Ottoman Empire in the 16th – 18th centuries. History of the Ottoman Empire

Any Hollywood script pales in comparison with the life path of Roksolana, who became the most influential woman in the history of the great empire. Her powers, contrary to Turkish laws and Islamic canons, could only be compared with the capabilities of the Sultan himself. Roksolana became not just a wife, she was a co-ruler; They didn’t listen to her opinion; it was the only one that was correct and legal.
Anastasia Gavrilovna Lisovskaya (born c. 1506 - d. c. 1562) was the daughter of the priest Gavrila Lisovsky from Rohatyn, a small town in Western Ukraine, located southwest of Ternopil. In the 16th century, this territory belonged to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and was constantly subject to devastating raids by the Crimean Tatars. During one of them, in the summer of 1522, the young daughter of a clergyman was caught by a detachment of robbers. Legend has it that the misfortune happened just before Anastasia’s wedding.
First, the captive ended up in Crimea - this is the usual route for all slaves. The Tatars did not drive valuable “live goods” on foot across the steppe, but carried them on horseback under vigilant guard, without even tying their hands, so as not to spoil the delicate girl’s skin with ropes. Most sources say that the Crimeans, struck by the beauty of Polonyanka, decided to send the girl to Istanbul, hoping to sell her profitably at one of the largest slave markets in the Muslim East.

“Giovane, ma non bella” (“young, but ugly”), Venetian nobles said about her in 1526, but “graceful and short in stature.” None of her contemporaries, contrary to legend, called Roksolana a beauty.
The captive was sent to the capital of the sultans on a large felucca, and the owner himself took her to sell her - history has not preserved his name. On the very first day, when the Horde took the captive to the market, she accidentally caught the eye of the all-powerful vizier of the young Sultan Suleiman I, the noble Rustem, who happened to be there - Pasha. Again, the legend says that the Turk was struck by the dazzling beauty of the girl, and he decided to buy her to give a gift to the Sultan.
As can be seen from the portraits and confirmations of contemporaries, beauty clearly has nothing to do with it - I can call this coincidence of circumstances with only one word - Fate.
During this era, the sultan was Suleiman I the Magnificent (Luxurious), who ruled from 1520 to 1566, considered the greatest sultan of the Ottoman dynasty. During the years of his rule, the empire reached the apogee of its development, including all of Serbia with Belgrade, most of Hungary, the island of Rhodes, significant territories in North Africa to the borders of Morocco and the Middle East. Europe gave the Sultan the nickname Magnificent, while in the Muslim world he is more often called Kanuni, which translated from Turkish means Lawgiver. “Such greatness and nobility,” the report of the 16th-century Venetian ambassador Marini Sanuto wrote about Suleiman, “was also adorned by the fact that he, unlike his father and many other sultans, had no inclination towards pederasty.” An honest ruler and uncompromising fighter against bribery, he encouraged the development of the arts and philosophy, and was also considered a skilled poet and blacksmith - few European monarchs could compete with Suleiman I.
According to the laws of faith, the padishah could have four legal wives. The children of the first of them became heirs to the throne. Or rather, one firstborn inherited the throne, and the rest often faced a sad fate: all possible contenders for supreme power were subject to destruction.
In addition to wives, the Commander of the Faithful had any number of concubines that his soul desired and his flesh required. At different times, under different sultans, from several hundred to a thousand or more women lived in the harem, each of whom was certainly an amazing beauty. In addition to women, the harem consisted of a whole staff of castrati eunuchs, maids of various ages, chiropractors, midwives, masseuses, doctors and the like. But no one except the padishah himself could encroach on the beauties belonging to him. All this complex and hectic economy was supervised by the “chief of the girls” - the eunuch of Kyzlyaragassy.
However, amazing beauty alone was not enough: the girls destined for the padishah’s harem were required to be taught music, dancing, Muslim poetry and, of course, the art of love. Naturally, the course of love sciences was theoretical, and the practice was taught by experienced old women and women experienced in all the intricacies of sex.
Now let’s return to Roksolana, so Rustem Pasha decided to buy the Slavic beauty. But her Krymchak owner refused to sell Anastasia and presented her as a gift to the all-powerful courtier, rightly expecting to receive for this not only an expensive return gift, as is customary in the East, but also considerable benefits.
Rustem Pasha ordered it to be fully prepared as a gift to the Sultan, in turn hoping to achieve even greater favor with him. The padishah was young, he ascended the throne only in 1520 and greatly appreciated female beauty, and not just as a contemplator.
In the harem, Anastasia receives the name Khurrem (laughing). And for the Sultan, she always remained only Khurrem. Roksolana, the name under which she went down in history, is just the name of the Sarmatian tribes in the 2nd-4th centuries AD, who roamed the steppes between the Dnieper and Don, translated from Latin as “Russian”. Roksolana will often be called, both during her life and after her death, nothing more than “Rusynka” - a native of Rus' or Roxolanii, as Ukraine was previously called.

The mystery of the birth of love between the Sultan and a fifteen-year-old unknown captive will remain unsolved. After all, there was a strict hierarchy in the harem, and anyone who violated it would face severe punishment. Often - death. The female recruits - adzhemi, step by step, first became jariye, then shagird, gedikli and usta. No one except the mouth had the right to be in the Sultan's chambers. Only the mother of the ruling sultan, the valide sultan, had absolute power within the harem, and decided who and when to share a bed with the sultan from her mouth. How Roksolana managed to occupy the Sultan’s monastery almost immediately will forever remain a mystery.
There is a legend about how Hurrem came to the attention of the Sultan. When new slaves (more beautiful and expensive than she) were introduced to the Sultan, a small figure suddenly flew into the circle of dancing odalisques and, pushing away the “soloist,” laughed. And then she sang her song. The harem lived according to cruel laws. And the eunuchs were waiting for only one sign - what to prepare for the girl - clothes for the Sultan’s bedroom or a cord used to strangle the slaves. The Sultan was intrigued and surprised. And that same evening, Khurrem received the Sultan’s scarf - a sign that in the evening he was waiting for her in his bedroom. Having interested the Sultan with her silence, she asked for only one thing - the right to visit the Sultan’s library. The Sultan was shocked, but allowed it. When he returned from a military campaign some time later, Khurrem already spoke several languages. She dedicated poems to her Sultan and even wrote books. This was unprecedented at that time, and instead of respect it aroused fear. Her learning, plus the fact that the Sultan spent all his nights with her, created Khurrem's lasting fame as a witch. They said about Roksolana that she bewitched the Sultan with the help of evil spirits. And in fact he was bewitched.
“Finally, let us unite with soul, thoughts, imagination, will, heart, everything that I left mine in you and took with me yours, oh my only love!”, the Sultan wrote in a letter to Roksolana. “My lord, your absence has kindled a fire in me that does not go out. Have pity on this suffering soul and hurry up your letter so that I can find at least a little consolation in it,” answered Khurrem.
Roksolana greedily absorbed everything that she was taught in the palace, took everything that life gave her. Historians testify that after some time she actually mastered the Turkish, Arabic and Persian languages, learned to dance perfectly, recite her contemporaries, and also play according to the rules of the foreign, cruel country in which she lived. Following the rules of her new homeland, Roksolana converted to Islam.
Her main trump card was that Rustem Pasha, thanks to whom she got into the palace of the padishah, received her as a gift, and did not buy her. In turn, he did not sell it to the kyzlyaragassa, who replenished the harem, but gave it to Suleiman. This means that Roxalana remained a free woman and could lay claim to the role of the padishah’s wife. According to the laws of the Ottoman Empire, a slave could never, under any circumstances, become the wife of the Commander of the Faithful.
A few years later, Suleiman enters into an official marriage with her according to Muslim rites, elevates her to the rank of bash-kadyna - the main (and in fact, the only) wife and addresses her “Haseki,” which means “dear to the heart.”
Roksolana’s incredible position at the Sultan’s court amazed both Asia and Europe. Her education made scientists bow down, she received foreign ambassadors, responded to messages from foreign sovereigns, influential nobles and artists. She not only came to terms with the new faith, but also gained fame as a zealous orthodox Muslim, which earned her considerable respect at court.
One day, the Florentines placed a ceremonial portrait of Hurrem, for which she posed for a Venetian artist, in an art gallery. It was the only female portrait among the images of hook-nosed, bearded sultans in huge turbans. “There was never another woman in the Ottoman palace who had such power” - Venetian ambassador Navajero, 1533.
Lisovskaya gives birth to the Sultan four sons (Mohammed, Bayazet, Selim, Jehangir) and a daughter, Khamerie. But Mustafa, the eldest son of the padishah’s first wife, Circassian Gulbekhar, was still officially considered the heir to the throne. She and her children became mortal enemies of the power-hungry and treacherous Roxalana.

Lisovskaya understood perfectly well: until her son became the heir to the throne or sat on the throne of the padishahs, her own position was constantly under threat. At any moment, Suleiman could be carried away by a new beautiful concubine and make her his legal wife, and order one of the old wives to be executed: in the harem, an unwanted wife or concubine was put alive in a leather bag, an angry cat and a poisonous snake were thrown in there, the bag was tied and a special stone chute was used to lower him with a tied stone into the waters of the Bosphorus. The guilty considered it lucky if they were simply quickly strangled with a silk cord.
Therefore, Roxalana prepared for a very long time and began to act actively and cruelly only after almost fifteen years!
Her daughter turned twelve years old, and she decided to marry her to... Rustem Pasha, who was already over fifty. But he was in great favor at court, close to the throne of the padishah and, most importantly, was something of a mentor and “godfather” to the heir to the throne, Mustafa, the son of the Circassian Gulbehar, Suleiman’s first wife.
Roxalana's daughter grew up with a similar face and chiseled figure to her beautiful mother, and Rustem Pasha with great pleasure became related to the Sultan - this is a very high honor for a courtier. Women were not forbidden to see each other, and the sultana deftly found out from her daughter about everything that was happening in the house of Rustem Pasha, literally collecting the information she needed bit by bit. Finally, Lisovskaya decided it was time to strike the fatal blow!
During a meeting with her husband, Roxalana secretly informed the Commander of the Faithful about the “terrible conspiracy.” Merciful Allah granted her time to learn about the secret plans of the conspirators and allowed her to warn her adored husband about the danger that threatened him: Rustem Pasha and the sons of Gulbehar planned to take the life of the padishah and take possession of the throne, placing Mustafa on it!
The intriguer knew well where and how to strike - the mythical “conspiracy” was quite plausible: in the East during the time of the sultans, bloody palace coups were the most common thing. In addition, Roxalana cited as an irrefutable argument the true words of Rustem Pasha, Mustafa and other “conspirators” that the daughter of Anastasia and the Sultan heard. Therefore, the seeds of evil fell on fertile soil!
Rustem Pasha was immediately taken into custody, and an investigation began: Pasha was terribly tortured. Perhaps he incriminated himself and others under torture. But even if he was silent, this only confirmed the padishah in the actual existence of a “conspiracy.” After torture, