Etymology and meaning of the term that subsequently prevailed consules controversial. In antiquity it was translated as “caring” for the homeland, citizens, state or “questioning” the people and the Senate, and in modern times various historians of antiquity translated it differently: Barthold Niebuhr - “being together”, Theodor Mommsen - “dancing together”, Ernst Herzog - “walking together”, Wilhelm Soltau - “sitting together”, that is, comrades ( collegae).
The position of consul was collegial, that is, there were two consuls at once, they were elected for one year in the comitia centuriata. The College of Two Consuls was established, according to ancient tradition, after the expulsion of King Tarquin the Proud.
According to Roman traditional history, consuls were at first chosen only from the patricians, but as a result of the struggle of the plebeians with the patricians from 367 BC. e. one of the consuls began to be elected from among the plebeians (Lucius Sextius became the first of the plebeian consuls). However, modern historians question this, pointing out that about 30% of the consuls who ruled before Lucius bore plebeian rather than patrician names.
From 222 to 153 BC e. The consuls took office on the Ides of March, that is, March 15. Later, the consular year began to begin on January 1.
The consuls had the highest civil and military power, recruited legions and led them, convened the Senate and comitia, presided over them, appointed dictators, carried out auspices, etc. In emergency circumstances, the Senate vested the consuls with unlimited powers. The right to conduct trials in civil cases from 367 BC. e. passed to the consuls' junior colleagues, the praetors.
The insignia of the consul were a toga with a wide purple border, a curule chair (lat. Sella curulis), inlaid with ivory, and accompanied by 12 lictors with fasces, into which axes were placed outside the city limits.
During the era of the empire, consuls lost real power, this position turned into an honorary title, and from an elected position it turned into an appointed one.
See also
Write a review on the article "Consul (Ancient Rome)"
Literature
- Consuls // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: in 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional). - St. Petersburg. , 1890-1907.
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listen)) - the highest elected magistracy during the era of the republic in Ancient Rome.
Etymology and meaning of the term that subsequently prevailed consules controversial. In antiquity it was translated as “caring” for the homeland, citizens, state or “questioning” the people and the Senate, and in modern times various historians of antiquity translated it differently: Barthold Niebuhr - “being together”, Theodor Mommsen - “dancing together”, Ernst Herzog - “walking together”, Wilhelm Soltau - “sitting together”, that is, comrades ( collegae).
The position of consul was collegial, that is, there were two consuls at once, they were elected for one year in the comitia centuriata. The College of Two Consuls was established, according to ancient tradition, after the expulsion of King Tarquin the Proud.
According to Roman traditional history, consuls were at first chosen only from the patricians, but as a result of the struggle of the plebeians with the patricians from 367 BC. e. one of the consuls began to be elected from among the plebeians (Lucius Sextius became the first of the plebeian consuls). However, modern historians question this, pointing out that about 30% of the consuls who ruled before Lucius bore plebeian rather than patrician names.
From 222 to 153 BC e. The consuls took office on the Ides of March, that is, March 15. Later, the consular year began to begin on January 1.
The consuls had the highest civil and military power, recruited legions and led them, convened the Senate and comitia, presided over them, appointed dictators, carried out auspices, etc. In emergency circumstances, the Senate vested the consuls with unlimited powers. The right to conduct trials in civil cases from 367 BC. e. passed to the consuls' junior colleagues, the praetors.
The insignia of the consul were a toga with a wide purple border, a curule chair (lat. Sella curulis), inlaid with ivory, and accompanied by 12 lictors with fasces, into which axes were placed outside the city limits.
During the era of the empire, consuls lost real power, this position turned into an honorary title, and from an elected position it turned into an appointed one.
See also
Write a review on the article "Consul (Ancient Rome)"
Literature
- // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: in 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional). - St. Petersburg. , 1890-1907.
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Excerpt characterizing the Consul (Ancient Rome)
- So why are you here? You should have been ahead a long time ago, now you won’t make it until evening.- Those orders are stupid; “They don’t know what they’re doing,” the officer said and drove away.
Then a general drove by and shouted something angrily, not in Russian.
“Tafa lafa, you can’t understand what he’s muttering,” said the soldier, mimicking the departed general. - I would shoot them, scoundrels!
“We were told to be there at nine o’clock, but we weren’t even halfway through.” These are the orders! - repeated from different sides.
