Some words allow variations in the sound design of the root: zero - zero, plan - plan, tunnel - tunnel, condition - condition.
• In some cases, in words of foreign language origin, the corresponding laws of phonetic implementation of vowels may be violated, while the sounds [o], [e], [a] may appear in unstressed syllables: b[o]á (boa), b[o]lero (bolero), r[o]k[o]kó (rococo).
• In some cases, in the first stems of complex and complexly abbreviated words, the laws of behavior of vowels may be violated, while sounds may appear in unstressed positions [o], [e], [a]: g[o]szakaz (government order), [o]rgtékhnika (office equipment).
• In some unstressed prefixes of both foreign and Russian origin, the corresponding laws of phonetic implementation of vowels may be violated, while the sounds [o], [e], [a] may be pronounced in the unstressed position: postmodernism (postmodernism), pro-Islamic (pro-Islamic).
• In some unstressed prepositions, pronouns, conjunctions and particles adjacent to a stressed word, the corresponding phonetic laws for the implementation of vowels may be violated: n[o]i (but I), n[a]our site (our site).

Pronunciation of consonants

It is necessary to distinguish between orthoepic norms in the sphere of consonants regarding their voicedness/voicelessness and hardness/softness.

1. By voicedness/voicelessness.

1) In Russian literary pronunciation, voiced consonants at the end of a word and before voiceless consonants are deafened, and voiceless consonants before voiced ones are voiced. There is no positional change in consonants in terms of deafness-voicing before vowels, sonorant consonants and [v], [v']: [zu?p], [p'р'ievo?skъ], , [vo?dy], [sl' o?t], [matchmaker].

2) Before vowels, sonorant consonants and [v], [v’], a voiced plosive consonant [g] is pronounced. When deafening at the end of a word and before voiceless consonants, a voiceless [k] is pronounced in place of a voiced [g]: [p'irLga?], [gra?t], [gro's't'], [p'iro?k] . Only in the interjection lord, in the word god, the fricatives [γ] and [x] are preserved:

2. By hardness/softness.

1) In modern language, both hard and soft consonants may appear before [e]: model[d]el, ti[r]e, an[t]enna, but [d']espot, [r']els, [tenor. In a number of words, variable pronunciation is allowed, for example: prog[r]ess / prog[r’]ess, k[r]edo / k[r’]edo, etc.

2) The combination of letters chn in some cases corresponds to the sequence [shn], in others - [ch’n]. So, for example, of course, boring, scrambled eggs are pronounced with [shn], and accurate, excellent student, eternal - with [ch’n]. In some words, both options are correct: decent, bakery, milkman. There are also examples in which the choice between [shn] and [ch’n] depends on the meaning: a friend is heart [sh]ny, but a heart [ch’n] attack; hat acquaintance, but hat workshop.

3) The consonant [zh:’] is a very rare sound. It is pronounced in place of the letters zhzh, zzh in words such as yeast, reins, ride, splashes, rattle, later and some others. However, even in these words, the soft [zh:’] is gradually lost, being replaced by the hard [zh:]. In the case of rain, the consonant rain [zh:’] is replaced by the sound combination [zh’].

4) In modern language, the rules for positional softening of consonants before soft ones are characterized by particular variability and instability. Consistently there is only a replacement of [n] with [n’] before [h’] and [sh¯’]: diva [n’ch’]ik sofa, deceiver [n’ sh:’]ik deceiver. In other groups of consonants, softening either does not occur at all (la[fk’]i benches, rag[pk’]i rags), or it is associated with the choice of positions, with the representation in speech of not all native speakers. Thus, most people soften the dental ones before the dental ones not only in the middle of the word (ko[s’t’] bone, pe[s’n’]ya song), but also at the beginning of the word and at the junction of the prefix with the root, i.e. in “unstable” positions: [with’t’] the wall, it’s time to smash it. The softening of the consonant in other combinations is more the exception than the rule: [dv']open the door (less often [d'v']ver), [sj]eem (less often [s'j]em), e[sl']and if (less often e[s'l']i).

5) The adjectives na -kiy, -giy, -hiy are pronounced with soft back-lingual consonants: russ[k’]y Russian, stro[g’]y strict, ti[x’]yy quiet.

6) In the overwhelming majority of cases, the consonant also turns out to be soft in the postfixes -sya / -sya of verbs: I’m learning, I’m learning, I was rising [s’]I was rising.