Jean-Paul Charles Aimard Sartre - French philosopher, representative of atheistic existentialism, writer, playwright, essayist, teacher. Winner of the Nobel Prize in Literature 1964 (refused the prize).
Jean-Paul Sartre was born in Paris and was the only child in the family. When Jean-Paul was only 15 months old, his father died. The family moved to the parental home in Meudon.
Sartre received his education at the lyceums of La Rochelle, graduated from the Ecole Normale Supérieure in Paris with a dissertation in philosophy, and trained at the French Institute in Berlin (1934). He taught philosophy at various lyceums in France (1929-1939 and 1941-1944); from 1944 he devoted himself entirely to literary work. While still a student, he met Simone de Beauvoir, who became not just his life partner, but also a like-minded author.
Together with Simone de Beauvoir and Maurice Merleau-Ponty, he founded the magazine Modern Times. He acted as a supporter of peace at the Vienna Congress of Peoples in Defense of Peace in 1952, and in 1953 he was elected a member of the World Peace Council. After repeated threats from French nationalists, they blew up his apartment in the center of Paris.
In 1956, Sartre and the editors of the magazine distanced themselves, unlike Camus, from accepting the idea of a French Algeria and supported the desire for independence of the Algerian people. Sartre opposed torture, asserting the freedom of peoples to determine their own destiny.
Defending his position was not safe: Sartre’s apartment was blown up twice, and the editorial office was captured five times by nationalist militants.
Sartre actively supported the Cuban revolution of 1959, as did many representatives of the intelligentsia of the Third World. In June 1960, he wrote 16 articles in France entitled “Hurricane for Sugar.” During this time, he collaborated with the Cuban news agency Prensa Latina. But then there was a break with Castro in 1971 due to the “Padilla Affair,” when the Cuban poet Padilla was imprisoned for criticizing the Castro regime.
Sartre took an active part in the Russell Tribunal investigating war crimes committed in Vietnam. In 1967, the International War Crimes Tribunal held two sessions - in Stockholm and in Roskilde, where Sartre made his sensational speech on genocide.
Sartre was a participant in the revolution in France in 1968 (one might even say, its symbol: rioting students, having captured the Sorbonne, allowed only Sartre inside), in the post-war years - numerous democratic, Maoist movements and organizations. He took part in protests against the Algerian War, the suppression of the Hungarian uprising of 1956, the Vietnam War, the invasion of American troops in Cuba, the entry of Soviet troops into Prague, and the suppression of dissent in the USSR. During his life, his political positions fluctuated quite a lot, but always remained left, and Sartre always defended the rights of a disadvantaged person, that same humiliated “Self-Taught Man,” to quote the novel “Nausea.”
During another protest, which turned into riots, he was detained, which caused indignation among the students. When Charles de Gaulle found out about this, he ordered Sartre to be released: “France does not imprison Voltaires.”
Alexander Mikhailovich Butlerov (1828-1886)
Alexander Mikhailovich Butlerov was born on August 25, 1828 in the city. Chistopol, Kazan province. In 1849, he graduated from Kazan University, where his teachers were the outstanding Russian chemists K. K. Klaus and N. N. Zinin.
After graduating from the university, Butlerov was left with him to prepare for a professorship and soon beganl lecturing on chemistry. In 1851, Butlerov defended his dissertation on the topic “On the oxidation of organic compounds” and received a master’s degree, and in 1854, after defending his dissertation “On Essential Oils,” he was approved for a doctorate and in the same year was elected professor at Kazan University , where he taught for 20 years.
In May 1868, the council of St. Petersburg University, at the suggestion of Mendeleev, elected Butlerov as an ordinary professor in the department of organic chemistry, after which all his scientific and pedagogical activities took place in St. Petersburg. In 1871, for outstanding scientific achievements, Butlerov was elected extraordinary, and in 1874, ordinary academician.