And the feeling of energy with which the troops went into action began to turn into annoyance and anger at the stupid orders and at the Germans.
The reason for the confusion was that while the Austrian cavalry was moving on the left flank, the higher authorities found that our center was too far from the right flank, and the entire cavalry was ordered to move to the right side. Several thousand cavalry advanced ahead of the infantry, and the infantry had to wait.
Ahead there was a clash between the Austrian column leader and the Russian general. The Russian general shouted, demanding that the cavalry be stopped; the Austrian argued that it was not he who was to blame, but the higher authorities. Meanwhile, the troops stood, bored and discouraged. After an hour's delay, the troops finally moved further and began to descend down the mountain. The fog that dispersed on the mountain only spread thicker in the lower areas where the troops descended. Ahead, in the fog, one shot was heard, then another, at first awkwardly at different intervals: draft... tat, and then more and more smoothly and more often, and the matter began over the Goldbach River.
Not expecting to meet the enemy below the river and accidentally stumbling upon him in the fog, not hearing a word of inspiration from the highest commanders, with the consciousness spreading throughout the troops that it was too late, and, most importantly, in the thick fog not seeing anything ahead and around them, the Russians lazily and slowly exchanged fire with the enemy, moved forward and stopped again, not receiving orders from the commanders and adjutants, who were wandering through the fog in an unfamiliar area, not finding their units of troops. Thus began the case for the first, second and third columns that went down. The fourth column, with Kutuzov himself, stood on the Pratsen Heights.
At the bottom, where the matter began, there was still a thick fog, at the top it had cleared, but nothing was visible from what was happening ahead. Whether all the enemy forces, as we assumed, were ten miles away from us or whether he was here, in this line of fog, no one knew until the ninth hour.
It was 9 o'clock in the morning. The fog spread like a continuous sea along the bottom, but near the village of Shlapanice, at the height at which Napoleon stood, surrounded by his marshals, it was completely light. Above him was a clear, blue sky, and a huge ball of the sun, like a huge hollow crimson float, swayed on the surface of a milky sea of fog. Not only all the French troops, but Napoleon himself and his headquarters were located on the wrong side of the streams and the bottoms of the villages of Sokolnitz and Shlapanitz, behind which we intended to take a position and begin business, but on this side, so close to our troops that Napoleon could in our army to distinguish horse from foot. Napoleon stood somewhat ahead of his marshals on a small gray Arabian horse, wearing a blue overcoat, the same one in which he fought the Italian campaign. He silently peered into the hills, which seemed to protrude from a sea of fog, and along which Russian troops were moving in the distance, and listened to the sounds of shooting in the ravine. At that time, his still thin face did not move a single muscle; the shining eyes were motionless fixed on one place. His assumptions turned out to be correct. Some of the Russian troops had already descended into the ravine to the ponds and lakes, and some were clearing those Pratsen heights, which he intended to attack and considered the key to the position. He saw, in the midst of the fog, how, in a depression made up of two mountains near the village of Prats, Russian columns, all moving in one direction towards the hollows, bayonets shining, disappeared one after another into the sea of fog. According to the information he received in the evening, from the sounds of wheels and footsteps heard at night at the outposts, from the disorderly movement of the Russian columns, from all assumptions, he clearly saw that the allies considered him far ahead of them, that the columns moving near Pratzen formed the center of the Russian army, and that the center is already weakened enough to attack it successfully. But he still hadn't started the business.
In the Roman chronology system, years were designated by the names of the consuls of a given year (they were called lat. consules ordinarii ).
According to the laws of the republic, the minimum age of a consul was 41 (for a patrician) and 42 years (for a plebeian). After the end of the term of office, the consuls received control of a province and the title of proconsul.
Each consul commanded the army as he saw fit and had unlimited power. However, at the end of the campaign, he could be prosecuted for his crimes (such as plundering provinces or embezzling public funds)
5. Prevent abuse
To prevent abuse of consular power, each consul was given the right to veto the decision of his colleague. Therefore, with the exception of provinces where one of the consuls was the commander of the local troops, the consuls could only act in harmony, or at least not against each other. If a charge was brought against one of the consuls, his colleague could appeal and, if successful, the charges were dropped. To avoid unwanted conflicts, each month only one of the consuls performed his duties. This does not mean that the other consul was temporarily deprived of power, but only that the first of them was able to act without interference. The next month the consuls changed roles, and this continued throughout the entire term of the consulate.
Another means of control of the consuls was the fact. that, at the end of their term of office, each of the former consuls could be held accountable for their actions while in office.
There were also three restrictions on consular power: a short term of office (one year), a clear definition of their duties by the Senate, and the impossibility of re-running for election as consul immediately after the end of the first term. Usually the period between consulates was ten years.
6. Governorship
After the end of the consulate, the Senate appointed the consul to the post of governor of the province. The provinces to which each consul was destined were determined by drawing lots, which was held at the end of the consulate.
Thus, at the end of his powers, the consul became a proconsul, and his power was limited to one of the many provinces of the Republic and no longer extended to the entire country, and was even illegal in other provinces. Also, the proconsul did not have the right to leave the province until the end of his term of office or until the arrival of his successor, with the exception of only rare cases when this was special permission from the Senate. The duration of the proconsulate was mainly from one to five years.
7. Appointment of a dictator
In times of crisis, especially when Roman territories were under threat of enemy attack, the consuls, at the proposal of the Senate, appointed a dictator who was given supreme power in the state for a period of no more than 6 months. During the dictatorship, the powers of the consuls were temporarily suspended.
8. Rights and duties of consuls during the Empire
After Octavian Augustus became in 27 BC. emperor and established the principate, the consuls lost most of their power and responsibilities. Although this was still the highest position in the state, under the absolute supreme power of the emperor, the consuls became only a symbol of the republican heritage. Increasingly, the consular position was embraced by the emperor himself and finally became purely imperial; the consuls in the Roman Empire, however, retained the right to preside over the Senate. Also, in exceptional cases, the consuls had the right to administer justice and presented games in the Circus Maximus and all ceremonies in honor of the emperor, held at their own expense.
At the end of their term of office, former consuls (proconsuls) usually assumed the positions of governors of Roman provinces, where they served for three to five years.
9. Dating
Each year was named after the consuls who ruled that year (similar to the year of reign in the monarchy), although there was a more practical dating “from the foundation of the city” (i.e. from the date of the founding of Rome). For example, 59 BC. was called the "consulate of Caesar and Bibulus", because the consuls of this year were called Gaius Julius Caesar and Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus - although virtually all power belonged to Caesar, which is why this year is sometimes jokingly called the "consulate of Julius and Caesar".
In Latin, the construction commonly used to indicate the date was the absolute ablative. As an example - “M. Messalla et M. Pupio Pisone consulibus”, which can be translated in literary language as when the consuls were “Marcus Messalla and Marcus Pupio Pisone” (Caesar's De Bello Gallico)
1. Specifics of the consul’s work
2. Consul (Ancient Rome)
Consul is an official entrusted by the sending state to perform consular functions within the relevant consular district on the territory of the receiving state. In fact, consular functions on behalf of the sending state are carried out by consular offices specially opened with the consent of the receiving state.
Consul is the highest elective magistracy during the era of the republic in Ancient Rome.
Specifics of the consul's work
The heads of consular posts are divided into 4 classes:
consul general
vice consul
consular agent
Accordingly, a consular post may be a consulate general, a consulate, a vice-consulate (rarely) or a consular agency (even more rarely). In addition to the head, the staff of a consular post usually consists of consular officials, who may be called consular advisors, consuls, vice-consuls, or attachés.
The procedure for opening consular posts, the content and procedure for performing consular functions, the appointment of consular officials, the scope of advantages, privileges and immunities of consular posts and full-time consular officials are regulated by the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations of April 24, 1963 (came into force on March 19, 1967) .
The main consular functions are:
protection of the rights and interests of the sending state and its citizens (individuals and legal entities), as well as providing them with assistance and assistance;
promoting the development of trade, economic, cultural and scientific relations between the sending state and the receiving state;
dissemination of official information about the foreign and domestic policies of the sending state;
issuing visas to foreign citizens;
issuing passports to citizens of the sending state;
carrying out notarial actions;
civil registration;
consideration of citizenship issues; relevant functions in relation to the ships of the sending State;
providing legal assistance in civil, family and criminal cases;
maintaining records of citizens of the sending state located within the consular district.
