Experimental study design. Psychology and design

Experimental psychology is based on the practical application of so-called true experimental designs, when the study uses control groups and the sample is in a laboratory setting. Experimental designs of this kind are designated Designs 4, 5, and 6.

Design with pre-test, post-test and control group (Design 4). Design 4 is a classic psychological laboratory research “design.” However, it is also applicable in the field. Its peculiarity lies not only in the presence of a control group - it is already present in pre-experimental scheme 3 - but namely in the equivalence (homogeneity) of the experimental and control samples. An important factor in the reliability of an experiment constructed according to Scheme 4 are also two circumstances: the homogeneity of the research conditions in which the samples are located, and the complete control of factors affecting the internal validity of the experiment.

The choice of experimental design with pre-test, post-test and control group is made in accordance with the experimental task and research conditions. When it is possible to form at least two homogeneous groups, the following experimental design is used:

Example. For practical assimilation of the possibilities of implementing experimental plan 4, we will give an example of a real study in the form of a laboratory formative experiment, which contains a mechanism for confirming the hypothesis that positive motivation affects a person’s concentration.

Hypothesis: the motivation of the subjects is a significant factor in increasing the concentration and stability of attention of people under conditions of educational and cognitive activity.

Experimental procedure:

• 1. Formation of experimental and control samples. Participants in the experiment are divided into pairs, carefully matched on pretest scores or on variables that are significantly correlated with each other. Then the members of each bunk are “randomized” (randomization) by drawing lots into the experimental or control groups.
• 2. Both groups are asked to practice the test “Corrective test with rings” (O, and 0 3).
• 3. The activity of the experimental sample is stimulated. Let us assume that the subjects are given an experimental incentive setting (X): “Students who, based on the results of testing concentration and stability of attention, score 95 or more points (correct answers), receive a test this semester “automatically.”
• 4. Both groups are asked to work on the test “Correction test with syllables” (0 2 and OD

Algorithm for analyzing experimental results

• 5. Empirical data are tested for “normality” of distribution 1. This operation makes it possible to clarify at least two circumstances. Firstly, as a test used to determine the stability and concentration of attention of subjects, it discriminates (differentiates) them according to the attribute being measured. In this case, the normal distribution shows that the indicators of the characteristics correspond to the optimal relationship with the situation of developing the applied test, i.e. The technique optimally measures the intended area. It is suitable for use in these conditions. Secondly, the normality of the distribution of empirical data will give the right to correctly apply the methods of parametric statistics. Statistics can be used to estimate the distribution of data A s And E x or y .
• 6. The arithmetic mean is calculated M x and root mean square 5 L. deviations of the results of preliminary and final testing.
• 7. A comparison is made of the average test scores of the experimental and control groups (O, 0 3 ; Oh, OD
• 8. Comparison of average values ​​is carried out using Student's ^-test, i.e. determining the statistical significance of differences in mean values.
• 9. The proof of the relations Oj = O e, O, 0 4 as indicators of the effectiveness of the experiment is carried out.
• 10. The validity of the experiment is studied by determining the degree of control of invalidity factors.

To illustrate a psychological experiment on the influence of motivational variables on the process of concentrating the attention of subjects, let us turn to the data in Table. 5.1.

Table of experiment results, points

Table 5.1

End of table. 5.1

Comparison of primary measurement data of experimental and control samples - Oh! and O3 - is carried out to determine the equivalence of the experimental and control samples. The identity of these indicators indicates the homogeneity (equivalence) of the groups. It is determined by calculating the level of statistical significance of differences in means in the confidence interval r Styodeit's t-test.

In our case, the value of Student’s /-criterion between the empirical data of the primary survey in the experimental and control groups was 0.56. This shows that the samples do not differ significantly in the confidence interval/?

Comparison of data from primary and repeated measurements of the experimental sample - Oj and 0 2 - is carried out in order to determine the degree of change in the dependent variable after the influence of the independent variable on the experimental sample. This procedure is carried out using the Styodeit /-test if the variables are measured on the same test scale or are standardized.

In the case under consideration, the preliminary (primary) and final examinations were carried out using different tests measuring attention concentration. Therefore, comparison of averages without standardization is not feasible. Let's calculate the correlation coefficient between the indicators of the primary and final studies in the experimental group. Its low value can serve as indirect evidence that a change in data is taking place (R xy = 0D6) .

The experimental effect is determined by comparing repeated measurement data from the experimental and control samples - 0 2 and 0 4 . It is carried out in order to identify the degree of significance of changes in the dependent variable after exposure to the independent variable (X) for the experimental sample. The psychological meaning of this study is to assess the impact X on the subjects. In this case, comparison is made at the stage of final measurement of data from the experimental and control groups. Impact Analysis X carried out using Student's /-criterion. Its value is 2.85, which is greater than the table value of the /-criterion 1. This shows that there is a statistically significant difference between the mean test scores of the experimental and control groups.

Thus, as a result of the experiment according to plan 4, it was revealed that in the first group of subjects, which does not differ from the other group in terms of attitudinal psychological characteristics (in terms of concentration of attention), except for the influence of the independent variable on it X, the value of the indicator of concentration of attention is statistically significantly different from the similar indicator of the second group, which is in the same conditions, but outside the influence X.

Consider a study of the validity of an experiment.

Background: controlled due to the fact that events occurring in parallel with the experimental effect are observed in both the experimental and control groups.

Natural development: controlled due to the short period between testing and the exposure period and occurs in both the experimental and control groups.

Testing effect and instrumental error: controlled because they appear in the same way in the experimental and control groups. In our case, there is a sampling bias 1.

Statistical regression: controlled. First, if randomization led to the appearance of extreme results in the experimental group, then they will also appear in the control group, as a result of which the regression effect will be the same. Secondly, if randomization did not lead to extreme results in the samples, then this issue is resolved by itself.

Selection of subjects: is controlled because explanations for differences are eliminated to the extent that randomization ensures sample equivalence. This degree is determined by the sample statistics we adopt.

Elimination: is completely controlled, since the period between tests in both samples is relatively small, and also due to the need for the presence of the subjects in the lesson. In experiments with a long exposure period (the period between tests), there may be a bias in the sample and the effect of the experimental results. The way out of this situation is to take into account, when processing the results of preliminary and final testing, all participants in both samples, even if the subjects of the experimental group did not receive experimental influence. Effect X, will apparently be weakened, but the sample will not be biased. The second option entails a change in the experimental design, since it is necessary to achieve equivalence of groups through randomization before final testing:

Interaction of selection factor with natural development: controlled by forming an equivalent control group.

Reactive effect: pretesting actually prepares subjects to perceive the experimental effect. Therefore, the effect of the impact is “shifted”. In this situation, it is unlikely that one can absolutely say that the results of the experiment can be extended to the entire population. Control of the reactive effect is possible to the extent that repeated examinations are common to the entire population.

Interaction of selection factor and experimental influence: in a situation of voluntary consent to participate in an experiment, a threat to validity (“bias”) arises due to the fact that this consent is given by people of a certain personality type. Drawing equivalent samples randomly reduces invalidity.

Subjects' reaction to the experiment: the experimental situation leads to a bias in the results, since the subjects find themselves in “special” conditions, trying to understand the meaning of this work. Hence, manifestations of demonstrativeness, play, wariness, guessing attitudes, etc. are frequent. A reaction to an experiment can be caused by any element of the experimental procedure, for example, the content of the tests, the randomization process, the division of participants into separate groups, keeping subjects in different rooms, the presence of unfamiliar people, the use of extraordinary X etc.

The way out of this difficulty is to “disguise” the research, i.e. drawing up and strictly following a system for legending experimental procedures or incorporating them into the usual course of events. For this purpose, it seems most rational to carry out testing and experimental influence under the guise of regular testing activities. When studying even individual members of a group, it is desirable for the team as a whole to participate in the experiment. It seems advisable to carry out testing and experimental influence using full-time managers, teachers, activists, observers, etc.

In conclusion, it should be noted that, as D. Campbell pointed out, the optimal method for determining the effect of an experiment may still be “common sense” and “non-mathematical considerations.”

R. Solomon's plan for four groups (plan 5). If there are certain research conditions that allow the formation of four equivalent samples, the experiment is constructed according to scheme 5, which is named after its compiler - “Solomon’s Plan for Four Groups”:

Solomon's design is an attempt to compensate for factors that threaten the external validity of the experiment by recruiting two additional (to design 4) groups that are not premeasured.

Comparison of data across additional groups neutralizes the effects of testing and the influence of the experimental setting itself, and also allows for better generalization of the results. The identification of the effect of experimental influence is reproduced by statistical proof of the following inequalities: 0 2 > Oj; 0 2 > 0 4 ; 0 5 > About b. If all three relationships are satisfied, then the validity of the experimental conclusion significantly increases.

The use of plan 5 determines the likelihood of neutralizing the interaction of testing and experimental influence, which facilitates the interpretation of the results of studies according to plan 4. Comparison of O b with O, and 0 3 allows us to identify the combined effect of natural development and background. Comparison of means 0 2 and 0 5, 0 4 and O 0 make it possible to evaluate the main effect of preliminary testing. Comparison of averages () 2 and 0 4, 0 5 and 0 G) allows us to evaluate the main effect of the experimental intervention.

If the pretest effect and the interaction effect are small and negligible, then it is desirable to conduct an analysis of covariance on 0 4 and 0 2 using the pretest results as a covariate.

Design with control group and testing only after exposure (Design 6). Very often, when carrying out experimental tasks, researchers are faced with the situation of the need to study psychological variables in conditions where it is impossible to conduct a preliminary measurement of the psychological parameters of the subjects, since the study is carried out after the influence of independent variables, i.e. when an event has already occurred and its consequences need to be identified. In this situation, the optimal experimental design is a design with a control group and testing only after exposure. Using randomization or other procedures that ensure optimal sampling equivalence, homogeneous experimental and control groups of subjects are formed. Testing of variables is carried out only after experimental exposure:

Example. In 1993, at the request of the Research Institute of Radiology, a study was carried out of the effects of radiation exposure on human psychological indicators 1 . The experiment was built according to plan 6. A psychological examination of 51 liquidators of the consequences of the Chernobyl nuclear power plant accident was carried out using a battery of psychological tests (personality questionnaires, SAN (Well-being. Activity. Mood), Luscher test, etc.), EAF according to R. Voll (R. Voll) and automated situational diagnostic game (ASID) “Test”. The control sample consisted of 47 specialists who did not participate in radiological activities at the Chernobyl NPP. The average age of the subjects in the experimental and control groups was 33 years. The subjects of both samples were optimally correlated in terms of experience, type of activity and structure of socialization, therefore the formed groups were considered equivalent.

Let us carry out a theoretical analysis of the plan according to which the experiment was constructed and its validity.

Background: controlled because the study used an equivalent control sample.

Natural development: controlled as a factor of experimental influence, since there was no intervention by the experimenters in the process of socialization of the subjects.

Testing effect: controlled, since there was no pre-testing of the subjects.

Instrumental error: controlled, since a preliminary check of the reliability of methodological tools and clarification of their standard indicators after the experiment was carried out, and the same type of “test battery” was used in the control and experimental groups.

Statistical regression: was controlled by testing experimental material on the entire sample, formed in a random order. However, there was a threat to validity due to the fact that there was no preliminary data on the composition of the experimental groups, i.e. probability of occurrence and polar variables.

Selection of subjects", was not fully controlled due to natural randomization. There was no special selection of subjects. Groups were formed randomly from participants in the liquidation of the Chernobyl nuclear power plant accident and chemical specialists.

Elimination of subjects was not present during the experiment.

Interaction of the selection factor with natural development", no special selection was carried out. This variable was controlled.

Interaction of group composition and experimental influence", There was no special selection of subjects. They were not informed which study group (experimental or control) they were in.

Subjects' reaction to the experiment" uncontrollable factor in this experiment.

Mutual interference (overlay) of experimental influences: was not controlled due to the fact that it was not known whether the subjects participated in such experiments and how this affected the results of psychological testing. Through observation of the experimenters, it became clear that the overall attitude towards the experiment was negative. It is unlikely that this circumstance had a positive impact on the external validity of this experiment.

Experiment results

• 1. A study was made of the distribution of empirical data, which had a bell-shaped shape, close to the theoretical normal distribution curve.
• 2. Using Student's ^-test, the averages Oj > 0 2 were compared. According to ASID “Test” and EAF, the experimental and control groups differed significantly in the dynamics of emotional states (higher among liquidators), the effectiveness of cognitive activity (a decrease was observed among liquidators), as well as the functioning of the musculoskeletal system, liver, kidneys, etc. due to chronic endogenous intoxication.
• 3. Using Fisher’s ^-criterion, the influence of “fluctuations” (variance of the independent variable) was calculated X on the variance of the dependent variable 0 2 .

As a conclusion of this study, appropriate recommendations were made to the experiment participants and their supervisors, a diagnostic battery of psychological tests was validated, and psychophysiological factors influencing people in extreme radiological conditions were identified.

Thus, the experimental “design” 6 represents the optimal design for psychological research when it is not possible to make preliminary measurements of psychological variables.

From the above it follows that the basis of the experimental method in psychology is the so-called true plans, in which almost all the main factors influencing internal validity are controlled. The reliability of the results in experiments planned according to schemes 4-6 is beyond doubt among the vast majority of researchers. The main problem, as in all other psychological studies, is the formation of experimental and control samples of subjects, the organization of the study, the search and use of adequate measuring tools.

• The symbol R in the diagram indicates that the homogeneity of the groups was obtained by randomization. This symbol can be conditional, since the homogeneity of the control and experimental samples can be ensured in other ways (for example, paired selection, preliminary testing, etc.). The value of the correlation coefficient (0.16) reveals a weak statistical relationship between measurements, i.e. it can be assumed that some change in the data has occurred. The post-impact indicators do not correspond to the pre-impact indicators. EAF - Voll method (German: Elektroakupunktur nach Voll, EAV) - a method of electrical express diagnostics in alternative (non-traditional) medicine by measuring the electrical resistance of the skin. The method was developed in Germany by Dr. Reinold Voll in 1958. Essentially, it is a combination of acupuncture and the use of a galvanometer.
• Assessment of the psychological status of military personnel - liquidators of the Chernobyl accident using a dynamic situational game "Test" / I. V. Zakharov, O. S. Govorukha, I. II. Poss [et al.] // Military medical journal. 1994. No. 7. P. 42-44.
• Research B. II. Ignatkina.

© St. Petersburg State University, 2018

© Dermanova I. B., Manukyan V. R., 2018

Introduction

This educational and methodological manual reflects the main content of the first part of the course “Design of Psychological Research” for first-year undergraduates. Its goal is to reveal the scientific technology of planning and organizing psychological research. Achieving this goal is impossible without understanding the existing field of psychological research, without knowledge of their types, features and specific refraction through the prism of psychological science, as well as the general scientific principles on which they are based. These complex issues are presented in the manual in an exclusively applied aspect, allowing you to apply knowledge from the field of psychology methodology directly in independent research work. Any research has a number of stages: planning, actually conducting the research, presenting its results. The concept of “research design” presupposes the general organization of the study, including the type and methods of sequential search for answers to the questions posed by the researcher [Breslav, 2010]. Research design covers the entire process of designing (planning) a study and the outcome of this process. A psychological research project is a document that provides a coherent description of all the main elements of the planned research:

– problem statement;

– formulation of the purpose and hypothesis of the study;

– setting tasks;

– method of forming a sample of subjects;

– selection of methods for collecting empirical material;

– selection of research stages;

– selection of methods for analyzing the obtained data;

– interpretation of the results obtained.

Designing psychological research can be compared in importance to the work of an architect. As K. Hakim noted, “Before a building of any scale is built, there is an initial design phase. Architects are invited to submit their ideas, sometimes competitively, on the form, style and character of a building, taking into account its function, purpose, placement, etc.” [cit. from: Research Design, 2017, p. 5].

When conducting research, a psychologist relies on his knowledge of the phenomena and occurrences that he studies, on those theories and concepts that describe and/or explain human psychology, as well as on his known and/or mastered repertoire of methods for collecting and analyzing data. This knowledge sets the researcher a corridor of possibilities, the boundaries of which are largely determined by one or another approach—the research design.

According to N. Blakey, the research design must answer three main questions: what will be studied, why will it be studied, how will it be studied. The last question can be broken down into four subquestions: what research strategy will be used, where the data will come from, how the data will be collected and analyzed, and when each stage of the research will be conducted.

He identifies eight elements of research design about which decisions need to be made during the research design phase: research topic/problem; research questions and objectives; research strategies; concepts, theories, hypotheses and models; sources, types and forms of data; selection from data sources; data collection and timing; data processing and analysis.

The manual consistently examines the preparatory stage of organizing psychological research. The first chapter talks about the formulation of the research problem and its methodological elements (object and subject of research, purpose and objectives of the study, putting forward hypotheses); the second examines in detail the problems of choosing research methods; the third analyzes in detail the various sources of empirical evidence and methods for collecting them, and the fourth examines ethical issues in conducting psychological research.

The tasks for independent work and lists of recommended literature on each topic will help you consolidate your knowledge.

We hope that mastering this course will allow aspiring research psychologists to construct their work more meaningfully and competently.

Chapter 1
Organization of psychological research

1.1. Psychological research: general idea, main types and stages

Scientific psychology emerged as an independent science in the second half of the 19th century and has come a long way in development, becoming a recognized branch of scientific knowledge. The main goal of scientific psychology is to search for new knowledge, which is achieved through scientific psychological research. The main objectives of research activities in psychology are:

– explanation of psychological phenomena;

– proof of certain theoretical positions (hypotheses);

– forecasting certain psychological facts [Karandyshev, 2004].

Scientific research, including psychological research, is characterized by objectivity, generality, systematicity, evidence, and reliance on scientific facts and concepts. Scientific psychological knowledge and research results are usually presented in the language of scientific psychology, understandable to professional psychologists, and are not always described in an accessible way for the untrained reader.

There are various classifications of psychological research. Most often you can find dichotomous classifications on various grounds: theoretical and empirical, fundamental and applied, laboratory and field, quantitative and qualitative research [Druzhinin, 2011; Nikandrov, 2007; Goodwin, 2004, etc.].

Target theoretical research– obtaining generalized knowledge about any psychological phenomenon. This research is based on descriptions and explanations of the facts of mental life already available in science, previously put forward hypotheses and assumptions. In the process of theoretical research, a scientist interacts with a mental model of the object of study [Druzhinin, 2011]. Theoretical research involves analysis, synthesis, comparison and generalization of existing knowledge in science, as well as the derivation of new knowledge based on it using inferences. It is based on a certain system of axioms, theories and empirical knowledge that currently exists in a given scientific field, and uses methods for the logical derivation of new knowledge [Karandyshev, 2004]. The result of theoretical research is presented in the form of more or less coherent and demonstrative generalizations - hypotheses, concepts, theories. The level of these generalizations varies significantly. A hypothesis is a scientific assumption put forward to explain a phenomenon that requires further experimental testing and/or additional theoretical justification in order to become a reliable scientific theory. A concept is a system of reasoned views that formalizes one or another understanding of the phenomenon being studied. Theory is a generalization of experience, based on evidentiary level reflecting the essence of the reality being studied. In psychology we are talking about psychological reality, which includes both objective and subjective facts and patterns [Nikandrov, 2007]. In contrast to a concept, a theory is a more strictly structured and substantiated system of theoretical propositions that describes the mechanisms, relationships and structure of the object being studied [Karandyshev, 2004].

Empirical research Its goal is to obtain factual material, which is subsequently either generalized by theoretical studies or used for applied purposes. In the process of empirical research, the researcher carries out external real interaction with the object of research [Druzhinin, 2011]. In empirical research, they strive to obtain an extremely strict description of psychological facts, for which they very carefully collect data about the phenomenon being studied. The main methods of empirical psychological research are observation, experiment, testing, survey, conversation, modeling. Typically, these data are of a mass nature, i.e. they are obtained through repeated access to the object of study, which increases the reliability of the final results [Nikandrov, 2007].

The dyad “fundamental – applied research” is formed based on the relationship between the scientific and practical significance of the research. IN basic research scientific significance significantly prevails over practical significance: the results of such research cannot immediately be directly implemented in practice, but they contribute to the study of one or another major scientific problem. Fundamental research significantly expands the horizons of the scientific community and, most importantly, “opens up space and paves the way for the organization of narrower specific research with a practical focus” [Nikandrov, 2007, p. 15]. In this regard, they play the role of a foundation both in the general system of knowledge of mankind and in conducting research aimed at obtaining practical results.

Applied Research is aimed at obtaining an effect in specific situations of human life. Typically, these studies are carried out on a special order from interested individuals or organizations (customers), dictated by the request of practice. Their goal is to solve a specific problem by “applying” known knowledge to it [Nikandrov, 2007]. These studies use theoretical and empirical knowledge of science, and apply methods and techniques developed and tested by it. The main thing here is not gaining new knowledge, but helping the customer in current life and practical matters.

J. Goodwin also suggests distinguishing research by the conditions under which it was conducted (laboratory and field) and by the nature of the methods used (quantitative and qualitative).

Laboratory research provide researchers with a high degree of control: experimental conditions can be more clearly defined, and the selection and examination of subjects can be carried out more systematically. In laboratory research, it is easier to obtain informed consent from participants, and it is relatively simple, in contrast to field research, to strictly follow the standards of the ethical code, while in field research, ethical problems may arise related to interference with the privacy of respondents.

Field research are carried out in everyday life and it is the similarity with real life that is their main advantage. J. Goodwin cites their other advantages: firstly, the conditions of field research often cannot be reproduced in the laboratory; secondly, field studies can confirm laboratory studies and correct errors caused by the natural limitations of laboratory conditions; thirdly, there is the opportunity to obtain data that can quickly affect the lives of the people being studied [Goodwin, 2004].

IN quantitative research data is collected and presented in the form of numbers - average ratings for various groups, the proportion (percentage) of people who entered one way or another, coefficients reflecting the relationships between various properties, states, processes, etc. At the same time, in modern psychology qualitative research are becoming in demand again. They typically involve the collection of detailed information through interviews with individuals or focus groups, and sometimes involve detailed case studies and basic observational research. What these types of qualitative research have in common is that their results are presented not as statistical reports, but as a general analysis of the project [Goodwin, 2004].

However, it should be noted that the identification of these types of psychological research is still somewhat arbitrary and is rather an abstraction that allows us to better understand the subject from the point of view of its constituent parts. Thus, many psychological studies are characterized by a combination of theoretical and practical aspects of research in a single process, since “any research is carried out not in isolation, but within the framework of an integral scientific program or in order to develop a scientific direction” [Druzhinin, 2011, p. 8]. Theoretical aspects are characteristic of the initial and final stages of the process of psychological research, empirical aspects - of the central stage. Conducting applied research is impossible both without theoretical justification accumulated by fundamental science and without empirical procedures. At the same time, not only fundamental research leads to applied study of the issue, but also the results of applied research often turn out to be important for fundamental research, confirming, refuting or setting boundaries for the theories put forward. J. Goodwin also cites cases in which laboratory and field experiments are combined with a common goal into one study, which makes it possible to achieve greater reliability of the results [Goodwin, 2004]. Modern psychology has examples of qualitative and quantitative research, in which the study of patterns in large samples is illustrated and supplemented by qualitative descriptions of mental processes and phenomena.

All psychological research has a certain logic - the sequence of its conduct. Like any scientific research, psychological research goes through three stages: 1) preparatory; 2) main; 3) final.

At the first stage, its goals and objectives are formulated, orientation is made to the body of knowledge in this area, an action program is drawn up, and organizational, material and financial issues are resolved. At the main stage, the actual research process is carried out: the scientist, using special methods, comes into contact (direct or indirect) with the object being studied and collects data about it. It is this stage that usually best reflects the specifics of the research: the reality being studied in the form of the object and subject under study, the area of ​​knowledge, the type of research, and methodological equipment. At the final stage, the received data is processed and converted into the desired result. The results are related to the stated goals, explained and included in the existing knowledge system in the field. If we present these stages in more detail, we get the following scheme of psychological research:

The given sequence of stages should not be considered as a rigid scheme accepted for strict execution.

This is rather a general principle for algorithmizing research activities. In some conditions, the order of the stages may change, the researcher may return to completed stages without completing or even starting subsequent ones, certain stages may be partially completed, and some may even be dropped. Such freedom to carry out stages and operations is provided for in flexible research planning [Nikandrov, 2007].

1.2. Preparatory stage of organizing research: problem statement

Psychological research, like any other, begins with the formulation of a problem - the discovery of a deficit, a lack of information to describe or explain reality. In the philosophical encyclopedic dictionary, the term “problem” is interpreted as “an objectively arising question or an integral set of questions in the course of the development of cognition, the solution of which is of practical or theoretical interest” [cit. from: Druzhinin, 2011, p. 16]. Thus, it is precisely the lack of knowledge, information, and the inconsistency of scientific ideas in social practice or as a result of scientific research that create the conditions for the emergence and formulation of a scientific problem. According to V.N. Druzhinin, “a problem is a rhetorical question that a researcher asks nature, but he must answer it himself” [Druzhinin, 2011, p. 12]. He also identifies the following stages of generating a problem: 1) identifying a lack of scientific knowledge about reality; 2) description of the problem at the level of everyday language; 3) formulation of the problem in terms of a scientific discipline. The second stage, according to the scientist, is necessary, since the transition to the level of everyday language makes it possible to switch from one scientific field (with its own specific terminology) to another and carry out a broader search for possible ways to solve the problem. Thus, by already formulating the problem, we narrow the range of search for its solutions and implicitly put forward a research hypothesis. L. Ya. Dorfman notes that problems are usually found at the intersection of different theories; theoretical principles and empirical data; all kinds of empirical data; data relating to various general populations; data obtained by some methods, and data obtained by other methods, etc. [Dorfman, 2005]. The productivity of future research largely depends on the scientist’s ability to see and formulate the observed contradiction.