From the very first steps of his scientific activity, Butlerov proved himself to be a brilliant experimenter and carried out a number ofremarkable syntheses, in particular the synthesis of the first artificially obtained sugar, which he named methylenenitane, and the synthesis of hexamine, which is widely used in medicine.
Butlerov's experimental talent was combined with broad theoretical generalizations and scientific foresight. While still a relatively young scientist, Butlerov expressed deep and bold ideas in the field of theoretical chemistry, for example, on the issue of expressing the structure of molecules and the connections of atoms in them with formulas. While many chemists believed that science would never penetrate into the depth of the structure of a molecule, Butlerov was convinced of the possibility of expressing in formulas the structure of the molecules of organic compounds and, moreover, doing this by studying their chemical transformations.
In 1861, during a business trip abroad, Butlerov spoke at a congress of German naturalists and doctors with a report “On the chemical structure of substances,” which created a new era in the chemistry of organic compounds. Returning to Kazan, he developed the new teaching in detail and, to confirm his theoretical positions, began extensive experimental research, carried out both by himself and by his numerous students. These works of Butlerov not only led to a number of new, important syntheses, but also confirmed the theory he created, which, under the name of the theory of chemical structure, became the guiding theory of organic chemistry.
Butlerov
The essence of Butlerov’s theory lies in the statement that the properties of substances are determined not only by their qualitative and quantitative composition, as was previously believed, but also by the internal structure of the molecules, a certain order of connection between the atoms that form the molecule. Butlerov called this internal structure “chemical structure.”
“The chemical nature of a complex particle,” wrote Butlerov, “is determined by the nature of its elementary constituent parts, their quantity and chemical structure.”
Particularly important was Butlerov’s idea that atoms, combining chemically in a certain sequence in accordance with their valence, mutually influence each other in such a way that their own nature, their “chemical content,” partially changes. “The same element,” writes Butlerov, “being combined with various other elements, reveals different chemical contents.” For this reason, changes in the internal structure of molecules naturally lead to the emergence of new qualities.
In 1862-1863 Butlerov writes his wonderful work “Introduction to the complete study of organic chemistry”, in which he contains all the factual material of the organical chemistry based on a strictly scientific classification arising from the theory of chemical structure. In terms of the power of thought, scientific depth, clarity of form and saturation with new ideas, Butlerov’s “Introduction” is similar to Mendeleev’s “Fundamentals of Chemistry”. The classification of organic compounds adopted in this book has been preserved in its main features to this day.
Butlerov trained a brilliant galaxy of students who continued to develop his ideas. From his school came such outstanding scientists as V.V. Markovnikov, A.E. Favorsky and many others.
The significance of Butlerov’s works and his outstanding role in the development of science was perfectly described by Mendeleev in his nomination of Butlerov to occupy the department of organic chemistry at St. Petersburg University. "A. M. Butlerov is an ordinary professor at Kazan University, one of the most remarkable Russian scientists. He is Russian both in his scientific education and in the originality of his works. A student of our famous academician N.N. Zinin, he became a chemist not in foreign lands, but in Kazan, where he continues to develop an independent chemical school. The direction of Alexander Mikhailovich's scientific works does not constitute a continuation or development of the ideas of his predecessors, but belongs to him. In chemistry there is a Butlerov school, a Butlerov direction.”
Butlerov's teaching on the chemical structure of molecules forms the theoretical basis of organic chemistry. It allows the chemist to navigate a huge variety of carbon compounds, determine the structure of molecules based on studying themchemical properties, predict the properties of substances based on the structure of molecules, outline ways to synthesize the necessary substances.
More than 90 years have passed since the creation of the theory of chemical structure, but the main provisions of this theory over time not only have not lost their strength, but, on the contrary, have become even stronger and deeper. In particular, modern data on the electronic structure of molecules have fully confirmed all the conclusions obtained on the basis of Butlerov’s teaching. At the same time, the physical meaning of “valence bars” as pairs of electrons common to two bonded atoms was also revealed. This is clearly seen from a comparison of the structural formulas in their usual and electronic expressions.
