Reference

- immutability

- reproducibility

- comparability

The standard is classified into the following:

Primary standard- a standard that ensures the reproduction of a unit with the highest accuracy in the country (compared to other standards of the same unit).

Secondary standard- standard, the value of which is established according to the primary standard.

Special standard- a standard that ensures the reproduction of a unit under special conditions and replaces the primary standard for these conditions.

State standard- primary or special standard, officially approved as the source for the country.

Standard witness- a secondary standard intended to check the safety of the state standard and to replace it in case of damage or loss.

Reference copy- a secondary standard designed to transfer unit sizes to working standards.

Standard of comparison- a secondary standard used for comparison of standards that, for one reason or another, cannot be directly compared with each other.

Working standard- a standard used to transfer the size of a unit to exemplary measuring instruments of the highest accuracy and in) some cases - to the most accurate working measuring instruments.

11. Standard. Verification diagrams.

Reference- a measuring instrument (or a set of measuring instruments) that ensures the reproduction and (or) storage of a unit for the purpose of transferring its size to subordinate measuring instruments in the verification scheme, made according to a special specification and officially approved in the prescribed manner as a standard.

The standard must meet three basic requirements:

- immutability(the ability to keep the size of the unit reproduced by it unchanged for a long period of time);

- reproducibility(reproduction of a unit with the smallest error for a given level of development of measuring technology);

- comparability(the ability not to undergo changes and not introduce any distortions when making comparisons).

Verification diagram is a source document establishing the metrological subordination of standards, exemplary measuring instruments and the procedure for transferring the unit size to exemplary and working measuring instruments.

Verification schemes are divided into state and local (individual bodies of the state metrological service or departmental metrological services)

The verification methods indicated on the verification diagram must reflect the specifics of verification of this type of measuring instruments. They correspond to one of the following general methods:

Direct (without comparators) comparison of the measuring instrument being verified with a standard measuring instrument of the same type;

Comparison of the measuring instrument being verified with a standard measuring instrument of the same type using a comparator;

Direct measurement by the measuring device being verified of the value reproduced by the standard measure;

Direct measurement by a standard measuring device of a value reproduced by the measure being verified;

Indirect measurements of a value reproduced by a measure or measured by a device being verified;

Independent verification, i.e. verification of measuring instruments of relative (dimensionless) quantities that do not require the transfer of unit sizes from standards or reference measuring instruments calibrated in units of dimensional quantities.

Metrology. Basic concepts.

What is a standard?

A standard (measurement standard) may be a physical measure, a measuring instrument, a reference standard, or a measurement system designed to define, implement, store, or reproduce a unit or one or more values ​​of a quantity to serve as a standard. For example, a unit of mass is given a physical form in the form of a cylindrical piece of metal weighing 1 kg; and graduated blocks represent specific length values.

The hierarchy of standards starts with the international standard as the top and goes down to the working standard. The definition of these terms as given in the International Dictionary of Basic and General Terms in Metrology is given below:

The international standard is:

a standard recognized by international agreement to serve internationally as a basis for assigning values ​​to other standards of measurement for the quantity under consideration.

The custodian of international standards is the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) in Sèvres, near Paris. The oldest standard of measurement in use is the kilogram standard.

The national standard is:

a standard recognized by national law to serve in a given country as a basis for assigning values ​​to other standards of measurement of the quantity under consideration.

Typically, the custodian of national standards is a national laboratory, called a national metrology institute, a national bureau of standards, or a national bureau of weights and measures. Some countries do not have national standards.

The primary standard is:

a standard which is widely accepted as having the highest metrological qualities and whose values ​​are accepted without reference to other standards of the same quantity.

Examples of primary standards are Josephson devices for realizing the “volt” value or stabilizing lasers with interferometers for realizing the “length” value. These instruments are used as national standards by many national metrology institutes and some well-equipped calibration laboratories.

The secondary standard is:

a standard whose value is assigned by comparison with a primary standard of the same value. Typically, primary standards are used to calibrate secondary standards.

The working standard is:

a standard that is used for routine calibration or verification of material measures, measuring instruments or reference materials.

Typically the working standard is calibrated against a secondary standard. The working standard used in everyday work to ensure that measurements are taken correctly is called a verification standard.

There is no general requirement for the accuracy of the working standard. It may be good enough as a reference standard in one place, or even as a national standard in another place.

