What caused the 1917 revolution? Democratic Caucus and Pre-Parliament

, Russian Civil War 1918-20 – chronology.

October 10, 1917 – The Bolshevik Central Committee decides on an armed uprising.

October 12– Creation of the Military Revolutionary Committee under the Petrograd Soviet ( VRK) to guide the seizure of power.

Mid October – Kerensky is making an attempt to bring part of the Petrograd garrison to the front. This pushes the garrison, who does not want to fight, to the side of the Bolsheviks, becoming the main condition for the success of the October Revolution.

October 23– Trotsky dispatched Military Revolutionary Committee commissars to most of the Petrograd garrison military units. The Peter and Paul Fortress (where there are cannons and an arsenal with 100 thousand rifles) goes over to the side of the Bolsheviks.

October 24– Under the guise of defense against the “counter-revolution,” the Military Revolutionary Committee begins a systematic, silent capture of the capital by small groups of soldiers and Red Army soldiers.

Pre-Parliament actually denies Kerensky the authority to suppress the Bolshevik rebellion, so as not to “provoke a civil war.”

Deputies gather in Petrograd " II Congress of Soviets" Its composition was rigged in advance by the Bolsheviks: representatives of only 300 (according to other sources, only 100) of the 900 existing in the country gather at the congress Soviets- and predominantly members of the Leninist party (335 out of 470 deputies, while the true proportion in local councils is completely different).

On a front completely destroyed by the communists, it is almost impossible to gather troops to help the Provisional Government. Kerensky accidentally finds a general's detachment near Pskov Krasnova, in which there are only 700 Cossacks. Krasnov agrees to lead him against the Bolsheviks to Petrograd (where there is a 160,000-strong garrison of reserve regiments who refused to go to the front, not counting the sailors).

October 29– The Bolsheviks begin to disarm the Petrograd cadets. They resist. The result is fierce battles with artillery around the Pavlovsk and Vladimir schools; There were twice as many casualties as on Bloody Sunday, January 9, 1905.

Reinforcements arrive at Krasnov in the evening: another 600 Cossacks, 18 guns and an armored train. However, his forces are still insignificant for further movement towards Petrograd.

The cowardly Colonel Ryabtsev negotiates a daily truce with the Moscow Military Revolutionary Committee. During these days, the Bolsheviks are pulling reinforcements to Moscow from everywhere.

October 30– Krasnov is organizing an attack on the Pulkovo Heights. The garrison soldiers and workers flee in fear from a bunch of Cossacks, but the sailors resist and fight off the attack. In the evening, Krasnov retreats to Gatchina. Vikzhel, in the hope of success in negotiations with the Bolsheviks on a homogeneous socialist government, prevents the transportation by rail of reinforcements still collected at the front to Krasnov.

In Moscow in the evening, the Military Revolutionary Committee violates the truce. Bloody battles between Bolsheviks and cadets on Tverskoy and Nikitsky boulevards.

Fights with the Bolsheviks in Kyiv, Vinnitsa, and some other cities.

October 31- The All-Army Soldiers' Committee at Headquarters declares that the front considers the Bolshevik coup illegal and opposes any negotiations with them.

Bolshevik agitators arrive in Gatchina, persuading Krasnov’s small Cossacks not to defend who had already betrayed them in July and August Kerensky, and return to the Don.

The Moscow Bolsheviks begin shelling the Kremlin and cadet schools from Vorobyovy Gory and Khodynka with heavy artillery.

November 1- Flight from Gatchina of Kerensky in disguise. Trotsky brings large Bolshevik detachments to Gatchina, and Krasnov has to stop further actions. Indecisive Commander-in-Chief Dukhonin orders from Headquarters to stop sending new troops to Petrograd.

November 2– Having got rid of the danger from Krasnov, Lenin orders to stop negotiations on a homogeneous socialist government. A group of influential Bolsheviks (Kamenev, Zinoviev, Rykov, Nogin), who do not believe that their party will maintain power alone.

November 3- By morning the cadets surrender the Moscow Kremlin, terribly mutilated by red artillery. Ruthless reprisals against cadets and the looting of Kremlin churches begin.

Consequences of the Bolshevik coup in Moscow. Documentary newsreel

November 4– Bolshevik supporters of a homogeneous socialist government leave the Central Committee (Kamenev, Zinoviev, Rykov, Milyutin, Nogin) and the Council of People’s Commissars (they soon return, unable to withstand Lenin’s pressure).

November 7 – Left Social Revolutionaries They form a party separate from the right and begin negotiations with the Bolsheviks about joining the Council of People's Commissars.

November 8– Lenin removes Dukhonin from his post as commander-in-chief, replacing him with a Bolshevik ensign Krylenko. Lenin's radiogram: let all soldiers and sailors, regardless of their superiors, enter into negotiations on a truce with the enemy - the final surrender of Russia to the mercy

• January
• February
• April
• August
• September
• October
• November
• December

January Strikes in Petrograd, rescue of Riga and suffragettes at the White House

Revolution On January 22 (January 9, old style), on the anniversary of Bloody Sunday, the largest strike during the war began in Petrograd, more than 145 thousand workers of the Vyborg, Narva and Moscow regions took part in it. The demonstrations were dispersed by the Cossacks. Strikes also took place in Moscow, Kazan, Kharkov and other major cities of the Russian Empire; in total, more than 200 thousand people went on strike in January 1917.

War On January 5 (December 23, 1916, old style), the Russian army launched an offensive on the Northern Front in the Mitava region (modern Jelgava in Latvia). An unexpected blow made it possible to break through the line of fortifications of the German army and move the front away from Riga. The initial success of the Mitau operation could not be consolidated: the soldiers of the 2nd and 6th Siberian Corps rebelled and refused to take part in the hostilities. In addition, the command of the Northern Front refused to provide reinforcements. The operation was terminated on January 11 (December 29).

On January 10, a picket of the suffrage movement known as the “Silent Watchmen” begins at the White House in Washington. Over the next two and a half years, women picketed the residence of the American president six days a week, demanding equal voting rights with men. During this time, they were repeatedly beaten, detained for “obstructing traffic,” and tortured during arrests. The picketing ended on June 4, 1919, when both houses of Congress passed the 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution: “The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any State on account of sex.”

