The article briefly talks about the Cold War - the confrontation between the USSR and the USA after World War II. The superpowers were in a state of confrontation. The Cold War found expression in a series of limited military conflicts in which the USSR and the USA took some part. For about half a century the world was waiting for the Third World War.
- Introduction
- Causes of the Cold War
- Progress of the Cold War
- Results of the Cold War
Causes of the Cold War
- After the end of World War II, two superpowers emerged in the world: the USSR and the USA. The Soviet Union made a decisive contribution to the victory over fascism and had, at that time, the most combat-ready army, armed with the latest technology. The movement in support of the Soviet Union intensified throughout the world due to the emergence of states with socialist regimes in Eastern Europe.
- Western countries, led by the United States, watched with alarm the growing popularity of the Soviet Union. The creation of the atomic bomb in the United States and its use against Japan allowed the American government to believe that it could dictate its will to the whole world. Plans for an atomic strike on the Soviet Union immediately began to be developed. The Soviet leadership realized the possibility of such actions and hastily carried out work to create such weapons in the USSR. During the period when the United States remained the sole owner of atomic weapons, the war did not begin only because the limited number of bombs would not allow for complete victory. In addition, the Americans were afraid of support from many states for the USSR.
- The ideological justification for the Cold War was W. Churchill’s speech in Fulton (1946). In it, he stated that the Soviet Union was a threat to the whole world. The socialist system strives to conquer the globe and establish its dominance. Churchill considered the English-speaking countries (primarily the USA and England) to be the main force capable of countering the global threat, which should declare a new crusade against the Soviet Union. The USSR took note of the threat. From this moment the Cold War begins.
Progress of the Cold War
- The Cold War did not develop into World War III, but situations arose when this could well have happened.
- In 1949, the Soviet Union invented the atomic bomb. The seemingly achieved parity between the superpowers turned into an arms race - a constant increase in military-technical potential and the invention of more powerful weapons.
- In 1949, NATO was formed - a military-political bloc of Western states, and in 1955 - the Warsaw Pact, which united the socialist states of Eastern Europe led by the USSR. The main warring parties have emerged.
- The first "hot spot" of the Cold War was the Korean War (1950-1953). In South Korea there was a pro-American regime in power, in North Korea it was pro-Soviet. NATO sent its armed forces, USSR assistance was expressed in the supply of military equipment and the dispatch of specialists. The war ended with recognition of the division of Korea into two states.
- The most dangerous moment of the Cold War was the Cuban Missile Crisis (1962). The USSR stationed its nuclear missiles in Cuba, in close proximity to the United States. The Americans became aware of this. The Soviet Union was demanded to remove the missiles. After the refusal, the military forces of the superpowers were put on alert. However, common sense prevailed. The USSR agreed to the demand, and in return the Americans removed their missiles from Turkey.
- The further history of the Cold War was expressed in the material and ideological support by the Soviet Union for third world countries in their national liberation movement. The United States, under the pretext of the struggle for democracy, provided the same support to pro-Western regimes. The confrontation led to local military conflicts around the globe, the largest of which was the US war in Vietnam (1964-1975).
- Second half of the 70s. marked by a relaxation of tensions. A series of negotiations were held, and economic and cultural ties between the Western and Eastern blocs began to be established.
- However, in the late 70s, the superpowers made another breakthrough in the arms race. Moreover, in 1979, the USSR sent its troops into Afghanistan. Relations became strained again.
- Perestroika and the collapse of the Soviet Union led to the collapse of the entire socialist system. The Cold War ended due to the voluntary withdrawal of one of the superpowers from the confrontation. Americans rightfully consider themselves victors in the war.
Results of the Cold War
- The Cold War for a long time kept humanity in fear of the possibility of a Third World War, which could well be the last in human history. By the end of the confrontation, according to various estimates, the planet had accumulated such a quantity of nuclear weapons that would be enough to blow up the globe 40 times.
- The Cold War led to military clashes in which people were killed and states suffered enormous damage. The arms race itself was ruinous for both superpowers.
- The end of the Cold War should be recognized as an achievement for humanity. However, the conditions under which this became possible led to the collapse of the great state with all the ensuing consequences. There was a threat of the formation of a unipolar world led by the United States.