There are classes of weights, starting with E1 - as the highest class, followed by E2, Fl, F2, Ml, M2, M3. A set of balances with accuracy class E2 can serve as a working standard in a calibration laboratory for calibration of a set of balances with accuracy class F1 or lower. The E2 set can serve as a reference standard in another laboratory that primarily calibrates balances to class F2 or lower. A set of E2 precision scales can be used as a national standard in a country where there is no demand for more accurate mass measurements than F1.

It should be noted that the accuracy of some measuring instruments used in industry is so high that even primary standards need to be calibrated.

The original standard is:

a standard having, as a rule, the highest metrological properties, available at a given place or in a given organization, in accordance with which the unit size is obtained from measurements performed at that place.

Calibration laboratories use reference standards to calibrate their working standards.

The comparison standard is:

a standard used as an intermediate standard for comparing standards.

Resistors are used as reference standards to compare voltage standards. Weights are used to compare lever scales.

The mobile standard is:

a standard, sometimes of a special design, intended for transportation, and used for comparing standards with each other.

A portable frequency standard powered by a cesium battery can be used as a mobile frequency standard. Calibrated load cells (load cells) are used as mobile force standards.

Hydraulics and pumps

Water hammer is a sharp, instantaneous (shock) increase or decrease in pressure in a pressure pipeline through which liquid (water) moves, due to a sharp change in the speed of its movement over time. For example...

Crystallization of metals. Magnetic induction. Free forging

Magnetic induction, remanent induction, coercive force, magnetic permeability - these concepts are used in materials science to characterize magnetic materials. MAGNETIC MATERIALS, substances...

Metrology is the science of measurements, methods and means of ensuring their unity, as well as methods of achieving the required accuracy. The main problems of metrology include units of physical quantities, methods and measuring instruments...

Metrology, standardization, quality management and certification

Standardization is the activity of finding solutions to recurring problems in the fields of science, technology and economics, aimed at achieving an optimal degree of order in a certain area...

Metrology, standardization, quality management and certification

Quality is one of the most difficult categories that a person has to face in his activities. The difficulty of solving the quality problem lies in the fact that it is complex: technical, economic and social...

Metrology. Basic concepts.

“Metrology is the science of measurement” (International Dictionary of Basic and General Terms in Metrology). Measurement and metrology are important in almost every aspect of human activity as they are used everywhere...

Inorganic and air binders. Production and Application

Innovation (eng. "innovation" - innovation, novelty, innovation) refers to the use of innovations in the form of new technologies, types of products and services, new forms of organization of production and labor, service and management. The concept of "innovation"...

New technologies and the society of the future: trends and forecasts

Japan was the first country to adopt the concept of a “global information society”, the driving force of which is information...

The problem of using associated petroleum gas

A lot is now being said and written about the issue of using associated petroleum gas. Namely, the question itself did not arise today; it already has quite a long history. The specificity of associated gas production is...

Calculation and design of an electric drive with a worm gearbox

A gearbox is a mechanism consisting of gear or worm gears, made in the form of a separate unit and used to transmit rotation from the engine shaft to the shaft of the working machine. The kinematic drive diagram may include...

Calculation of the main elements of a smooth cylindrical connection

error measurement standard certification Simplification is a form of standardization aimed at reducing the number of types of components, brands of semi-finished products, materials, etc. used in the development and production of products...

Reconstruction of compressor stations with replacement of process equipment

Reconstruction is the process of changing obsolete objects in order to impart new properties in the future. Reconstruction, regardless of its content, is an integral part of planning...

Product certification and standardization

A physical quantity (PV) is one of the properties of a physical object (physical system, phenomenon or process), which is qualitatively common for many physical objects, but quantitatively individual for each of them...

Standardization and certification

standardization certification metrology document Certification is a form of confirmation by a certification body of compliance of objects with the requirements of technical regulations, provisions of standards or terms of contracts...

Thermal measurements

Temperature measurements using thermoelectric thermometers are based on thermoelectric phenomena discovered by Seebeck in 1821...

General provisions. To ensure the uniformity of measurements, it is necessary to have identical units in which all existing measuring instruments of the same physical quantity must be calibrated.

This is achieved by accurately reproducing and storing established units of physical quantities in specialized institutions and transferring their sizes to the measuring instruments used using standards.

A standard is a measuring instrument (or a set of measuring instruments) intended for reproducing and storing a unit of a physical quantity (multiple or fractional values ​​of a unit of this quantity) for the purpose of transferring its size to other measuring instruments of a given physical quantity.

The classification, purpose and general requirements for the creation, storage and use of standards are established by GOST 8.057-80 GSI. Standards of units of physical quantities. Basic provisions.

The standard must have interrelated properties: reproducibility, immutability and comparability.

Reproducibility is the ability to reproduce a unit of physical quantity (based on its theoretical definition) with the smallest error for the existing level of development of measuring technology. This is achieved by constant study of the standard in order to determine systematic errors and eliminate them by introducing appropriate corrections.

Immutability is the property of a standard to keep the size of the unit it reproduces unchanged over a long period of time, while all changes depending on external conditions must be strictly defined functions of quantities that can be accurately measured. The implementation of these requirements led to the idea of ​​​​creating natural standards of various quantities based on physical constants.

Comparability - the ability to ensure comparison of subordinate standards in the verification scheme, primarily secondary standards, with the highest accuracy for the existing level of development of measurement technology. This property assumes that the standards, by their design and operation, do not introduce any distortions into the results of comparisons and do not themselves undergo changes during comparisons.

According to their metrological purpose, standards are divided into primary, special and secondary.

The primary standard ensures the reproduction and storage of a unit of physical quantity with the highest accuracy in the country (compared to other standards of the same quantity). Primary standards are unique measuring instruments, which are highly complex measuring systems created taking into account the latest achievements of science and technology. Primary standards form the basis of the state system for ensuring the uniformity of measurements.

A special standard ensures the reproduction of a unit of physical quantity under special conditions in which direct transfer of the unit size from the primary standard with the required accuracy is not feasible and for these conditions it replaces the primary standard.

The primary or special standard, officially approved as the source for the country, is called the state standard. Its approval is carried out by the country's main metrological body - the Federal Agency for Technical Regulation and Metrology. State standards are created, stored and applied by the country's central metrological scientific institutes. State standards include measuring instruments that are used to store and reproduce the size of a unit of physical quantity with an accuracy that must correspond to the level of the best world achievements and meet the needs of science and technology, as well as measuring instruments that are used to control measurement conditions and the immutability of what is being reproduced or stored unit size and transfer the unit size. State standards of Russia are periodically compared with state standards of other countries. For example, the meter and kilogram standards are compared once every 25 years, the light standard - once every three years.

Secondary standards are part of the subordinate means of storing units and transferring their sizes; they are created and approved in cases where this is necessary for organizing verification work, as well as to ensure the safety and least wear of the state standard.

Secondary standards, according to their metrological purpose, are divided into copy standards, comparison standards and witness standards.

Copy standard - designed to transfer the unit size to working standards. A copy standard is a copy of a state standard only for metrological purposes, therefore it is always its physical copy.

Comparison standard - used to compare standards that, for one reason or another, cannot be directly compared with each other.

Standard-witness - designed to verify the safety and immutability of the state standard and replace it in case of damage or loss.

Working standard - used to transfer the unit size from a copy standard to standard measuring instruments and, in some cases, to the most accurate working measuring instruments.

The Russian standard base has about 120 state standards and more than 250 secondary standards of units of physical quantities located in the country's leading metrological research institutes.

In the field of mechanics, 38 state standards have been created and used in the country, including the primary standards of the meter, kilogram and second, the accuracy of which is extremely important, since these units are involved in the formation of derivative units of all scientific fields.

Methods for expressing the errors of standards are established by GOST 8.381-80 GSI. Standards. Methods of expressing errors.

Standards of SI units. Standard unit of length. The meter was among the first units for which standards were introduced.

Currently, the unit of length, the meter, is the distance that light travels in a vacuum in 1/299,792,458 of a second.

This definition of the meter was adopted at the XVII General Conference of Weights and Measures in December 1985 after the approval of common standards of time, frequency and length.

Standard unit of time. The unit of time - a second - is the time interval during which 9,192,631,770 oscillations occur, corresponding to the transition between two hyperfine Levels of the ground state of the cesium-133 atom in the absence of disturbance by external fields.

A brief history of the development of the standard unit of length - the meter. With the socio-economic development of human society, the need arose for measurements, for the establishment of units of measurement and the use of measuring instruments of various physical quantities, and primarily length.

Thus, the measurement of a plot of land allocated to an individual from the land ownership of a meadow community was carried out with the soles of the feet, placed closely one in front of the other, or with steps. This is where the name of the unit of length comes from - foot (from the English foot - leg, foot). In the same way, the unit of length appeared - the inch (from the Dutch duim - thumb). Since ancient times, the width of the grain (especially barley) and the thickness of a camel or mule hair have been used as smaller units of length.

The given units of measurement were also measures, i.e., a type of measuring instrument. The dimensions of the measured values ​​were determined by comparison with these measures.

Of the ancient Russian measures (XI-XII centuries), the origin of which is associated with ancient Egyptian measures of length, the main ones were verst, fathom, cubit, span.

Versta (approximately 1,140 m) was used to estimate relatively large distances.

The fathom (about 152 cm) is widely used mainly in measuring short distances and in the construction of various structures. There were measuring ropes, the length of which was a multiple of a fathom.

Elbow (approximately 51 cm) - the distance in a straight line from the bend of the elbow to the end of the extended middle finger. The cubit as a measure of length was first mentioned during the time of one of the rulers of Kievan Rus, Yaroslav the Wise. Elbow was widely used in the retail trade of canvas, linen, and foreign cloth.

Pyad (18...19 cm) meant hand in Old Russian. This is the maximum distance in a straight line between the ends of the outstretched thumb and index fingers of the hand. The span was often used in everyday life to approximate the determination of small lengths, especially the sizes of cylindrical bodies.

In ancient Rus', purely approximate everyday measures were also used, inaccurate and not materially reproducible, for example, a shoot (the distance traveled by an arrow fired from a bow, about 60...70 m), a day (the distance traveled per day).

As the Russian State unified and developed, the ancient Russian system of length measures (1 verst = 750 fathoms = 2,250 cubits = 4,500 spans) undergoes changes.

The arshin (72 cm), borrowed from the East, appears, which over time replaced the elbow, and the vershok (4.5 cm), its lobes.

To measure distances between populated areas, they began to use a mile of 1,000 fathoms, and later - a mile of 500 fathoms. Subsequently, this measure became the only Russian verst.

The use of units of measurement based on the size of the human body, units of measurement that do not have a material body, and units of measurement that do not have a material embodiment for direct measurement (for example, verst), did not ensure the unity of measurements and their reliability.

Not only did individual countries have separate units of measurement, but there was also no uniformity within countries. Thus, under Peter I, in order to create a Russian fleet, the existing system of units (measures) of length was increased by the introduction of English measures - feet (304.8 mm), inches (25.4 mm), lines (2.54 mm). This was necessary for ordering sea vessels for veneer, drawing up the required specifications and controlling dimensions. In addition, in addition to the English standard and working measuring instruments of the highest accuracy - an exemplary measuring instrument of the 1st category.

Currently, in order to streamline the terminology and bring it closer to the international one, in the technical literature the term exemplary measuring instrument is replaced by the term working standard.

One of the most common exemplary measuring instruments are measures.

A measure is a measuring instrument intended for reproducing and (or) storing a physical quantity of one or several sizes, the values ​​of which are expressed in established units and known with the required accuracy, for example, a 1 kg weight, a 50 mm plane-parallel gauge block, a constant capacitor, a line measure of length.

With the highest accuracy, the basic physical quantities are reproduced through measures: length, mass, frequency, voltage.

For linear and angular quantities, length and angular measures are widely used.

Length measures based on design characteristics are divided into end and line measures.

End measures of length. Gauge gauges have the shape of a cylindrical rod or a rectangular parallelepiped with two flat, mutually parallel measuring surfaces, the distance between which reproduces a certain length value. They are designed to transfer the size from the standard to the product.

With their help, they store and reproduce the size of a unit of length, check and calibrate measures and measuring instruments, such as optimeters, micrometers, calipers, etc., and check calibers.

Line length measures. Line length measures are measures in which the size, expressed in certain units, as well as the size of their parts, is determined by the distance between the axes of two corresponding lines (bar line measures, measuring rulers, tape measures).

Line length measures are used as secondary and working standards, standard length measures when checking working length measures, in the form of scales of measuring devices and machines, as well as in instruments for direct measurement of linear dimensions and distances.

The main types, parameters, sizes of line measures and technical requirements for them are regulated by GOST 12069-78 Line length measures.

Line measures are made single-valued and multi-valued.

Unambiguous line length measures have two strokes applied to the ends of the measure, the distance between which reproduces the length of the measure scale (for example, secondary length standards).

Multivalued line measures have a scale of strokes applied at certain intervals along the entire length of the measure or in its individual sections. Scales of such multivalued line measures are made with decimeter, centimeter or millimeter divisions (for example, rulers, tape measures, scales of measuring instruments).

Depending on the manufacturing accuracy of the actual length of the scale of line measures for various scale intervals from 100 to 4,000 mm, six accuracy classes have been established in descending order of accuracy: 0; 1; 2; 3; 4; 5.

For metrological purposes, standard line measures are used, which are certified for categories: standard line measures 1 m long of the 1st and 2nd categories, standard measuring tapes of the 1st and 2nd categories, standard scales of the 1st and 2nd categories .

An exemplary line measure 1 m long of the 1st category is a rigid metal ruler 4, having beveled (one or both) edges at an angle of 45° or 35°. On inclined surfaces there are scales - the main one with a division value of 0.2 mm and an auxiliary scale with a division value of 1 mm. The measure is equipped with a guide rib 3, along which two magnifying glasses 1 with sevenfold magnification, and a thermometer 2 can be moved, for making appropriate temperature corrections for different materials of the calibrated and reference measure.

The permissible error of the scale of a one-meter standard line measure of the 1st category is ±0.05 mm, and the certification error is ±0.01 mm.

Using exemplary line measures of the 1st category, line measures of the 2nd category and high-precision working measuring instruments are verified; using line measures of the 2nd category, working measuring instruments (tape measures, rulers, scales of measuring instruments) are verified.

Angle measures. Prismatic angle measures are designed for storing and transmitting a unit of flat angle: checking and calibrating goniometer measuring instruments, angle templates, as well as for direct control of product angles.

Measures are used as exemplary means for transferring the size of an angle to working measures, goniometer instruments and devices, and for verification work.

Exemplary polyhedral prisms of the 1st category, accuracy class 00 are used to transfer the angular size to exemplary measures of the 2nd category.

Exemplary angular measures of the 2nd category, accuracy class 0 are used to transfer the angular size to exemplary measures of the 3rd category.

Exemplary angular measures of the 3rd category, accuracy class 1 are used to transfer the angular size to exemplary measures of the 4th category.

The transfer of the size of the angle unit from the standard to the working measuring instruments is carried out according to the verification scheme (GOST 8.016-81).

Verification schemes and methods for verifying measuring instruments. Ensuring the correct transfer of the size of units of physical quantities in all links of the metrological chain is carried out through verification schemes.

A verification scheme is a normative document approved in the prescribed manner, which establishes the subordination of measuring instruments involved in transferring the unit size from the standard to the working measuring instruments, indicating the methods and errors. Verification schemes are divided into state, departmental and local.

The state verification scheme applies to all measuring instruments of a given physical quantity available in the country. It is being developed in the form of a state standard, consisting of a drawing of a verification diagram and a text part containing an explanation of the drawing.

The departmental verification scheme applies to measuring instruments of a given physical quantity that are subject to departmental verification.

The local verification scheme applies to measuring instruments of a given physical quantity that are subject to verification in a separate body of the metrological service.

Departmental and local verification schemes should not contradict state verification schemes for measuring instruments of the same physical quantities. They can be drawn up in the absence of a state verification scheme and must consist of at least two stages of size transfer. Departmental and local verification schemes are drawn up in the form of a drawing.

The drawing of any verification scheme must contain:
- name of measuring instruments and verification methods;
- nominal values ​​of physical quantities or their ranges;
- permissible values ​​of errors of measuring instruments;
- permissible error values ​​of verification methods. The basic provisions on verification schemes, the rules for calculating the parameters of verification schemes and the design of drawings of verification schemes are given in GOST 8.061-80 GSI. Verification diagrams. Contents and construction and in instructions MI 83-76 Methodology for determining the parameters of verification circuits.

Methods for verifying measuring instruments. Verification is an operation consisting of establishing the suitability of a measuring instrument for use on the basis of experimentally determined metrological characteristics and monitoring their compliance with the requirements. The main metrological characteristic determined during verification of a measuring instrument is its error. It is found based on a comparison of the measuring instrument being verified with a more accurate one - a working standard or an exemplary measuring instrument. There are verifications: state and departmental, periodic and independent, extraordinary and inspection, comprehensive, etc.

The basic requirements for the organization and procedure for verification are given in the rules on metrology PR 50.2.006-94 TSI. Verification of measuring instruments. Organization and procedure.

Verification is carried out by metrological services, which are given the right to do this. A measuring instrument recognized as suitable for use is formalized by issuing a verification certificate, applying a verification mark or in other ways established by regulatory and technical documents.

Measures can be verified by:
- comparison with a more accurate measure using a comparating device. Comparison of measures using a comparator is carried out using the methods of opposition or substitution. Common to e. methods for checking measuring instruments is to generate a signal of the presence of a difference in the sizes of the compared quantities. If, under the standard measure, this signal is reduced to zero, then the zero measurement method is implemented;
- measurements of a reproducible quantity using measuring instruments of the appropriate accuracy class. In this case, verification is called calibration. Graduation - placing marks on the scale corresponding to the readings of a standard measuring instrument or determining, from its readings, refined value values ​​corresponding to the marks on the scale of the working measuring instrument;
- calibration, when only one measure of a set or one of the scale marks of a multivalued measure is compared with a more accurate measure, and the actual sizes of other measures are determined by their mutual comparison in various combinations on comparison devices and during further processing of measurement results.

Verification of measuring instruments is carried out using the following methods:
- direct comparison of measured values ​​and values ​​​​reproducible by standard measures of the corresponding category;
- direct comparison of the readings of the verified and reference measuring instruments when measuring the same quantity.

There are other verification methods that are used much less frequently by metrological services.

Type of something) - 1) the same as ; 2) special, i.e. a sample for which. the standard specifies certain characteristics and then E. is the limit. life and activity (-production and technical) a certain set of E. is characteristic of early traditionalist cultures. In the absence of an institute and limited experience, the type of product and its optimal production were determined by method and error. It was impossible, the products turned out to be the most successful and became E. They were sought, but, like , they achieved a more or successful approximation. subordination to activity or other E. the ancient one derived from the categories of harmony and. as the best, the standard was considered an integral sign of harmony. Accordingly, in any type of activity there was a need to follow E. In the event, the results turned out to be the best and were organically included in the universal harmony of the Cosmos. In was used " " (i.e., rule), E. In art, canon meant the rules that followed in the process of creating a work of art. contained optimal ratios of parts of depicted or created objects. In logic, the canon included rules for truth. in religion, a canon is a set of sacred books containing unconditional truth. Cultural creativity is essential for Western European culture. strove to reproduce E. a product generally accepted for the workshop to which he belonged. became a master if he succeeded - approaching E. Generally accepted E. determined the technology that was standard in its main features, contributed to the formation of figurative subject ideas that explained it, and set the structure of the association of artisans within which E. was carried out, i.e., the workshop that was at the same time production and social unit. of all social strata was built according to a similar scheme. Thus, for chivalry, the material form of E. served as an object of imitation - from heroes of antiquity, legendary knights of the past, or famous contemporaries; technological form - a set of generally accepted rules of behavior that are subject to strict observance; ideal - a set of qualities befitting a knight. An analogue of a craft workshop was, the production of a masterpiece corresponded to a standard, giving a squire for a knight. In cognitive activity for reproduction, E. defined forms of cognition as commenting on the standard (canonical) a. Since such a text was recognized as the highest form of knowledge, containing the complete truth, access to the object of knowledge was not considered necessary. A public dissertation, a scientific treatise in which standard texts were commented on according to certain standard rules, played the role of a masterpiece-feat in the scientific community. The spheres of operation of E. became the exact sciences and. E. refers to measuring instruments or their complexes that ensure the reproduction of legal units of physical quantities, and the measurement of their size by other measuring instruments. Without E. there is no comparability of the results of measurements performed using different instruments in different places and at different times. These include the E. meters, kilograms, seconds, and other systems. E. was stimulated by a general cultural value orientation, set by machine production, and the general spread of standardization. In modern spiritual culture, E. acts as cultural elements of the past, considered the most significant, antiquity and the Renaissance, classical, German classical philosophy, etc. They do not strive to imitate them literally, but since they are not expressed in the spiritual sphere, they a) set the “height” creativity, b) are sources of creative experience and comprehension. E. provides spiritual culture. Personified forms of E., not imitated, characteristic of the pre-industrial era, are preserved. As a rule, for the people of England it is not “great” or outstanding personalities known for their services to society, but those who are possible for an ordinary person. E. can be literary or cinematic characters. , provided to a particular individual, his or her quality of E. largely characterizes the period and social group. D.M.

2) Standard- (from . etalon) -, for comparison with something, exemplary, serving for reproduction, storage, etc. parameters.

Synonyms: manner, sample, exemplar, standard, standard

Reference

(French etalon - sample, standard, ideal or established type of something) - 1) the same as standard; 2) a special form of the ideal, i.e., a model that should be imitated. If the standard sets the lower limit of certain characteristics of an object, then E. is the upper limit. The subordination of life and activity (primarily production and technical) to a certain set of elements was especially characteristic of early traditionalist cultures. In the absence of an institute of science and limited experience, the optimal type of product and the optimal method of its manufacture were determined by trial and error. Since literal repetition was impossible, some products turned out to be the most successful and became E. They tried to reproduce them, but, as a rule, they achieved only a more or less successful approximation. Ancient philosophy derived the need to subordinate activity to one or another element from the categories of harmony and measure. Measure as the best, standard proportion was considered an integral sign of harmony. Accordingly, in any type of activity a person had to strive to follow E. In this case, the results turned out to be the best and were organically included in the universal harmony of the Cosmos. During this period, the term “canon” (i.e., rule, prescription), synonymous with E., was more often used. In art, canon meant a set of rules that were to be followed in the process of creating a work of art. The rules contained optimal ratios of parts of depicted or created objects. In logic, the canon included rules for knowing truth. Subsequently, in religion, a canon is a set of sacred books containing unconditional truth. The cultural-creative function of E. was most significant for medieval Western European culture. The craftsman strove to reproduce the E. product generally accepted for the workshop of which he was a member. A student became a master if he managed to produce a masterpiece - a product approaching E. Generally accepted E. determined a technology that was standard in its basic features, contributed to the formation of figurative subject ideas that explained it, and set the structure of an association of artisans, within the framework of which E. was reproduced, i.e. . a workshop that was both a production and social unit. The activities of all social strata followed a similar pattern. Thus, for chivalry, the material form of E. served as an object of imitation - one of the heroes of antiquity, legendary knights of the past, or famous contemporaries; technological form - a set of generally accepted rules of behavior that are subject to strict observance; ideal - a set of qualities befitting a knight. An analogue of a craft workshop was a knightly order; the production of a masterpiece corresponded to a standard feat, giving the squire the right to the status of a knight. In cognitive activity, the general tendency to reproduce E. determined the predominance of such a form of cognition as commenting on the standard (canonical) text. Since such a text was recognized as the highest form of knowledge containing the complete truth, direct appeal to the object of knowledge was not considered necessary. The role of a masterpiece-feat in the scientific community was played by the public defense of a dissertation - a scientific treatise in which standard texts were commented on according to certain standard rules. In modern times, the main areas of economic activity have become exact sciences and technology. E. refers to measuring instruments or their complexes that ensure the reproduction and storage of legal units of physical quantities, as well as the determination of their size by other measuring instruments. Without E. it is not possible to achieve comparability of the results of measurements performed using different instruments in different places and at different times. These include the meter, kilogram, second, etc. The development of the meter system was stimulated by a general cultural value orientation towards precision, set by machine production, and the general spread of standardization. In modern spiritual culture, E. is represented by cultural phenomena of the past that are considered the most significant, for example, the art of antiquity and the Renaissance, Russian classical literature, German classical philosophy, etc. They do not strive to imitate them literally, but since progress is not clearly expressed in the spiritual sphere , they a) set the “height” of creativity, b) are sources of creative experience and comprehension. The presence of E. ensures the continuity of spiritual culture. Personified forms of E., despite the weakening of the tendency to imitation, characteristic of the pre-industrial era, are preserved. As a rule, for the people of England there are not “great” or outstanding personalities known for their services to society, but those whom an ordinary person can imitate. Literary characters or cinematic heroes can act as E. The preference given to one person or another, his recognition as an E. to a large extent characterizes the corresponding historical period and social group. D. M. Fedyaev

(from the French etalon) - a measure, a sample for comparison with something, an exemplary measure used for reproduction, storage and transfer of something. parameters.

Reference- a measuring instrument (or a set of measuring instruments) that ensures the reproduction and (or) storage of a unit, as well as the transfer of its size to subordinate measuring instruments in the verification scheme and approved as a standard in the prescribed manner.

Federal Law No. 102-FZ of June 26, 2008 “On Ensuring the Uniformity of Measurements” gives the following definition to a standard: a standard of a unit of magnitude is a technical means intended for reproducing, storing and transmitting a unit of magnitude.

The main purpose of standards is to store and reproduce a unit of physical quantity to transfer its size to other standards and working measuring instruments. By transferring the size of a unit of quantity we mean bringing the size of the quantity stored by a measuring instrument to the size of the unit reproduced by the standard. This procedure is carried out when checking measuring instruments.

Types of standards:

• A primary standard is a standard that reproduces a unit of physical quantity with the highest accuracy possible in a given field of measurement at the current level of scientific and technical achievements. The primary standard can be national (state) and international.
• State primary standard - a primary standard recognized by a decision of an authorized state body as the initial one on the territory of the state.
• National standard - a standard recognized by an official decision to serve as a reference for a country.
• A special standard is a standard that ensures the reproduction of a unit under special conditions (a change in the nature of the measurement object) and replaces the primary standard for these conditions. The unit reproduced using a special standard is consistent in size with the unit reproduced using the corresponding primary standard.
• International standard - a standard adopted by international agreement as an international basis for harmonizing with it the sizes of units reproduced and stored by national standards.
• Standard copy - used instead of the state standard to store a unit and transfer its size to working standards. A copy standard is not always a physical copy of a state standard, but is used as a copy only for metrological purposes.
• A secondary standard is a standard that derives the size of a unit directly from the primary standard of that unit.
• A comparison standard is a standard used for comparisons of standards that, for one reason or another, cannot be directly compared with each other.
• The original standard is a standard that has the highest metrological properties (in a given laboratory, organization, enterprise), from which the unit size is transmitted to subordinate standards and available measuring instruments.
• Single standard - a standard consisting of one measure, one measuring instrument or one measuring installation, ensuring reproduction or storage of the unit independently, without other measuring instruments of the same type.
• Group standard - a standard consisting of a set of similar measures, measuring instruments or other measuring instruments used as a whole to increase the reliability of storage of a unit. The size of the unit stored by the group standard is determined as the arithmetic mean of their values ​​found using individual measures or measuring instruments included in the group standard. Group standards can be of constant or variable composition. Group standards of variable composition include measures or measuring instruments that are periodically replaced with new ones. Individual measures or measuring instruments included in the group standard are used as working standards, if this is permissible under the storage conditions of the unit.
• Working standard - a standard designed to convey the size of a unit to working measuring instruments.

Guardian Scientist- a responsible person appointed to conduct work with standards, monitor the correct storage, comparison and study of standards in metrological institutes, including international comparisons.

RF reference base has 118 state standards and more than 300 secondary standards. State standards serve to reproduce physical quantities, therefore the structure of the standard base corresponds to the structure of SI units. The basis of this base is the standards of the basic SI units, except for the standard of the unit of quantity of a substance (mole). One of the reasons that a standard unit of quantity of a substance has not been created is the lack of clarity in the definition of this unit and the lack of a method for measuring it in accordance with the definition. Moreover, this unit can hardly be called basic, since its definition is related to the unit of mass. It is quite possible that this unit will be transferred to the category of special units of mass.

The largest custodians of Russian standards- metrological institutes: All-Russian Research Institute of Metrology named after. DI. Mendeleev (FSUE VNIIM) and the All-Russian Research Institute of Physical, Technical and Radio Engineering Measurements (FSUE VNIIFTRI).

In addition to national standards of units, there are international standards stored at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM). The BIPM program of activities provides for systematic international comparisons of national standards of the largest metrology laboratories in different countries with international standards and among themselves.

On the initiative of international metrological organizations in October 1999. Directors of national metrological institutes of most countries of the world community - members of the Meter Convention signed an "Agreement" on the mutual recognition of national standards and certificates for measurements and calibrations issued by national metrological institutes." According to this document, the degree of equivalence of national standards will be determined on the basis of the results of their international comparisons with each other with each other, carried out under the auspices of the advisory committees of the International Committee on Weights and Measures and regional metrological organizations and which are the legal basis for recognizing the equivalence of compared standards and, accordingly, the correctness of measurements and certification tests in countries participating in key comparisons.