February Submarine warfare, Duma opposition and the Mexican constitution

Revolution On February 27 (14), the first meeting of the State Duma in 1917 opened. It was supposed to take place in January, but at the beginning of the year, by decree of the emperor, it was postponed to a later date. A demonstration took place near the Tauride Palace; many deputies at the meeting demanded the resignation of the government. The leader of the Trudovik faction, Alexander Kerensky, called for fighting the authorities not only by legal means, but also with the help of “physical elimination.”

War

On February 1, Germany began unrestricted submarine warfare. German submarines easily overcame obstacles and attacked both military convoys and civilian ships. During the first week of February, 35 steamships were sunk in the English Channel and on its western approaches. For the entire month, the German fleet lost only 4 submarines out of 34, and British troops were cut off from supplies due to constant attacks on merchant ships in the strait and in the Atlantic.

World On February 5, Mexico published the text of the Constitution adopted in January by the Constituent Assembly. The new fundamental law transferred all lands to the state, reduced the powers of the church to a minimum, separated the branches of government and established an eight-hour working day. Thus, the revolutionaries achieved the fulfillment of all their demands. However, the armed struggle between the government and the rebel leaders continued even after this. The revolution began in 1910 with the struggle against the dictatorship of President Porfirio Diaz. Then peasants joined the movement, and land reform became the main goal.

March Abdication in Pskov, capture of Baghdad and the first jazz record

Revolution On March 8 (February 23), International Women's Day, another strike began, which developed into a general strike. Workers from the Vyborg side broke through to Nevsky Prospekt, the strike turned into a political action. On March 11 (February 26), as a result of clashes, demonstrators died, guard regiments began to go over to the side of the rebels, and the unrest could not be extinguished. On March 15 (2) in Pskov, Nicholas II signed an act of abdication, and a Provisional Government was formed in Petrograd, headed by the leader of the Zemstvo Union, Prince Georgy Lvov.

War

On March 11, British troops took Baghdad, forcing the Ottoman army to retreat. Great Britain took revenge for its defeat at Kut in early 1916, when the defenders of the fortress were forced to capitulate after a lengthy siege. In January 1917, British troops first recaptured Kut and then advanced north, surprising the Ottoman army and entering Baghdad. This allowed the British to gain a foothold in Mesopotamia, and the Ottoman Empire lost control of yet another territory.

On March 7, the first commercial jazz recording goes on sale - the single “Livery Stable Blues” by the white orchestra Original Dixieland Jass Band. The release of this record is associated with an explosion in the popularity of jazz. 1917 also saw the birth of future jazz musicians Ella Fitzgerald (April 25), Thelonious Monk (October 10), and Dizzy Gillespie (October 21).

April Lenin's Theses, Wilson's War and Gandhi's Nonviolent Protest

Revolution

On April 9 (March 27), the Provisional Government sent a note to France and Great Britain, in which it assured the allies that Russia would not leave the war and would not conclude a separate peace. In response, the Petrograd Soviet, consisting of Bolsheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries, led soldiers and workers to an anti-war demonstration. The April crisis led to a split between the Provisional Government and the Soviets. At the same time, Lenin published his “April Theses” - a program of action for the Bolsheviks: ending the war; refusal to support the Provisional Government; a new, proletarian revolution.

War On April 6, the United States entered World War I. Until this point, the United States had maintained neutrality, but American ships were increasingly becoming victims of the submarine war that Germany had been waging since February. The reason for the war was also a telegram from German Foreign Minister Arthur Zimmermann, in which he asked the German ambassador to the United States to achieve an alliance with Mexico. The British intercepted the telegram, deciphered it and presented it to US President Woodrow Wilson, who made it public. Shortly thereafter, with more American ships sunk in the Atlantic, Congress declared war on Germany.

World On April 10, 47-year-old lawyer and social activist Mohandas Gandhi launched India's first civil disobedience campaign. Gandhi called this form of protest satyagraha (from Sanskrit “satya” means “truth” and “agraha” means “firmness”). In the Champaran district, he began to fight the colonial authorities who forced peasants to grow indigo and other commercial crops instead of cereals that could be eaten. The main goal was the independence of India from the British Empire. The first stage of peaceful resistance ended with Gandhi's arrest. Thousands of people demanded his release, calling him Mahatma - the Great Soul, and the police had to release Gandhi within a few days.

May Coalition Government, Commander-in-Chief Pétain and the Birth of Surrealism

Revolution The April crisis, primarily the statement by Foreign Minister Miliukov about “war to a victorious end,” led to a change of government. The new coalition included six socialists: the Socialist Revolutionary Kerensky became the Minister of War and Navy, the leader of the Socialist Revolutionary Party Viktor Chernov became the Minister of Agriculture, the Mensheviks Irakli Tsereteli and Matvei Skobelev, the Trudovik Pavel Pereverzev and the People's Socialist Alexei Peshekhonov also joined the coalition.

War On May 15, General Henri Philippe Pétain became commander-in-chief of the French army. After the Battle of Verdun, which lasted almost the entire 1916, Pétain became one of the most revered generals by soldiers. In the spring of 1917, Commander-in-Chief Robert Nivelle sent troops to break through the German front; the losses of the French army reached 100 thousand people killed and wounded. A crisis began in the army - the soldiers rebelled. Pétain calmed the troops, promised to abandon suicidal attacks, and shot the instigators of the rebellion. Later, in 1940, he would head the government of the Vichy regime, which collaborated with the Nazis.

Leonid Myasin as a Chinese magician. Costume based on Picasso's sketch for the ballet "Parade". Photo by Harry Lachman. Paris, 1917

Horse. Costume based on Picasso's sketch for the ballet "Parade". Photo by Harry Lachman. Paris, 1917© Victoria and Albert Museum, London

American manager. Costume based on Picasso's sketch for the ballet "Parade". Photo by Harry Lachman. Paris, 1917 © Victoria and Albert Museum, London

Acrobat. Costume based on Picasso's sketch for the ballet "Parade". Photo by Harry Lachman. Paris, 1917© Victoria and Albert Museum, London

American baby. Costume based on Picasso's sketch for the ballet "Parade". Photo by Harry Lachman. Paris, 1917© Victoria and Albert Museum, London

French manager. Costume based on Picasso's sketch for the ballet "Parade". Photo by Harry Lachman. Paris, 1917© Victoria and Albert Museum, London

On May 18, the term “surrealism” appeared. The poet Guillaume Apollinaire applied this definition to the ballet “Parade”. The performance, with music by Erik Satie, script by Jean Cocteau, costumes by Pablo Picasso and choreography by Leonid Massine, which was based on a parade of farce circus performers, caused a real scandal. The audience whistled, critics after the premiere called the production a stain on the reputation of Sergei Diaghilev’s Russian Ballet and a blow to French society. Apollinaire passionately defended ballet in his manifesto "Pa-rad and the New Spirit," explaining that this unity of scenery, costumes and choreography "led to a kind of sur-réalisme" in which the New Spirit could take off.

June All-Russian Central Executive Committee, abdication of Constantine I and the Espionage Act

Revolution On June 16 (3) the Congress of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies opened in Petrograd. The majority there were Socialist Revolutionaries and Mensheviks. Lenin’s “April Theses” on ending the war and transferring power to the Soviets were rejected. As a result of the congress, the deputies elected their leadership - the All-Russian Central Executive Committee (VTsIK), the head of which was the Menshevik Nikolai Chkheidze.

War On June 11, King Constantine I of Greece abdicated the throne under pressure from the Entente. Since the beginning of the war, the monarch maintained neutrality, despite government opposition. Constantine I was married to the sister of the German Kaiser Wilhelm II, which gave rise to reproaches for the pro-German position of the king. The head of government, Eleftherios Venizelos, approved the British landing in Thessaloniki, was dismissed, but then formed the opposition Provisional Government of National Defense. Dual power arose in the country, and as a result, Constantine I abdicated the throne and went to Switzerland, passing the throne to his son Alexander, who had no real power as king.

On June 15, the United States adopted the “Espionage Act,” a federal law that was intended to strengthen the national security of a country that had just entered the First World War, but was immediately perceived as an attack on freedom of speech. In particular, it prohibits the dissemination of information that could harm the US military or contribute to the success of its enemies. The Espionage Act is still used today - in particular, its violation is charged with Edward Snowden, who made public data about how American intelligence agencies spy on people around the world.

July Government crisis, failed offensive and execution of Mata Hari

Revolution On July 17-18 (4-5) in Petrograd, demonstrations of anarchists and Bolsheviks lead to clashes with government troops. The armed uprising failed, the Bolshevik leaders Lenin and Zinoviev had to flee the capital. At the same time, a crisis is occurring in the Provisional Government: first the cadets leave it in protest against the granting of broad powers to the Ukrainian Central Rada, and then the chairman of the government, Prince Georgy Lvov, also resigns.

War At the end of June, the Russian army began preparations for a large-scale strategic offensive. On July 1 (June 18), the offensive began on the Southwestern Front in the direction of Lvov. In the first two days, the troops made significant progress, which allowed Minister of War and Navy Kerensky to declare the “great triumph of the revolution.” On July 6 (June 23), the 8th Army of General Lavr Kornilov attacked the positions of the Austro-Hungarian troops. But a week later the impulse dried up: ferment began in the army, military committees decided to abandon hostilities. Meanwhile, the Austro-German command transferred additional forces to this section of the front. The counteroffensive turned into a disaster for the Russian army: entire divisions fled from the front.

Mata Hari in stage costume. Postcard. 1906Bibliothèque Marguerite Durand

Mata Hari on the day of her arrest. 1917 Wikimedia Commons

On July 24, the trial of the Dutch dancer Margaret Gertrude Zelle, better known by her stage name Mata Hari, began in France. She was accused of spying for Germany and transmitting information to the Germans that caused the death of several divisions of soldiers. The very next day the court sentenced Mata Hari to death. She was shot on October 15, 1917, she was 41 years old.

August Mustard gas, the Bolshevik Congress and the miraculous apparition of the Virgin Mary

Revolution On August 6 (July 24), the second coalition government was formed, already headed by. After the July Days, the provisional government returned the death penalty and announced its intentions to liquidate the Soviets. In Moscow, on the initiative of the government, a State Conference was convened with the participation of all political forces, except the Bolsheviks, which demanded the gradual liquidation of military committees, a ban on rallies and meetings, and the return of the death penalty. The Bolsheviks, in turn, held a party congress in Petrograd, at which they declared the need for an armed uprising.

War In August, the most difficult stage of the Battle of Passchendaele in Belgium (the Third Battle of Ypres), which had been going on since July 11, began. British troops decided to break through the German front, the main target being the German submarine base. On the third day of the battle, the German army used a new poisonous gas - mustard gas: it affected the skin and eyes, the losses from it were greater than from any other chemical weapon during the war. In August, due to rains, the area turned into an impassable swamp, in which the armies fought. The tanks got stuck in the mud. The British were unable to overcome the German fortifications, and only in October were they able to advance.

From May to October 1917, every 13th, three children from the Portuguese city of Fatima - Lucia Santos and her cousins ​​Francisco and Jacinta Marta - were said to have seen the Virgin Mary. The exception was on August 13, when the children were arrested by a local official and journalist, Arthur Santos, a well-known anti-clerical and anti-monarchist in the area. He tried to get them to admit that they had not actually seen any miracles, but in vain. Having been released from arrest, the children witnessed the next apparition of the Virgin Mary on August 19. The field where this happened became a place of mass pilgrimage back in 1917.

September Kornilov mutiny, surrender of Riga and bacterial viruses

Revolution On September 8 (August 26), the Supreme Commander-in-Chief presented an ultimatum to the Provisional Government. He demanded that full power be transferred to him before the convening of the Constituent Assembly. In response, Kornilov was called a rebel. The troops loyal to the Supreme Commander-in-Chief moved towards Petrograd, but under the influence of agitators they stopped at the approaches to the capital. After the failure of the rebellion, the government collapsed: it was abandoned by the Cadets who supported Kornilov’s speech. During the transition period, the highest authority was formed - the Directory, headed by Kerensky.

War

German infantry in Riga. September 1917© IWM (Q 86949)

Kaiser Wilhelm II and Leopold of Bavaria on the banks of the Western Dvina (Daugava). Riga, September 1917© IWM (Q 70272)

Russian prisoners of war. Riga, September 1917© IWM (Q 86680)

On September 1, German troops began shelling the positions of the Russian army near Riga. This was followed by a massive offensive aimed at encircling the 12th Army. In two days, Russian troops lost 25 thousand people killed and already left Riga on September 3. However, the 12th Army emerged from encirclement. The city was one of the main targets of the German army on the Eastern Front. After the capture of Riga, fears arose that the Germans would be able to occupy Petrograd. Panic arose in the Russian capital and preparations for evacuation began.

World On September 3, French-Canadian microbiologist Felix d'Herelle, working at the Pasteur Institute in Paris, published an article describing bacteriophages - viruses that infect bacteria. This is one of the most ancient and numerous groups of viruses, which is now used in medicine as an alternative to antibiotics, and in biology as a tool for genetic engineering. Initially, bacteriophages were described in 1915 by the Englishman Frederic Twort (calling them bacteriolytic agents), but his research went unnoticed, and d’Herelle made his discovery on his own.

October Attack on Petrograd, capture of the Moonsund Islands and Cleopatra's navel

Revolution On October 8 (September 25), the composition of the third coalition government was announced, of which Kerensky remained its chairman. At this time, in Petrograd, the Bolsheviks began preparing an armed uprising. They received a majority in the Petrograd Council of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies, and on October 29 (16) the proposal of the head of the Petrograd Soviet, Leon Trotsky, was approved to create a Military Revolutionary Committee, formally - to protect against the Kornilovites and the German troops approaching the capital. After this, the Petrograd garrison came under the control of the Petrograd Soviet.

War On October 12, German troops began an operation to capture the Russian-owned Moonsund Islands in the Baltic Sea. The operation was a combination: the ground forces, the navy, and aviation (airplanes and airships) took part in it. The German Navy unexpectedly encountered fierce resistance from the Russian fleet. Only by October 17 did the German dreadnoughts manage to reach the archipelago and gain control over it.

On October 14, “Cleopatra” is released, the most expensive film of its time, the budget of which was 500 thousand dollars (almost 10 million dollars in today’s money). The title role stars Theda Bara, one of the main sex symbols of the 1910s. The film was subject to significant censorship - for example, during screenings in Chicago, the scene in which Cleopatra stands in front of Caesar with an “uncovered navel” and “ambiguously leans” towards the Roman ruler was cut from the first part. The last two complete copies of the film were burned in a fire at Fox studios in 1937, and it is now considered lost, with only minor fragments surviving.

November Bolshevik coup, battle from “A Farewell to Arms!” and Jews in Palestine

Revolution On November 7 (October 25), Petrograd was almost completely in the hands of the Military Revolutionary Committee, which issued an appeal “To the citizens of Russia!”, announcing that power had transferred to the Petrograd Soviet. On the night of November 7–8 (October 25–26), the Bolsheviks and their political allies took the Winter Palace and arrested the ministers of the Provisional Government. The next day, the Second Congress of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies formed government bodies and adopted decrees on peace and land.

War

On November 9, the active phase of the Battle of Caporetto in northeastern Italy ended. It began on October 24, when the 14th Army under the command of General Otto von Below, consisting of German and Austro-Hungarian divisions, broke through the Italian front. The Italian army, demoralized by the chemical attack, began to retreat. The Entente allies transferred additional forces to this area, but German-Austrian troops continued to advance forward. By November 9, the Italian army was forced to retreat across the Piave River. Ernest Hemingway described this retreat in his novel A Farewell to Arms! The defeat at Caporetto led to the resignation of the Italian government and commander-in-chief Luigi Cadorna; the army of the kingdom lost more than 70 thousand people killed and wounded.

World On November 2, British Foreign Secretary Arthur Balfour sent an official letter to Lord Walter Rothschild, a representative of the British Jewish community, for subsequent transmission to the Zionist Federation of Great Britain and Ireland. The purpose of the letter was to enlist the support of not only British, but also American representatives of the diaspora, so that they would contribute to a more active US participation in the First World War. Minister Balfour stated that the Government was "considering with approval the question of establishing a national home for the Jewish people in Palestine." This document was called the Balfour Declaration and became the basis for the post-war settlement in Palestine and the receipt by Great Britain of a mandate over the territories, and in the future - for the creation of the State of Israel.

December Peace negotiations, Cheka and NHL

Revolution By mid-December, the new government, the Council of People's Commissars, and the highest authority, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, included the Left Socialist Revolutionaries. On December 20 (7), the Council of People's Commissars created the All-Russian Extraordinary Commission to Combat Counter-Revolution and Sabotage (VChK). And on December 26 (13), Lenin’s “Theses on the Constituent Assembly” appeared in Pravda, which stated that the composition of the assembly (where the right Socialist Revolutionaries had the majority) did not correspond to the will of the people.

War

On December 3 (November 20), negotiations between Germany and Soviet Russia on an armistice begin in Brest-Litovsk. Having adopted, on the one hand, the Decree on Peace at the Second Congress of Soviets and hoping for an early revolution in the countries of Central Europe, on the other, the Bolsheviks initiated these negotiations, but tried their best to delay them. Three months later, on March 3, despite the desperate intra-party struggle of the Bolsheviks, peace was concluded, but even its main supporter, Vladimir Lenin, called it “obscene”: Russia agreed to pay colossal reparations and the loss of Western territories with a total area of ​​780 thousand square kilometers with a population more than 50 million people. The Entente called the Brest-Litovsk Treaty a “political crime.” However, Russia, in fact, did not have to fulfill its conditions: in November 1918, Germany was defeated in the First World War. Some of the seized territories became part of the USSR following the Civil War, while some were occupied by the Soviet Union at the beginning of World War II.

World On December 19, the first match in the history of the National Hockey League took place, which arose as a result of disagreements within the National Hockey Association, which had existed since 1909. The NHL's opening match featured Toronto Arenas and the Montreal Wanderers. Two more Canadian teams took part in the first championship - the Montreal Canadiens and the Ottawa Senators, which, unlike the first two clubs, still exist. Toronto became the champion of the first season. The NHL was predicted to collapse quickly: in the third year of the war, many hockey players went to the front. However, the league turned out to be a successful project and soon attracted clubs not only from Canada, but also from the United States. 