Cold War
Cold War is a military, political, ideological and economic confrontation between the USSR and the USA and their supporters. It was a consequence of the contradictions between two state systems: capitalist and socialist.
The Cold War was accompanied by an intensification of the arms race and the presence of nuclear weapons, which could lead to a third world war.
The term was first used by the writer George Orwell October 19, 1945, in the article “You and the Atomic Bomb.”
Period:
1946-1989
Causes of the Cold War
Political
An insoluble ideological contradiction between two systems and models of society.
The West and the United States are afraid of the strengthening role of the USSR.
Economic
The struggle for resources and markets for products
Weakening the economic and military power of the enemy
Ideological
Total, irreconcilable struggle of two ideologies
The desire to shield the population of their countries from the way of life in enemy countries
Goals of the parties
Consolidate the spheres of influence achieved during World War II.
Put the enemy in unfavorable political, economic and ideological conditions
USSR goal: complete and final victory of socialism on a global scale
US goal: containment of socialism, opposition to the revolutionary movement, in the future - “throw socialism into the dustbin of history.” The USSR was seen as "evil empire"
Conclusion: Neither side was right, each sought world domination.
The forces of the parties were not equal. The USSR bore all the hardships of the war, and the United States received huge profits from it. Only by the mid-1970s was it achieved parity.
Cold War weapons:
Arms race
Bloc confrontation
Destabilization of the enemy's military and economic situation
Psychological warfare
Ideological confrontation
Interference in domestic politics
Active intelligence activity
Collection of incriminating evidence on political leaders, etc.
Main periods and events
March 5, 1946- W. Churchill's speech in Fulton(USA) - the beginning of the Cold War, in which the idea of creating an alliance to fight communism was proclaimed. Speech by the British Prime Minister in the presence of the new American President Truman G. two goals:
Prepare the Western public for the subsequent gap between the winning countries.
Literally erase from people’s consciousness the feeling of gratitude to the USSR that appeared after the victory over fascism.
The United States has set a goal: to achieve economic and military superiority over the USSR
1947 – "Truman Doctrine"" Its essence: containing the spread of the expansion of the USSR by creating regional military blocs dependent on the United States.
1947 - Marshall Plan - aid program for Europe after World War II
1948-1953 - Soviet-Yugoslav conflict over the question of ways to build socialism in Yugoslavia.
The world is split into two camps: supporters of the USSR and supporters of the USA.
1949 - the split of Germany into the capitalist Federal Republic of Germany, the capital is Bonn, and the Soviet GDR, the capital is Berlin. (Before this, the two zones were called Bisonia)
1949 – creation NATO(North Atlantic Military-Political Alliance)
1949 – creation Comecon(Council for Mutual Economic Assistance)
1949 - successful atomic bomb testing in the USSR.
1950 -1953 – Korean War. The USA participated in it directly, and the USSR participated in a veiled manner, sending military specialists to Korea.
US target: prevent Soviet influence in the Far East. Bottom line: division of the country into the DPRK (Democratic People's Republic of Korea (capital Pyongyang), established close contacts with the USSR, + into the South Korean state (Seoul) - a zone of American influence.
2nd period: 1955-1962 (cooling in relations between countries , growing contradictions in the world socialist system)
At this time, the world was on the verge of a nuclear disaster.
Anti-communist protests in Hungary, Poland, events in the GDR, Suez crisis
1955 - creation OVD- Warsaw Pact organizations.
1955 - Geneva Conference of Heads of Government of the Victorious Countries.
1957 - development and successful testing of an intercontinental ballistic missile in the USSR, which increased tension in the world.
October 4, 1957 - opened space age. Launch of the first artificial earth satellite in the USSR.
1959 - victory of the revolution in Cuba (Fidel Castro). Cuba became one of the most reliable partners of the USSR.
1961 - worsening relations with China.
1962 – Cuban missile crisis. Settled by N.S. Khrushchev And D. Kennedy
Signing of a number of agreements on the non-proliferation of nuclear weapons.
An arms race that significantly weakened the economies of countries.
1962 - complication of relations with Albania
1963-USSR, UK and USA signed first nuclear test ban treaty in three spheres: atmosphere, space and underwater.
1968 - complications in relations with Czechoslovakia (“Prague Spring”).
Dissatisfaction with Soviet policy in Hungary, Poland, and the GDR.