Non-staff (honorary) consul is a person who is not in the diplomatic service of the sending state, but performs some consular functions. As a rule, these are representatives of the business community of the host state. Usually, honorary consuls cannot issue documents of strict accountability (passports, visas, etc.), but can make petitions to the authorities of the host state (of which they are usually citizens). Without receiving wages from the sending state for the performance of consular functions, they can turn part of the consular fees to their benefit. There are known cases of unfair use of the honorary consul's prerogatives (some underdeveloped countries actually sell consular patents).
Consul (Ancient Rome)
Consul (lat. consul) - the highest elected magistracy during the era of the republic in Ancient Rome.
The position of consul was collegial, that is, there were two consuls at once, they were elected for one year in the comitia centuriata. The College of Two Consuls was established, according to ancient tradition, after the expulsion of King Tarquin the Proud.
According to traditional Roman history, consuls were at first chosen only from the patricians, but as a result of the struggle between the plebeians and the patricians from 367 BC. e. one of the consuls began to be elected from among the plebeians (Lucius Sextius became the first of the plebeian consuls). However, modern historians question this, pointing out that about 30% of the consuls who ruled before Lucius bore plebeian rather than patrician names.
The consuls had the highest civil and military power, recruited legions and led them, convened the Senate and comitia, presided over them, appointed dictators, carried out auspices, etc. In emergency circumstances, the Senate vested the consuls with unlimited powers.
The right to conduct trials in civil cases from 367 BC. e. passed to the junior colleagues of the consuls - the praetors.
The quaestors were assistant consuls.
The insignia of the consul was a toga with a wide purple border, a curule chair (lat. Sella curulis) inlaid with ivory, and an escort of 12 lictors with fasces into which axes were placed outside the city limits.
In the Roman chronology system, years were designated by the names of the consuls of a given year (they were called in Latin CONSULES ORDINARII).
According to the laws of the republic, the minimum age of a consul was 41 (for a patrician) and 42 years (for a plebeian). But exceptions were allowed: Pompey first became consul at the age of 27.
At the end of their term of office, the consuls received control of a province and the title of proconsul.
During the era of the empire, consuls lost real power, this position turned into an honorary title, and from an elected position it turned into an appointed one.
Sources
ru.wikipedia.org Wikipedia – the free encyclopedia
dic.academic.ru Dictionaries and encyclopedias on Academician
in ancient Rome, an official who held the highest civil and military authority. Two consuls were elected for a term of one year. In the era of empire, consuls lose real power, the title of consul becomes an honorary title.
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CONSUL
The republican deputies of the kings expelled in 510 BC were two consuls (pari potentia), who were originally called praetores (praeire), but after the legislation of the decemvirs the name consules began to prevail. They were elected (creare) for one year in the comitia centuriata and until 336 BC only from among the patricians. By their names, just as in Athens by the name of the first archon (??????? ?????????), the years were called (usually with the omission of the conjunction et). From 154 BC they took office continuously on January 1st. All magistrates, with the exception of the tribunes of the people, had to obey them, as the elected guardians of the state, tutores reipublicae; during the dictatorship, their official activities ceased. Their decisions could be appealed to the people, according to the law lex de provocatione ( cm. Provocatio, Proclamation). However, after losing their rank, they could be held accountable for their actions in their positions. In the city they had no Imperium; this unlimited supreme power was granted to them only during the campaign on the basis of a special decision of the curiat comitia and contained a ius vitae necisque. In Rome they had the right to convene the Senate and the People's Assembly (comitia centuriata) and preside over both assemblies (ius cum populo et patribus agendi). The calling of a comita tributa seems to have been granted also from the time of the lex Valeria Horatia, in 448 BC. Liv. 3, 71. 72), because as a result of this law the patricians were forced to defend their interests in these assemblies by casting votes. The highest judicial power was removed from K. in 366 BC and transferred to the department of the newly established position of praetors, just as before, in 443 BC, due to the establishment of special censorship ( cm. Censor, Censor) they were relieved of the responsibility to carry out qualifications and manage finances. Extraordinary honorable affairs, such as the consecration of a temple, the proclamation of a dictator, often aroused a dispute between both comrades in office; in this case, if the agreement did not take place, the matter was usually decided by lot. In times of internal or external danger, the Senate "extreme decree"(senatus consultum extremum, Caes. b. c. 1, 5): videant consules ne quid respublica detrimenti capiat - instructed them to appoint (dicere) a dictator; when the position of dictator fell out of use, then by this assignment the consular power was actually elevated to dictatorial power, and the K. also received domi imperium atque iudicium summum ( Sall. Cat. 29. Cic. Mil. 26). However, such authority did not protect Cicero from being held personally liable. The dual number (par potestas) was considered essential for the consulate; therefore, in the event of the death of one consul, the other had to immediately call the election of a new comrade (comitia ad subrogandum or sufficiendum consulem); the newly elected one was called consul suffectus and enjoyed equal power with consul Ordinarius. The delay and omission of these elections always greatly disturbed the people, so such cases occurred very rarely, although at the very beginning of the Republic Publius Valerius ruled at one time sine collega. In 499 BC, elections were not held due to the short time remaining until the term of office, and in 67 BC due to religious considerations, since the newly elected consul suffectus died before taking office . It was completely illegal to remain without a comrade after Cinna in 83 BC. Carbon; Pompey was appointed consul sine collega in 51 BC only in order to avoid the name and irresponsibility of the dictator. During the campaign, each K. commanded two legions and the allied troops belonging to them (exercitus consularis), but they alternated in the main command every day. If they fought in different places, then they divided the terrain between themselves (provincia from provincere, to be the first, the strongest). If only one of K. went on a campaign, then he was called consul armatus, in contrast to his comrade who remained in Rome (consul togatus). During their stay in the city, the signs assigned to their rank, insignia, were: each had 12 lictores, with bundles of rods (fasces; axes were attached only during the campaign); the head of the affairs of the consul (cuisus fasces erant, p?nes quem fasces erant; in the management of affairs they alternated every month) 12 lictores walked in a long row in front, while in another they walked behind, and in former times the latter had only one servant, accensus ( cm. Accensi, Accents), who walked in front of him. The question of who should receive which province was decided by both consuls by mutual agreement (comparare, parare inter se provincias), but in case of disagreement it was decided by lot (sortiri provincias). The Senate, however, repeatedly tried to reserve the right of appointment to itself and distribute provinces extra sortem, extra ordinem. Complaints from the consuls, who considered themselves offended, were raised before the tribunes and the people and were usually successful. With the expansion of the territory of the Roman state, two consuls were not enough to wage wars; therefore the number of praetors was increased and the provinces were divided into prov. consulares and praetoriae: this division depended each time on the Senate, and since personal relationships often played a large role in this appointment, the law of C. Gracchus, Lex Sempronia de provinciis consularibus, was decided in 122 BC, so that the determination of which provinces would be designated as consular should take place before the elections of the C. In the last century of the Republic, Sulloi made great changes in the circle of activity of the C. They had to remain all year in Rome and thus lost the main source of power, the military Imperium. The direct consequence of this limitation of consular power was the impossibility for K. to successfully defend the interests of the state from the ambition of individuals. Due to the influence of certain prominent people, the consulate completely lost its significance during internecine wars. Sulla, being a dictator, retained, however, the consulate; but this was only a shadow of the former supreme power. Caesar ruled as K. in 59 BC, but not because of the significance of this position, but mainly due to the power of the triumvirate; His comrade, Bibulus, was of no importance. Pompeii, not being a K., was in fact much more powerful than the elected K.. All of Caesar’s consulates during his dictatorship were only a simple formality, and the imaginary republican conscientiousness, expressed in the appointment of the election of K. (consul suffectus) for half a day, served only to deceive people. Once again after the death of Caesar in 43 BC, in the person of Hirtius and Panza, a consulate arose as a legitimate administrative authority in the state, but the new triumvirate again deprived it of its significance. The consulate remained during the time of the emperors, but little by little it turned into an empty title and was given only for a few months in order to be able to reward a larger number of adherents with the grant of this still formally highest state position; in the end they began to give only insignia consularia without a position; hence the difference between consulatu functi and consulares honorarii. The former K., viri consulares, also derived real benefit from the fact that the two richest senatorial provinces, Asia and Africa, were usually given over to the administration of two senior consulares every year. The real consuls now only had to administer justice within certain limits, supervise the circus games and festivities prepared for the emperor, and, in addition, preside over the Senate. Wed: Brambach, de consulatus mutata inde a Caesaris temporibus ratione (1864).