Plan

Revolution of 1917 in Russia

February Revolution

Policy of the Provisional Government

From February to October

October Revolution

The Bolsheviks came to power

II Congress of Soviets

Revolution of 1917 in Russia

Russia's entry into the First World War relieved the severity of social contradictions for some time. All segments of the population rallied around the government in a single patriotic impulse. The defeat at the front in the fight against Germany, the worsening situation of the people caused by the war, gave rise to mass discontent.

The situation was aggravated by the economic crisis that emerged in 1915-1916. Industry, rebuilt on a war footing, generally met the needs of the front. However, its one-sided development led to the fact that the rear suffered from a shortage of consumer goods. The consequence of this was an increase in prices and an increase in inflation: the purchasing power of the ruble fell to 27 kopecks. Fuel and transport crises developed. The capacity of the railways did not ensure military transportation and uninterrupted delivery of food to the city. The food crisis turned out to be especially acute. The peasants, not receiving the necessary industrial goods, refused to supply the products of their farms to the market. Bread lines appeared for the first time in Russia. Speculation flourished. The defeat of Russia on the fronts of the First World War dealt a significant blow to public consciousness. The population is tired of the protracted war. Worker strikes and peasant unrest grew. At the front, fraternization with the enemy and desertion became more frequent. Revolutionary agitators used all the government's mistakes to discredit the ruling elite. The Bolsheviks wanted the defeat of the tsarist government and called on the people to turn the war from an imperialist one into a civil one.

The liberal opposition intensified. The confrontation between the State Duma and the government intensified. The basis of the June Third political system, cooperation between bourgeois parties and the autocracy, collapsed. Speech by N.N. Miliukov on November 4, 1916, with sharp criticism of the policies of the tsar and ministers, marked the beginning of an “accusatory” campaign in the IV State Duma. The “Progressive Bloc” - an inter-parliamentary coalition of the majority of Duma factions - demanded the creation of a government of “people's trust” responsible to the Duma. However, Nicholas II rejected this proposal.

Nicholas II catastrophically lost his authority in society due to “Rasputinism,” the unceremonious intervention of Tsarina Alexander Feodorovna in state affairs and his inept actions as Supreme Commander-in-Chief. By the winter of 1916-1917. All segments of the Russian population realized the inability of the tsarist government to overcome the political and economic crisis.

February revolution.

At the beginning of 1917, interruptions in food supplies to major Russian cities intensified. By mid-February, 90 thousand Petrograd workers went on strike due to a shortage of speculative bread and rising prices. On February 18, workers from the Putilov plant joined them. The administration announced its closure. This was the reason for the start of mass protests in the capital.

On February 23 (new style - March 8), workers took to the streets of Petrograd with the slogans “Bread!”, “Down with war!”, “Down with autocracy!” Their political demonstration marked the beginning of the Revolution. On February 25, the strike in Petrograd became general. Demonstrations and rallies did not stop.

On the evening of February 25, Nicholas II, who was in Mogilev, sent the commander of the Petrograd Military District S.S. A telegram to Khabalov with a categorical demand to stop the unrest. Attempts by the authorities to use troops did not produce a positive effect; the soldiers refused to shoot at the people. However, officers and police killed more than 150 people on February 26th. In response, the guards of the Pavlovsk regiment, supporting the workers, opened fire on the police.

Chairman of the Duma M.V. Rodzianko warned Nicholas II that the government was paralyzed and “there is anarchy in the capital.” To prevent the development of the revolution, he insisted on the immediate creation of a new government headed by a statesman who enjoyed the trust of society. However, the king rejected his proposal.

Moreover, he and the Council of Ministers decided to interrupt the meeting of the Duma and dissolve it for the holidays. Nicholas II sent troops to suppress the revolution, but a small detachment of General N.I. Ivanov was detained and not allowed into the capital.

On February 27, the mass transition of soldiers to the side of the workers, their seizure of the arsenal and the Peter and Paul Fortress, marked the victory of the revolution.

The arrests of tsarist ministers and the formation of new government bodies began. On the same day, elections to the Petrograd Soviet of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies were held in factories and military units, drawing on the experience of 1905, when the first organs of workers' political power were born. An Executive Committee was elected to manage its activities. The Menshevik N.S. became the chairman. Chkheidze, his deputy - Socialist Revolutionary A.F. Kepensky. The Executive Committee took upon itself the maintenance of public order and the supply of food to the population. On February 27, at a meeting of leaders of Duma factions, it was decided to form a Provisional Committee of the State Duma headed by M.V. Rodzianko. The task of the committee was “Restoring state and public order” and creating a new government. The temporary committee took control of all ministries.

On February 28, Nicholas II left Headquarters for Tsarskoye Selo, but was detained on the way by revolutionary troops. He had to turn to Pskov, to the headquarters of the northern front. After consultation with the front commanders, he became convinced that there was no force to suppress the revolution. On March 2, Nicholas signed a Manifesto abdicating the throne for himself and his son Alexei in favor of his brother, Grand Duke Mikhail Alexandrovich. However, when Duma deputies A.I. Guchkov and V.V. Shulgin brought the text of the Manifesto to Petrograd, it became clear that the people did not want a monarchy. On March 3, Mikhail abdicated the throne, declaring that the future fate of the political system in Russia should be decided by the Constituent Assembly. The 300-year rule of classes and parties ended.

The bourgeoisie, a significant part of the wealthy intelligentsia (about 4 million people) relied on economic power, education, experience in participating in political life and managing government institutions. They sought to prevent the further development of the revolution, stabilize the socio-political situation and strengthen their property. The working class (18 million people) consisted of urban and rural proletarians. They managed to feel their political strength, were predisposed to revolutionary agitation and were ready to defend their rights with weapons. They fought for the introduction of an 8-hour working day, a guarantee of employment, and increased wages. Factory committees spontaneously arose in cities. To establish workers' control over production and resolve disputes with entrepreneurs.

The peasantry (30 million people) demanded the destruction of large private land properties and the transfer of land to those who cultivate it. Local land committees and village assemblies were created in the villages, which made decisions on the redistribution of land. Relations between peasants and landowners were extremely tense.