When using ordinary structural formulas, you should always remember that each “valence line” connecting two atoms represents one shared pair of electrons.
You are reading an article on the topic A.M. Butlerov theory chemical structure
Russian chemist, creator of the theory of chemical structure and the first Russian school of chemists.
He lost his mother early and from the age of 8 was raised in Topornin’s private boarding school in Kazan.
“Little Butlerov, like all bards, had an uncle. The boy had no idea about chemistry, but he loved fireworks and he liked chemical glassware. The man easily supplied him with the substances and utensils needed to prepare fireworks, and the child enthusiastically indulged in experiments. He mixed sulfur, saltpeter, coal and got gunpowder; he dissolved copper sulfate in a flask and, dipping an iron nail into the blue liquid, saw how it was covered with copper. The boy was not interested in the practical results of the miracles he performed. His imagination was occupied by the process of transformation of substances.
An interesting episode, later told by his boarding house comrade Shevlyakov, dates back to this period of Butlerov’s life:
“Butlerov was diligently fiddling with some flasks, jars, funnels, mysteriously pouring something from one bottle to another. The restless teacher Roland disturbed him in every possible way, often taking away flasks and vials, putting him in a corner or leaving the uninvited chemist without lunch, but he did not let up, taking advantage of the patronage of the physics teacher. Eventually, in the corner, near Butlerov’s bed, a tiny, always locked cabinet filled with some kind of drugs appeared.
One fine spring evening, when the pupils were peacefully and cheerfully playing rounders in the spacious yard, and “frantic Roland” was dozing in the sunny sun, a deafening explosion was heard in the kitchen... Everyone gasped, and Roland, with a tiger’s leap, found himself in the basement where the kitchen. Then the “tiger” appeared in front of us again, mercilessly dragging Butlerov with singed hair and eyebrows, and behind him, with his head hanging, walked a guy brought in as an accomplice, secretly delivering the materials necessary for carrying out the experiments.
To the credit of the Topornin boarding house, it should be noted that rods were never used in this
institution, but since Butlerov’s crime was out of the ordinary, our teachers, at a general council, came up with a new, unprecedented punishment. Two or three times, the criminals were taken out of the dark punishment cell into the common dining room, with a black board on their chest, on the board there was the words “Great Chemist” in large white letters.”
Student A.M. Butlerova - S.V. Lebedev, creator of an industrial method for producing synthetic rubber.
The life and work of Butlerov, a Russian chemist, academician of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences and professor at St. Petersburg University, creator of the theory of chemical structure, is described in this report about the scientist. You can supplement the report on Butlerov.
Butlerov a short message
A short message about his life and work should begin with the fact that he was born on September 15, 1828 in the town of Chistopol into a family of nobles. In 1844 he entered Kazan University, after which his successful scientific career began. 8 years after graduating from the university, Alexander Mikhailovich becomes an ordinary professor and is sent on a business trip abroad. The scientist visited Germany, Switzerland, Italy, France, England and the Czech Republic, meeting Western chemists.
It is worth noting that after defending his master’s thesis, Alexander Mikhailovich married Nadezhda Mikhailovna Glumilina, with whom he lived for more than 30 years. The couple had two sons.
Returning home, he began re-equipping his chemical laboratory and carrying out a series of experimental works. In 1861 he developed a theory of chemical structure. What did Butlerov mean by the chemical structure of a substance? The scientist called this a certain order in which atoms are combined into molecules using chemical bonds.
3 years later, the chemist publishes the world's first manual, a monograph entitled “An Introduction to the Complete Study of Organic Chemistry,” which had a strong influence on the development of chemical science in the world. Having moved to St. Petersburg in 1869, Butlerov began giving lectures on chemistry.
Fighting for women to have the opportunity to receive higher education, he gives public lectures at the Vladimir, St. Petersburg and Bestuzhev women's courses.
The great Russian chemist died in the village of Butlerovka, Kazan province, on August 17, 1886, in the arms of his wife.