University of Milan researcher Elena Zuchi gives advice on the formulation of scientific problems - they relate to the need to avoid problems that are too vague and general. Problems that are too general involve studies that cannot be implemented due to their time duration and breadth. Only problems that can be formulated operationally are subject to scientific analysis [Dzuki, 1997].

Operationalization of concepts– the precise definition of terms when formulating scientific problems is given much attention in research. When operationalizing concepts, as a rule, an indication is given of the way in which a given phenomenon can be measured. J. Goodwin emphasizes that this is especially important in psychological research, which uses concepts for which many definitions can be given. The accuracy of operational definitions has another important consequence - they provide the ability to reproduce experiments [Goodwin, 2004].

The process of developing and formulating a research problem is impossible without familiarizing yourself with publications on this topic and exchanging information with colleagues involved in this field. Typically, scientific research is preceded by a presentation of such an introduction to the problem in the form of a literature review. As L.V. Kulikov rightly notes, “you can convince your future reader that the problem really exists, based on the literature review you conducted” [Kulikov, 2001, p. 11]. It characterizes the degree of research of the problem both as a whole and its individual aspects. Unexplored and little-studied issues, contradictions in the understanding of the phenomenon as a whole and its individual aspects, contradictions in the available empirical data are highlighted.

As a result of bibliographic preparation, the researcher needs to have an idea of:

– about the number of publications on the topic of interest;

– about the time frame of publications;

– about the interest of scientists in this problem;

It is better to start reading with the most famous and cited authors and those who made a greater contribution to the initial period of studying the problem - this will make it easier to understand the content of further works.

The construction of a literature review can be chronological or logical. With the exception of certain topics where the subject is the history of the study of a phenomenon, a logical presentation of the material is preferable, since it makes it possible to reveal and substantiate the research problem to a greater extent.

The structure of a theoretical review could be something like this:

1. Essence, nature of the phenomenon. Available definitions of this phenomenon. Characteristics of the degree of diversity as understood by various authors.

2. Phenomenological description (description of manifestations) – area of ​​manifestations, frequency of manifestations, temporal, spatial, intensity, modality (if the phenomena being studied have them) characteristics.

3. The structure of a phenomenon is stable connections between its components. In psychology, structure most often means a functional structure, that is, stable relationships between individual functions. The consideration should be based on a scheme corresponding to the chosen approach (systemic, holistic, complex, environmental, situational, etc.).

4. The place of this phenomenon among other mental phenomena - its relationships, mutual influences (factors that determine it and the phenomena on which it influences).

5. Regularities that the phenomenon obeys [Kulikov, 2001].

The construction of a literature review depends on the specifics of the mental phenomenon under consideration, how well it has been studied and many other factors, so the proposed scheme cannot and should always be followed.

The literature review must include the names of the authors whose ideas or experimental results are retold or generalized. Sources should be cited by indicating specific publications of authors or publications of intermediaries, thanks to which the necessary information became available [Kulikov, 2001].

In addition, in the process of developing a research problem and preparing a literature review, special attention is paid to justifying the relevance and novelty of the research.

Relevance Research can be characterized from practical and scientific points of view. Practical relevance is determined both by the need to search for new knowledge to solve a practical problem, and by the importance of developing a system or methodology for practical psychological work to solve certain problems. Scientific relevance can be judged by the lack of certain knowledge, research methods in the relevant field of scientific psychology, and the need to solve a specific scientific problem.

Theoretical validation in sociological research: Methodology and methods

In the social sciences there are a variety of types of research and, accordingly, opportunities for the researcher. Knowing about them will help you solve the most difficult problems.

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Research Strategies
In the social sciences, it is customary to distinguish two most common research strategies - quantitative and qualitative.
The quantitative strategy involves the use of a deductive approach to test hypotheses or theories, draws on the positivist approach of the natural sciences, and is objectivist in nature. A qualitative strategy focuses on an inductive approach to developing theories, rejects positivism, focuses on the individual interpretation of social reality, and is constructivist in nature.
Each strategy involves the use of specific data collection and analysis methods. The quantitative strategy is based on the collection of numerical data (coding data from mass surveys, aggregated testing data, etc.) and the use of mathematical statistics methods for their analysis. In turn, the qualitative strategy is based on the collection of textual data (texts of individual interviews, participant observation data, etc.) and their further structuring using special analytical techniques.
Since the early 90s, a mixed strategy began to actively develop, which consists of integrating the principles, methods of collecting and analyzing data from qualitative and quantitative strategies in order to obtain more valid and reliable results.

Research designs
Once the purpose of the study has been determined, the appropriate type of design must be determined. Research design is the combination of requirements regarding the collection and analysis of data necessary to achieve the objectives of the study.
Main types of design:
A cross-sectional design involves collecting data from a relatively large number of observation units. Typically involves the use of a sampling method to represent the general population. Data is collected once and is quantitative in nature. Next, descriptive and correlation characteristics are calculated, and statistical conclusions are drawn.
A longitudinal design consists of repeated cross-sectional surveys to establish changes over time. It is divided into panel studies (repeated surveys involve the same people) and cohort studies (repeated surveys involve different groups of people who represent the same population).
Experimental design involves identifying the influence of an independent variable on a dependent variable by leveling threats that may affect the nature of change in the dependent variable.
Case study designs are designed to study one or a small number of cases in detail. The emphasis is not on the distribution of the results to the entire population, but on the quality of the theoretical analysis and explanation of the mechanism of functioning of a particular phenomenon.

Research objectives
Among the goals of social research are description, explanation, evaluation, comparison, analysis of relationships, and study of cause-and-effect relationships.
Descriptive tasks are solved by simply collecting data using one of the methods suitable for a given situation - questioning, observation, document analysis, etc. One of the main tasks is to record data in such a way that in the future it will allow their aggregation.
To solve explanatory problems, a number of research approaches (for example, historical studies, case studies, experiments) are used to deal with the analysis of complex data. Their goal is not only to simply collect facts, but also to identify the meanings of a large set of social, political, cultural elements associated with the problem.
The general purpose of evaluation studies is to examine programs or projects regarding awareness, effectiveness, achievement of goals, etc. The results obtained are usually used to improve them, and sometimes simply to better understand the functioning of the programs and projects concerned.

Comparative research is used to gain a deeper understanding of the phenomenon under study by identifying its common and distinctive features in different social groups. The largest of them are carried out in cross-cultural and cross-national contexts.
Research to establish relationships between variables is also called correlation research. The result of such studies is the production of specific descriptive information (for example, see pairwise linkage analysis). This is fundamentally quantitative research.
Establishing cause-and-effect relationships involves conducting experimental studies. In the social and behavioral sciences, there are several types of this type of research: randomized experiments, true experiments (involve the creation of special experimental conditions that simulate the necessary conditions), sociometry (of course, as Ya. Moreno understood it), garfinkeling.

study design is a set of methods and procedures used to collect and analyze measures of the variables specified in the study of the research problem.

The research design specifies the type of study (descriptive, corrective, quasi-experimental, experimental, survey or analytical purpose) and subtype (as a case of longitudinal descriptive research), research question, hypothesis, independent and dependent variables, experimental design and statistical analysis.

A research design is a structure that has been created to answer research questions. The method chosen will affect the results and how the results are drawn.

There are two main types of research designs: qualitative and quantitative. However, there are many ways to classify research projects. A research design is a set of conditions or collections.

There are many designs that are used in research, each with its own advantages and disadvantages. The choice of method to be used depends on the purpose of the study and the nature of the phenomenon.

Main characteristics of the study design

Parts of a Study Design

Sampling design

This is due to the methods used to select the elements that will be observed for the study.

Observational design

This is related to the state in which the observation will be created.

Statistical design

He is concerned about how the information and collected data will be analyzed.?

Operational Design

This is due to the methods by which the sampling procedures are collected.

How to Create a Research Design

The research plan describes how the research will be conducted; forms part of the research proposal.

Before creating a research design, you must first formulate the problem, main question and additional questions. Therefore, you first need to identify the problem.

The research plan should be an overview of what will be used to conduct the research for the project.

It should describe where and when the study will be conducted, the sample that will be used, the approach and methods that will be used. This can be done by answering the following questions:

• Where? In what location or situation will the investigation take place?
• When? At what point in time or at what time will the investigation take place??
• Who or what? What people, groups or events will be studied (in other words, a sample)?
• How? What approaches and methods will be used to collect and analyze data?

example

The starting point of a research design is the main research problem that arises from the approach to the problem. An example of a basic question could be:

What factors force visitors to the H&M online store to finally make purchases in a traditional store?

Answers to these questions:

Where? On the main issue, it is obvious that the research should focus on the H&M online store and perhaps on the traditional store.

When? The research should be conducted after the consumer has purchased the product in a traditional store. This is important as you find out why someone goes this route rather than purchasing a product online.

Who or what? In this case, it is clear that consumers who made their purchase in a traditional store should be taken into account. However, it may also be decided to study consumers who, if they made their purchase online, to compare different consumers.

How is it possible? This question is often difficult to answer. Among other things, you may need to consider the amount of time you have to conduct the research and if you have a budget to collect the information.

In this example, both qualitative and quantitative methods may be appropriate. Options may include interviews, surveys and observations.

Various research projects

Structures can be flexible or fixed. In some cases, these types overlap with quantitative and qualitative research designs, although this is not always the case.

In fixed designs, the research design is already established before information is collected; they are usually guided by theory.

Flexible designs provide more freedom in the information collection process. One reason why flexible designs may be used may be that the variable of interest cannot be measured quantitatively, such as culture. In other cases, the theory may not be available at the beginning of the investigation.

Exploratory research

Research methods are defined as formal research. The main methods are: literature survey and experience survey.

A literature-based survey is the simplest method of setting a research problem.