The extreme right (monarchists, Black Hundreds) suffered a complete collapse after the February revolution.

Cadets from the opposition party became the ruling party, initially occupying key positions in the provisional government. They stood for turning Russia into a parliamentary republic. On the agrarian issue, they still advocated the purchase by the state and peasants of the landowners' lands.

The Social Revolutionaries are the most massive party. The revolutionaries proposed turning Russia into a federal republic of free nations.

The Mensheviks, the second largest and most influential party, advocated the creation of a democratic republic.

The Bolsheviks took extreme left positions. In March, the party leadership was ready to cooperate with other social forces. However, after V.I. Lenin returned from immigration, the “April Theses” program was adopted.

Policy of the provisional government.

In its declaration on March 3, the government promised to introduce political freedoms and a broad amnesty, abolish the death penalty, and prohibit all class, national and religious discrimination. However, the internal political course of the provisional government turned out to be contradictory. All the main bodies of central and local government have been preserved. Under the pressure of the masses, Nicholas II and members of his family were arrested. On July 31, Nicholas, his wife and children were sent into exile in Siberia. An Extraordinary Commission was created to investigate the activities of senior officials of the old regime. Adoption of a law introducing an 8-hour working day.

In April 1917, the first government crisis broke out. It was caused by general social tension in the country. On April 18, Miliukov addressed the Allied Powers with assurances of Russia’s determination to bring the war to a victorious end. This led to extreme indignation of the people, mass rallies and demonstrations demanding an immediate end to the war, the transfer of power to the Soviets, the resignation of Miliukov and A.I. Guchkova. On July 3-4, mass armaments and demonstrations of workers and soldiers took place in Petrograd. The slogan “All power to the Soviets” was again put forward. The demonstration was dispersed. Repressions began against the Bolsheviks and Left Socialist Revolutionaries, who were accused of preparing an armed seizure of power.

Measures were taken to strengthen discipline in the army, and the death penalty was restored at the front. The influence of the Petrograd and other Soviets temporarily decreased. The dual power was over. From this moment, according to V.I. Lenin, the stage of the revolution ended when power could pass to the Soviets peacefully.

From February to October.

The February Revolution was victorious. The old state system collapsed. A new political situation has emerged. However, the victory of the revolution did not prevent the further deepening of the country's crisis. Economic devastation intensified.

The time from February to October is a special period in the history of Russia. There are two stages in it.

At the first (March - early July 1917) there was a dual power, in which the provisional government was forced to coordinate all its actions with the Petrograd Soviet, which took more radical positions and had the support of the broad masses.

At the second stage (July - October 25, 1917), dual power was ended. The autocracy of the provisional government was established in the form of a coalition of the liberal bourgeoisie. However, this political alliance also failed to achieve the consolidation of society. Social tension has increased in the country. On the one hand, there was growing indignation of the masses over the government's delays in carrying out the most pressing economic, social and political reforms. On the other hand, the right was not happy with the weakness of the government and the insufficiently decisive measures to curb the “revolutionary element.” Monarchists and right-wing bourgeois parties were ready to support the establishment of a military dictatorship. The far left Bolsheviks set a course for seizing political power under the slogan “All power to the Soviets!”

October Revolution. The Bolsheviks came to power.

On October 10, the Central Committee of the RSDLP (b) adopted a resolution on an armed uprising. L.B. opposed her. Kamenev and G.E. Zinoviev. They believed that preparations for an uprising were premature and that it was necessary to fight to increase the influence of the Bolsheviks in the future Constituent Assembly. V.I. Lenin insisted on the immediate seizure of power through an armed uprising. His point of view won.

The chairman was the left Socialist-Revolutionary P.E. Lazimir, and the actual leader is L.D. Trotsky (chairman of the Petrograd Soviet from September 1917). The Military Revolutionary Committee was created to protect the Soviets from the military coup and Petrograd. On October 16, the Central Committee of the RSDLP(b) created the Bolshevik Military Revolutionary Center (MRC). He joined the Military Revolutionary Committee and began to direct its activities. By the evening of October 24, the government was blocked in the Winter Palace.

On the morning of October 25, the appeal of the Military Revolutionary Committee “To the citizens of Russia!” was published. It announced the overthrow of the provisional government and the transfer of power to the Petrograd Military Revolutionary Committee. On the night of October 25-26, the ministers of the provisional government were arrested in the Winter Palace.

IICongress of Soviets.

On the evening of October 25, the Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets opened. More than half of its deputies were Bolsheviks, 100 mandates were from the Left Social Revolutionaries.

On the night of October 25-26, the congress adopted an appeal to workers, soldiers and peasants, and proclaimed the establishment of Soviet power. The Mensheviks and Right Socialist Revolutionaries condemned the action of the Bolsheviks and left the congress in protest. Therefore, all the decrees of the Second Congress were permeated with the ideas of the Bolsheviks and Left Socialist Revolutionaries.

On the evening of October 26, the congress unanimously adopted the Decree on Peace, which called on the warring parties to conclude a democratic peace without annexations and indemnities.

Event that happened October 25, 1917 in the capital of the then Russian Empire, Petrograd, was simply an uprising of the armed people, which shook up almost the entire civilized world.

A hundred years have passed, but the results and achievements, the impact on world history of the October events remain the subject of discussions and debates among numerous historians, philosophers, political scientists, and specialists in various fields of law, both in our time and in the bygone twentieth century.

Briefly about the date October 25, 1917

Officially in the Soviet Union, this controversially assessed event was called today - the day of the October Revolution of 1917, it was a holiday for the entire huge country and the peoples inhabiting it. It brought a fundamental change in the socio-political situation, transformation of political and social views on the position of peoples and each individual individually.

Today, many young people do not even know in what year the revolution took place in Russia, but it is necessary to know about it. The situation was quite predictable and had been brewing for several years, then significant main events of the October Revolution of 1917 took place, table briefly:

What is the October Revolution in the historical concept? The main armed uprising, led by V. I. Ulyanov - Lenin, L. D. Trotsky, Ya. M. Sverdlov and other leaders of the Russian communist movement.

The Revolution of 1917 was an armed uprising.

Attention! The uprising was carried out by the Military Revolutionary Committee of the Petrograd Soviet, where, oddly enough, the majority was represented by the Left Socialist Revolutionary faction.

The successful implementation of the coup was ensured by the following factors:

1. Significant level of popular support.
2. The provisional government was inactive and did not solve the problems of Russia's participation in the First World War.
3. The most significant political aspect compared to previously proposed extremist movements.

The Menshevik and Right Socialist Revolutionary factions were unable to organize a more or less realistic version of an alternative movement in relation to the Bolsheviks.

A little about the reasons for the October events of 1917

Today, no one refutes the idea that this fateful event practically turned not only the whole world upside down, but also radically changed the course of history for many decades to come. Far from being feudal, the bourgeois country striving for progress was practically turned upside down during certain events on the fronts of the First World War.

The historical significance of the October Revolution, which occurred in 1917, is largely determined by the cessation. However, as modern historians see it, there were several reasons:

1. The influence of the peasant revolution as a socio-political phenomenon as an aggravation of the confrontation between the peasant masses and the remaining landowners at that time. The reason is the “black repartition” known in history, that is, distribution of land to the number of people in need. Also in this aspect there was a negative impact of the procedure for redistribution of land plots on the number of dependents.
2. The working sections of society experienced significant pressure from city authorities on residents of rural areas, state power has become the main lever of pressure on the productive forces.
3. The deepest decomposition of the army and other security forces, where the majority of peasants went to serve, who could not comprehend certain nuances of the protracted military actions.
4. Revolutionary fermentation of all layers of the working class. The proletariat at that time was a politically active minority, constituting no more than 3.5% of the active population. The working class was largely concentrated in industrial cities.
5. The national movements of the popular formations of imperial Russia developed and reached their culmination. Then they sought to achieve autonomy; a promising option for them was not just autonomy, but a promising autonomy and independence from the central authorities.

To the greatest extent, it was the national movement that became the provoking factor in the beginning of the revolutionary movement on the territory of the vast Russian Empire, which was literally falling apart into its component parts.

Attention! The combination of all causes and conditions, as well as the interests of all segments of the population, determined the goals of the October Revolution of 1917, which became the driving force for the future uprising as a turning point in history.

Popular unrest before the start of the October Revolution of 1917.

Ambiguous about the events of October 17

The first stage, which became the basis and beginning of a worldwide change in historical events, which became a turning point not only on a domestic, but also on a global scale. For example, an assessment of the October Revolution, the interesting facts of which are the simultaneous positive and negative impact on the socio-political world situation.

As usual, every significant event has reasons of an objective and subjective nature. The vast majority of the population had a hard time experiencing wartime conditions, hunger and deprivation, the conclusion of peace became necessary. What conditions prevailed in the second half of 1917:

1. Formed between February 27 and March 3, 1917, the Provisional Government headed by Kerensky did not have sufficient tools to solve all problems and questions without exception. The transfer of ownership of land and enterprises to workers and peasants, as well as the elimination of hunger and the conclusion of peace became an urgent problem, the solution of which was inaccessible to the so-called “temporary workers.”
2. Prevalence of socialist ideas among the general population, a noticeable increase in the popularity of Marxist theory, the implementation by the Soviets of the slogans of universal equality, the prospects of what the people expected.
3. The emergence of a strong force in the country opposition movement led by a charismatic leader, such as Ulyanov - Lenin. At the beginning of the last century, this party line became the most promising movement for achieving world communism as a concept for further development.
4. In this situation, they have become extremely in demand radical ideas and requiring a radical solution to the problem of society - the inability to lead the empire from a completely rotten tsarist administrative apparatus.

The slogan of the October Revolution - “peace to the peoples, land to the peasants, factories to the workers” was supported by the population, which made it possible to radically change the political system in Russia.

Briefly about the course of events on October 25

Why did the October Revolution happen in November? The autumn of 1917 brought an even greater increase in social tension, political and socio-economic destruction was rapidly approaching its peak.

In the field of industry, financial sector, transport and communication systems, agriculture complete collapse was brewing.

Russian multinational empire collapsed into separate nation states, contradictions between representatives of different nations and intra-tribal disagreements grew.

The acceleration of the overthrow of the Provisional Government was significantly influenced by hyperinflation, rising food prices Against the backdrop of lower wages, increased unemployment, and the catastrophic situation on the battlefields, the war was artificially prolonged. Government of A. Kerensky did not present an anti-crisis plan, and the initial February promises were practically abandoned altogether.

These processes, in conditions of their rapid growth, only increased influence leftist political movements throughout the country. These were the reasons for the unprecedented victory of the Bolsheviks in the October Revolution. The Bolshevik idea and its support by peasants, workers and soldiers led to parliamentary majority in the new state system - the Soviets in the First Capital and Petrograd. The plans for the Bolsheviks to come to power included two directions:

1. Peaceful, diplomatically stipulated and legally confirmed the act of transferring power to the majority.
2. The extremist trend in the Soviets demanded armed strategic measures; in their opinion, the plan could only be realized power grip.

The government created in October 1917 was called the Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies. The shot fired by the legendary cruiser Aurora on the night of October 25 signal to start the assault Winter Palace, which led to the fall of the Provisional Government.

October Revolution

October Revolution

Consequences of the October Revolution

The consequences of the October Revolution are ambiguous. This is the coming to power of the Bolsheviks, the adoption by the Second Congress of Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies of the Decrees on Peace, Land, and the Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of the Country. Was created Russian Soviet Republic, later the controversial Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed. Pro-Bolshevik governments began to come to power in various countries around the world.

The negative aspect of the event is also important - it began protracted, which brought even greater destruction, crisis, famine, millions of victims. The collapse and chaos in a huge country led to economic destruction of the global financial system, a crisis that lasted more than a decade and a half. Its consequences fell heavily on the shoulders of the poorest sections of the population. This situation has become the basis for a decline in demographic indicators, a lack of productive forces in the future, human casualties, and unplanned migration.

The October Revolution of 1917 in Russia was the armed overthrow of the Provisional Government and the coming to power of the Bolshevik Party, which proclaimed the establishment of Soviet power, the beginning of the elimination of capitalism and the transition to socialism. The slowness and inconsistency of the actions of the Provisional Government after the February bourgeois-democratic revolution of 1917 in resolving labor, agrarian, and national issues, the continued participation of Russia in the First World War led to a deepening of the national crisis and created the preconditions for the strengthening of far-left parties in the center and nationalist parties in the outskirts countries. The Bolsheviks acted most energetically, proclaiming a course towards a socialist revolution in Russia, which they considered the beginning of the world revolution. They put forward popular slogans: “Peace to the peoples,” “Land to the peasants,” “Factories to the workers.”

In the USSR, the official version of the October Revolution was the version of “two revolutions”. According to this version, the bourgeois-democratic revolution began in February 1917 and was completely completed in the coming months, and the October Revolution was the second, socialist revolution.

The second version was put forward by Leon Trotsky. While already abroad, he wrote a book about the unified revolution of 1917, in which he defended the concept that the October Revolution and the decrees adopted by the Bolsheviks in the first months after coming to power were only the completion of the bourgeois-democratic revolution, the implementation of what the insurgent people fought for in February.

The Bolsheviks put forward a version of the spontaneous growth of the “revolutionary situation.” The very concept of a “revolutionary situation” and its main features was first scientifically defined and introduced into Russian historiography by Vladimir Lenin. He named the following three objective factors as its main features: the crisis of the “tops,” the crisis of the “bottoms,” and the extraordinary activity of the masses.

The situation that arose after the formation of the Provisional Government was characterized by Lenin as “dual power”, and by Trotsky as “dual anarchy”: the socialists in the Soviets could rule, but did not want to, the “progressive bloc” in the government wanted to rule, but could not, finding themselves forced to rely on Petrograd a council with which it disagreed on all issues of domestic and foreign policy.

Some domestic and foreign researchers adhere to the version of “German financing” of the October Revolution. It lies in the fact that the German government, interested in Russia’s exit from the war, purposefully organized the move from Switzerland to Russia of representatives of the radical faction of the RSDLP led by Lenin in the so-called “sealed carriage” and financed the activities of the Bolsheviks aimed at undermining the combat effectiveness of the Russian army and disorganization of the defense industry and transport.

To lead the armed uprising, a Politburo was created, which included Vladimir Lenin, Leon Trotsky, Joseph Stalin, Andrei Bubnov, Grigory Zinoviev, Lev Kamenev (the latter two denied the need for an uprising). The direct leadership of the uprising was carried out by the Military Revolutionary Committee of the Petrograd Soviet, which also included the Left Social Revolutionaries.

Chronicle of the events of the October Revolution

On the afternoon of October 24 (November 6), the cadets tried to open bridges across the Neva in order to cut off the working areas from the center. The Military Revolutionary Committee (MRC) sent detachments of the Red Guard and soldiers to the bridges, who took almost all the bridges under guard. By evening, soldiers of the Kexholm Regiment occupied the Central Telegraph, a detachment of sailors took possession of the Petrograd Telegraph Agency, and soldiers of the Izmailovsky Regiment took control of the Baltic Station. Revolutionary units blocked the Pavlovsk, Nikolaev, Vladimir, and Konstantinovsky cadet schools.

On the evening of October 24, Lenin arrived in Smolny and directly took charge of the leadership of the armed struggle.

At 1:25 a.m. on the nights of October 24 to 25 (November 6 to 7), the Red Guards of the Vyborg region, soldiers of the Kexholm regiment and revolutionary sailors occupied the Main Post Office.

At 2 a.m. the first company of the 6th reserve engineer battalion captured the Nikolaevsky (now Moskovsky) station. At the same time, a detachment of the Red Guard occupied the Central Power Plant.

On October 25 (November 7) at about 6 o'clock in the morning, sailors of the Guards naval crew took possession of the State Bank.

At 7 a.m., soldiers of the Kexholm Regiment occupied the Central Telephone Station. At 8 o'clock. Red Guards of the Moscow and Narva regions captured the Warsaw station.

At 2:35 p.m. An emergency meeting of the Petrograd Soviet opened. The Council heard a message that the Provisional Government had been overthrown and state power had passed into the hands of the body of the Petrograd Soviet of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies.

On the afternoon of October 25 (November 7), revolutionary forces occupied the Mariinsky Palace, where the Pre-Parliament was located, and dissolved it; sailors occupied the Military Port and the Main Admiralty, where the Naval Headquarters was arrested.

By 18:00 the revolutionary detachments began to move towards the Winter Palace.

On October 25 (November 7) at 21:45, following a signal from the Peter and Paul Fortress, a gun shot rang out from the cruiser Aurora, and the assault on the Winter Palace began.

At 2 a.m. on October 26 (November 8), armed workers, soldiers of the Petrograd garrison and sailors of the Baltic Fleet, led by Vladimir Antonov-Ovseenko, occupied the Winter Palace and arrested the Provisional Government.

On October 25 (November 7), following the victory of the uprising in Petrograd, which was almost bloodless, armed struggle began in Moscow. In Moscow, the revolutionary forces met extremely fierce resistance, and stubborn battles took place on the streets of the city. At the cost of great sacrifices (about 1,000 people were killed during the uprising), Soviet power was established in Moscow on November 2 (15).

On the evening of October 25 (November 7), 1917, the Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies opened. The congress heard and adopted the appeal “To Workers, Soldiers and Peasants” written by Lenin, which announced the transfer of power to the Second Congress of Soviets, and locally to the Councils of Workers, Soldiers and Peasants’ Deputies.

On October 26 (November 8), 1917, the Decree on Peace and the Decree on Land were adopted. The congress formed the first Soviet government - the Council of People's Commissars, consisting of: Chairman Lenin; People's Commissars: for foreign affairs Leon Trotsky, for nationalities Joseph Stalin and others. Lev Kamenev was elected Chairman of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, and after his resignation Yakov Sverdlov.

The Bolsheviks established control over the main industrial centers of Russia. The leaders of the Cadet Party were arrested, and the opposition press was banned. In January 1918, the Constituent Assembly was dispersed, and by March of the same year, Soviet power was established over a large territory of Russia. All banks and enterprises were nationalized, and a separate truce was concluded with Germany. In July 1918, the first Soviet Constitution was adopted.