What is the scientist’s contribution to beekeeping?
In addition to chemistry, Butlerov was engaged in beekeeping. He published a paper on the topic "Two Fallacies" in 1870, for which he was awarded a gold medal. Also, his hand belongs to the treatise “The Bee, Its Life and the Main Rules of Intelligent Beekeeping.” Butlerov longed to expand knowledge about bees among the entire population. The scientist even proposed to include beekeeping in the list of seminary subjects and advocated the thematic free distribution of various publications for soldier seminaries and schools. In addition, Butlerov created his own school for the development and conduct of beekeeping. He himself had a large apiary at home.
Interesting facts from the life of Butlerov:
- He was interested in the issues of breeding tea varieties in the Caucasus.
- In his declining years, the chemist became interested in spiritualism.
- Butlerov brought out a new variety of roses.
- Loved hunting.
- Using the knowledge received from his father, Alexander Mikhailovich treated people and animals.
We hope that the report on Butlerov helped you in preparing for classes. And you can leave your story about Alexander Butlerov using the comment form below.
Butlerov first taught, as Zinin had once recommended to him, on the basis of Gerard’s theory of types. Then he moved on to carbon types, which in their idea are close to Dumas’ mechanical types, and finally, in the 1860-1861 academic year, he began to teach a course based on the theory of chemical structure. The transition from old theories to the theory of chemical structure was facilitated by the fact that in 1860 a congress of chemists took place in Karlsruhe, at which the concepts of atom and molecule were formulated and it was recommended to use atomic formulas in the future, and not formulas with signs corresponding to equivalents.
On September 19, 1861, at the congress of German doctors and naturalists held in Speyer, A.M. Butlerov read a report “On the chemical structure of substances”
The essence of the report can be stated as follows: Butlerov proposes to abandon the theory of types in all its varieties; talks about what should be meant by chemical structure; expresses the main position of the theory of chemical structure, which distinguishes it from all previous views; outlines ways to determine the structure; speaks out about the form and content of formulas of chemical structure.
The basic principles and concepts of the theory of chemical structure form a coherent logical system, without which the work of a modern organic chemist is unthinkable.
This system includes the following provisions:
atoms in molecules are connected to each other in pairs by chemical bonds in accordance with their valency;
molecules have a certain order (or sequence) in the distribution of bonds between atoms, i.e., a certain chemical structure;
the properties of chemical compounds depend on the chemical structure of their molecules; A number of conclusions follow from this situation:
a) by studying the properties of substances, one can get an idea of their chemical structure, and knowing the chemical structure of even substances that have not yet been obtained, one can predict what properties they will have;
b) the cause of isomerism is the difference in the chemical structure of substances having the same composition;
c) chemical structure formulas also give an idea of the properties of compounds;
atoms in molecules influence each other; this influence does not equally affect the properties of atoms of the same elements if the chemical structure of the molecules is different.
Literature:
1. Bykov G.V. A.M. Butlerov. – M.: Education, 1978.- 93 p.
2. Volkov V.A. Outstanding chemists of the world. (edited by V.I. Kuznetsov. - M.: Higher School, 1991.)
3. General history of chemistry. History of classical organic chemistry. – M.: Nauka, 1992.
4. V. Malyshkina Entertaining chemistry. – St. Petersburg, Trigon, 2001.
5. Soloviev Yu.I. History of chemistry. – M.: Education, 1983 – 336 p.
6. Figurovsky N.A. History of chemistry. – M.: Education, 1979 – 311 p.
7. Strube V. Ways of development of chemistry. in 2 volumes. Volume 1 From primitive times to the industrial revolution. Per. with him. – M.: Mir, 1984.- 239 p.
8. I’m going to a chemistry lesson: Chronicle of the most important discoveries in chemistry of the 17th-19th centuries: Book. for the teacher. – M.: First September, 1999. – 320 p.
9. Lectures.
10. Materials from the Internet.