1964-1973- US war in Vietnam. The USSR provided military and material assistance to Vietnam.
3rd period: 1970-1984- tension strip
1970s - the USSR made a number of attempts to strengthen " détente" international tension, arms reduction.
A number of agreements on the limitation of strategic weapons have been signed. So in 1970 there was an agreement between the Federal Republic of Germany (W. Brand) and the USSR (Brezhnev L.I.), according to which the parties pledged to resolve all their disputes exclusively by peaceful means.
May 1972 - American President R. Nixon arrived in Moscow. Treaty limiting missile defense systems signed (PRO) And OSV-1- Interim Agreement on Certain Measures in the Field of Limitation of Strategic Offensive Arms.
Convention on the prohibition of development, production and accumulation of reserves bacteriological(biological) and toxic weapons and their destruction.
1975- the highest point of détente, signed in August in Helsinki Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe And Declaration of Principles on Relationships Between states. 33 states signed it, including the USSR, USA, and Canada.
Sovereign equality, respect
Non-use of force and threats of force
Inviolability of borders
Territorial integrity
Non-interference in internal affairs
Peaceful settlement of disputes
Respect for human rights and freedoms
Equality, the right of peoples to control their own destinies
Cooperation between states
Conscientious fulfillment of obligations under international law
1975 - joint space program Soyuz-Apollo.
1979- Treaty on the Limitation of Offensive Arms – OSV-2(Brezhnev L.I. and Carter D.)
What are these principles?
4th period: 1979-1987 - complication of the international situation
The USSR became a truly great power that had to be reckoned with. The detente was mutually beneficial.
The aggravation of relations with the United States in connection with the entry of USSR troops into Afghanistan in 1979 (the war lasted from December 1979 to February 1989). USSR goal- protect the borders in Central Asia against the penetration of Islamic fundamentalism. In the end- The United States did not ratify SALT II.
Since 1981, the new President Reagan R. launched programs SOI– Strategic defense initiatives.
1983- US hosts ballistic missiles in Italy, England, Germany, Belgium, Denmark.
Anti-space defense systems are being developed.
The USSR withdraws from the Geneva negotiations.
5 period: 1985-1991 - the final stage, mitigation of tension.
Having come to power in 1985, Gorbachev M.S. pursues a policy "new political thinking".
Negotiations: 1985 - in Geneva, 1986 - in Reykjavik, 1987 - in Washington. Recognition of the existing world order, expansion of economic ties between countries, despite different ideologies.
December 1989- Gorbachev M.S. and Bush at the summit on the island of Malta announced about the end of the Cold War. Its end was caused by the economic weakness of the USSR and its inability to further support the arms race. In addition, pro-Soviet regimes were established in Eastern European countries, and the USSR lost support from them as well.
1990 - German reunification. It became a kind of victory for the West in the Cold War. Fall Berlin Wall(existed from August 13, 1961 to November 9, 1989)
December 25, 1991 - President D. Bush announced the end of the Cold War and congratulated his compatriots on their victory.
Results
The formation of a unipolar world, in which the United States, a superpower, began to occupy a leading position.
The United States and its allies defeated the socialist camp.
The beginning of the Westernization of Russia
The collapse of the Soviet economy, the decline of its authority in the international market
The emigration of Russian citizens to the West, his lifestyle seemed too attractive to them.
The collapse of the USSR and the beginning of the formation of a new Russia.
Terms
Parity- the primacy of a party in something.
Confrontation– confrontation, collision of two social systems (people, groups, etc.).
Ratification– giving the document legal force, its acceptance.
Westernization– borrowing a Western European or American way of life.
Material prepared by: Melnikova Vera Aleksandrovna
The main events of international politics in the second half of the 20th century were determined by the Cold War between two superpowers - the USSR and the USA.
Its consequences are felt to this day, and crisis moments in relations between Russia and the West are often called echoes of the Cold War.
How did the Cold War begin?
The term “Cold War” belongs to the pen of the novelist and publicist George Orwell, who used this phrase in 1945. However, the beginning of the conflict is associated with a speech by former British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, which he delivered in 1946 in the presence of American President Harry Truman.
Churchill declared that an “iron curtain” had been erected in the middle of Europe, to the east of which there was no democracy.
Churchill's speech had the following prerequisites:
- establishment of communist governments in states liberated by the Red Army from fascism;
- the rise of the leftist underground in Greece (which led to civil war);
- strengthening of communists in Western European countries such as Italy and France.
Soviet diplomacy also took advantage of this, laying claims to the Turkish straits and Libya.
The main signs of the outbreak of the Cold War
In the first months after the victorious May 1945, on the wave of sympathy for the Eastern ally in the anti-Hitler coalition, Soviet films were freely shown in Europe, and the attitude of the press towards the USSR was neutral or friendly. In the Soviet Union, they temporarily forgot about the cliches that represented the West as the kingdom of the bourgeoisie.
With the onset of the Cold War, cultural contacts were curtailed, and the rhetoric of confrontation prevailed in diplomacy and the media. The people were told briefly and clearly who their enemy was.
All over the world there were bloody clashes between the allies of one side or another, and the Cold War participants themselves started an arms race. This is the name given to the buildup of weapons of mass destruction, primarily nuclear, in the arsenals of the Soviet and American military.
Military spending drained state budgets and slowed post-war economic recovery.
Causes of the Cold War - briefly and point by point
The conflict that began had several reasons:
- Ideological - the intractability of contradictions between societies built on different political foundations.
- Geopolitical - the parties feared each other's dominance.
- Economic - the desire of the West and the communists to use the economic resources of the opposite side.
Stages of the Cold War
The chronology of events is divided into 5 main periods
First stage - 1946-1955
During the first 9 years, a compromise was still possible between the victors of fascism, and both sides were searching for it.
The United States strengthened its position in Europe thanks to the economic assistance program under the Marshall Plan. Western countries united to form NATO in 1949, and the Soviet Union successfully tested nuclear weapons.
In 1950, the Korean War broke out, with both the USSR and the United States involved to varying degrees. Stalin dies, but the Kremlin's diplomatic position does not change significantly.
Second stage - 1955-1962
The communists face opposition from the populations of Hungary, Poland and the GDR. In 1955, an alternative to the Western Alliance appeared - the Warsaw Pact Organization.
The arms race is moving to the stage of creating intercontinental missiles. A side effect of military developments was the exploration of space, the launch of the first satellite and the first cosmonaut of the USSR. The Soviet bloc is strengthening at the expense of Cuba, where Fidel Castro comes to power.
Third stage - 1962-1979
After the Cuban Missile Crisis, the parties are trying to curb the military race. In 1963, a treaty was signed banning atomic tests in the air, space and under water. In 1964, the conflict in Vietnam began, provoked by the West's desire to defend this country from leftist rebels.
In the early 1970s, the world entered the era of “international détente.” Its main characteristic is the desire for peaceful coexistence. The parties limit strategic offensive weapons and prohibit biological and chemical weapons.
Leonid Brezhnev's peace diplomacy in 1975 culminated in the signing of the Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe by 33 countries in Helsinki. At the same time, the joint Soyuz-Apollo program was launched with the participation of Soviet cosmonauts and American astronauts.
The fourth stage - 1979-1987
In 1979, the Soviet Union sent the army to Afghanistan to install a puppet government. In the wake of worsening contradictions, the United States refused to ratify the SALT II treaty, signed earlier by Brezhnev and Carter. The West is boycotting the Moscow Olympics.
President Ronald Reagan showed himself to be a tough anti-Soviet politician by launching the SDI program - Strategic Defense Initiatives. American missiles are being deployed in close proximity to the territory of the Soviet Union.
Fifth period - 1987-1991
This stage was given the definition of “new political thinking.”
The transfer of power to Mikhail Gorbachev and the beginning of perestroika in the USSR meant the resumption of contacts with the West and a gradual abandonment of ideological intransigence.
Cold War crises
The Cold War crises in history refer to several periods of greatest aggravation of relations between rival parties. Two of them are the Berlin crises of 1948-1949 and 1961 - associated with the formation of three political entities on the site of the former Reich - the GDR, the Federal Republic of Germany and West Berlin.
In 1962, the USSR placed nuclear missiles in Cuba, threatening the security of the United States in an event called the Cuban Missile Crisis. Subsequently, Khrushchev dismantled the missiles in exchange for the Americans withdrawing missiles from Turkey.
When and how did the Cold War end?
In 1989, the Americans and Russians declared the end of the Cold War. In reality, this meant the dismantling of the socialist regimes of Eastern Europe, right up to Moscow itself. Germany united, the Department of Internal Affairs disintegrated, and then the USSR itself.
Who won the cold war
In January 1992, George W. Bush declared: “With the help of God, America won the Cold War!” His jubilation at the end of the confrontation was not shared by many residents of the countries of the former USSR, where a time of economic turmoil and criminal chaos began.
In 2007, a bill was introduced into the American Congress establishing a medal for participation in the Cold War. For the American establishment, the theme of victory over communism remains an important element of political propaganda.
Results
Why the socialist camp ultimately turned out to be weaker than the capitalist one and what its significance was for humanity are the main final questions of the Cold War. The consequences of these events are felt even in the 21st century. The collapse of the left led to economic growth, democratic change, and a surge of nationalism and religious intolerance in the world.
Along with this, the weapons accumulated during these years are preserved, and the governments of Russia and Western countries act largely based on the concepts and stereotypes learned during the armed confrontation.
The Cold War, which lasted 45 years, is for historians the most important process of the second half of the twentieth century, which determined the contours of the modern world.
The Cold War refers to the confrontation between the economics, ideology and military policies of the USSR and the USA, which lasted from the 40s to the 90s of the twentieth century.
After the end, the Soviet Union established control in the countries of Eastern Europe, which was perceived by the US and British governments as a threat to their security. In 1945 Churchill even ordered his ministers of war to develop a plan of military action against the Soviet Union. Churchill united with the United States and declared that military superiority in relations with the USSR should be on the side of the English-speaking countries.
Such statements caused tension between the USSR and the Western world. The USSR, in turn, had views of some of the Black Sea straits that belonged to Turkey, and also sought to have a presence in the Mediterranean Sea. But attempts to create communist influence in Greece ended in failure in 1947, and since 1949, a NATO bloc has been formed in opposition to the Soviet Union and its allies.
American military bases began to appear in European countries, aimed at providing defense against possible Soviet aggression. The American government offers economic support to countries that suffered from World War II in exchange for the fact that all communists will be expelled from the leadership of these countries. The USSR is intensively working on the production of nuclear weapons in order to balance forces with the United States and is increasing the number of interceptor fighters, which made it possible to gain some advantage in the event of a nuclear strike.
With the coming to power, relations with the West improved slightly, but a number of conflicts still occurred in Europe, which again caused tension in the situation. There was a major uprising against the communists in Hungary, and there were armed incidents in the GDR in 1953 and in Poland in 1956. Also in response to the strengthening of the army of Soviet bombers, the Americans formed a powerful air defense system around the cities of the NATO countries.
In turn, the USSR in 1959 launched a series of ballistic missiles that are capable of covering the distance to the United States. There is an awareness that immediately after the start of a nuclear attack by the United States, the Soviet Union will deliver an adequate retaliatory strike, so a total war began to be considered impossible. In the era Khrushchev There were also the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962 and the Berlin Crisis of 1961, which were caused by another deterioration in relations after the US spy plane scandal in 1960.
Some large European countries did not support American nuclear policy - for example, France refused to participate in the NATO armed forces in 1966. And in the same year, a US bomber dropped several bombs on a Spanish village Palomares, which led to the limitation of American military forces in Spain. And the USSR launched a military aggression into Czechoslovakia in 1968 to suppress the democratic forces that tried to reform the country. And yet, starting in 1970, “detente of international tension” began, which he primarily tried to promote.
The Soviet Union was beginning to experience problems in consumer goods that needed foreign currency, and therefore the Soviet government did not benefit from tense relations with the West. At the same time, the arms race continued on both sides - various nuclear strike strategies were developed and new missiles were produced. Since 1977, medium-range missiles began to be on combat duty in the European part of the Soviet Union, and on the other hand, the US government decided to deploy missiles in Western European countries.
When Soviet troops entered Afghanistan in 1979, another strain began in relations between the USSR and the West. And in 1983 Reagan proclaimed the Soviet Union an “evil empire” after Soviet air defenses shot down a South Korean civilian aircraft. In the United States, the space missile defense program began to be actively implemented, and the production of neutron weapons was mastered. And in response to American missiles deployed in Denmark, Belgium and other countries, the USSR is placing nuclear weapons in Czechoslovakia and the GDR.
Only with the coming to power of M.S. Gorbachev the course was again taken to establish mutual understanding between the USSR and the West. Again, peaceful slogans were put forward as in the 70s, and since 1987, the new policy of the Soviet state has greatly improved relations between the two powers. The Soviet government made concessions in areas of foreign policy due to dependence on Western technology. In 1988, the Soviet contingent began to leave Afghanistan and in the same year M.S. Gorbachev declares at the session of the UN General Assembly about measures to reduce the Armed Forces of the USSR.
Communist regimes in Eastern Europe began to collapse, and in 1990 the Charter was signed, which drew a final line under the confrontation between two ideologies. The era of democracy and peace on earth has begun. And in the USSR the crisis continued, conflicts began in the southern republics, the central government lost the ability to control the huge country in 1991.
After graduation World War II, which became the largest and most brutal conflict in the entire history of mankind, a confrontation arose between the countries of the communist camp on the one hand and Western capitalist countries on the other, between the two superpowers of that time, the USSR and the USA. The Cold War can be briefly described as a competition for dominance in the new post-war world.
The main reason for the Cold War was the insoluble ideological contradictions between the two models of society, socialist and capitalist. The West feared the strengthening of the USSR. The lack of a common enemy among the winning countries, as well as the ambitions of political leaders, also played a role.
Historians identify the following stages of the Cold War:
· March 5, 1946 – 1953 The Cold War began with Churchill's speech in Fulton in the spring of 1946, which proposed the idea of creating an alliance of Anglo-Saxon countries to fight communism. The goal of the United States was an economic victory over the USSR, as well as achieving military superiority. In fact, the Cold War began earlier, but it was by the spring of 1946, due to the USSR’s refusal to withdraw troops from Iran, that the situation seriously worsened.
· 1953 – 1962 During this period of the Cold War, the world was on the brink of nuclear conflict. Despite some improvement in relations between the Soviet Union and the United States during the Thaw Khrushchev, it was at this stage that the anti-communist uprising in Hungary, events in the GDR and, earlier, in Poland, as well as the Suez crisis took place. International tensions increased following the Soviet development and successful testing of an intercontinental ballistic missile in 1957. But, the threat of nuclear war receded, since the Soviet Union was now able to retaliate against US cities. This period of relations between the superpowers ended with the Berlin and Caribbean crises of 1961 and 1962, respectively. The Cuban missile crisis was resolved only through personal negotiations between the heads of state Khrushchev and Kennedy. Also, as a result of the negotiations, a number of agreements on the non-proliferation of nuclear weapons were signed.
· 1962 – 1979 The period was marked by an arms race that undermined the economies of rival countries. The development and production of new types of weapons required incredible resources. Despite the presence of tension in relations between the USSR and the USA, agreements on the limitation of strategic arms are signed. The joint Soyuz-Apollo space program is being developed. However, by the beginning of the 80s, the USSR began to lose in the arms race.
· 1979 – 1987 Relations between the USSR and the USA are again strained after the entry of Soviet troops into Afghanistan. In 1983, the United States deployed ballistic missiles at bases in Italy, Denmark, England, Germany, and Belgium. An anti-space defense system is being developed. The USSR reacts to the actions of the West by withdrawing from the Geneva negotiations. During this period, the missile attack warning system is in constant combat readiness.
· 1987 – 1991 M. Gorbachev’s coming to power in the USSR in 1985 entailed not only global changes within the country, but also radical changes in foreign policy, called “new political thinking.” Ill-conceived reforms completely undermined the economy of the Soviet Union, which led to the country's virtual defeat in the Cold War.
The end of the Cold War was caused by the weakness of the Soviet economy, its inability to no longer support the arms race, as well as pro-Soviet communist regimes. Anti-war protests in various parts of the world also played a certain role. The results of the Cold War were dismal for the USSR. The symbol of the victory of the West was the reunification of Germany in 1990.
As a result, after the USSR was defeated in the Cold War, a unipolar world model emerged with the dominant superpower of the United States. However, there are other consequences of the Cold War. This is the rapid development of science and technology, primarily military. Thus, the Internet was originally created as a communications system for the American army.
Today, many documentaries and feature films have been made about the Cold War period. One of them, telling in detail about the events of those years, is “Heroes and Victims of the Cold War.”