On the other hand, experience survey is a method that looks for people who have had practical experience. The goal is to obtain new ideas related to the research problem

In case of descriptive and diagnostic investigation

These are studies that are concerned with describing the characteristics of a person or group in particular. In a diagnostic study, we want to determine the frequency with which the same event will occur.

Studies that test hypotheses (experimental)

These are those in which the researcher tests the hypothesis of a random relationship between variables.

Characteristics of a good study design

A good research design must be tailored to that specific research problem; usually includes the following characteristics:

• Method of obtaining information.
• Availability and skills of the researcher and his team, if any.
• The purpose of the problem to study.
• The nature of the problem to be studied.
• Availability of time and money for research work.

links

1. Study design. Retrieved from wikipedia.org
2. Basic research. Retrieved from cirt.gcu.edu
3. Study design. Retrieved from explorable.com
4. How to Create a Research Design (2016). Retrieved from scribbr.com
5. Research Design (2008). Retrieved from slideshare.net.

In UX design, research is a fundamental part of solving relevant problems and/or reducing to the “right” problems that users face. A designer's job is to understand their users. This means going beyond initial assumptions to put yourself in other people's shoes to create products that meet human needs.

Good research doesn't just end in good data, it ends in good design and functionality that users love, want, and need.

Design research is often overlooked because designers focus on what design looks like. This leads to a superficial understanding of the people for whom it is intended. Having this kind of thinking is contrary to what it isUX. This is user-centricity.

UX design is centered around research to understand people's needs and how the products or services we create will help them.

Here are some research techniques that every designer should know when starting a project, and even if they don't do research, they can communicate better with UX researchers.

Primary Research

Primary research is essentially about finding new data to understand who you are designing for and what you are planning to design. This allows us to test our ideas with our users and develop more meaningful solutions for them. Designers typically collect such data through interviews with individuals or small groups, surveys, or questionnaires.

It's important to understand what you want to research before you stop searching for people, as well as the type or quality of data you want to collect. In an article from the University of Surrey, the author draws attention to two important points to consider when conducting primary research: validity and practicality.

Data validity refers to the truth, which is what it says about the subject or phenomenon being studied. It is possible for data to be reliable without being valid.

Practical aspects of the study should be carefully considered when designing the study, for example:

Cost and budget
- time and scale
- sample size

Bryman in his book Social Research Methods(2001) identifies four types of validity that can influence the results obtained:

1. Measurement validity or construct validity: whether the measure being measured does what it claims to do.

That is, do church attendance statistics really measure the strength of religious belief?

1. Internal validity: refers to causation and determines whether the conclusion of a study or theory is a developed true reflection of the causes.

That is, is it really unemployment that causes crime or are there other explanations?

1. External validity: considers whether the results of a particular study can be generalized to other groups.

That is, if one type of community development approach is used in this region, will it have the same impact elsewhere?

1. Environmental validity: considers whether “...social scientific findings are relevant to people's everyday natural environments” (Bryman, 2001)

That is, if a situation is observed in a false setting, how might this affect people's behavior?

Secondary Research

Secondary research uses existing data such as the Internet, books, or articles to support your design choices and the context behind your design. Secondary research is also used as a means to further validate information from primary research and build a stronger case for the overall design. Typically, secondary research has already summarized the analytical picture of existing research.

It's ok to only use secondary research to evaluate your design, but if you have time, I would definitely recommended doing primary research along with secondary research to really understand who you are developing for and collecting ideas that are more relevant and compelling than existing data. When you collect user data specific to your design, it will generate better ideas and a better product.

Evaluation studies

Evaluation studies describe a specific problem to ensure usability and ground it in the needs and wants of real people. One way to conduct evaluation research is for users to use your product and give them questions or tasks to think out loud as they try to complete the task. There are two types of evaluation studies: summative and formative.

Summative assessment study. Summative assessment aims to understand the results or effects of something. She emphasizes the result more than the process.

A summary study may evaluate things such as:

• Finance: Impact in terms of costs, savings, profits, etc.
• Impact: Broad effect, both positive and negative, including depth, spread and time factor.
• Results: Whether desired or undesired effects are achieved.
• Secondary analysis: Analyze existing data to obtain additional information.
• Meta-analysis: integration of results from several studies.

Formative evaluation research. Formative assessment is used to help strengthen or improve the person or thing being tested.

Formative research may assess things such as:

• Implementation: Monitoring the success of a process or project.
• Needs: A look at the type and level of need.
• Potential: the ability to use information to form a goal.

Exploratory Research

Exploratory research is conducted around a topic that little or no one knows about. The goal of exploratory research is to gain a deep understanding and familiarity with the topic by immersing yourself in it as much as possible to create direction for potential future use of the data.

With exploratory research, you have the opportunity to gain new ideas and create meaningful solutions to the problems that matter most.

Exploratory research allows us to confirm our assumptions about a topic that is often overlooked (i.e., incarcerated people, homelessness), providing the opportunity to generate new ideas and developments for existing problems or opportunities.

Based on an article from Lynn University, exploratory research tells us that:

1. Design is a convenient way to obtain background information on a specific topic.
2. Exploratory research is flexible and can address all types of research questions (what, why, how).
3. Provides the ability to define new terms and clarify existing concepts.
4. Exploratory research is often used to create formal hypotheses and develop more precise research problems.
5. Exploratory research helps determine research priorities.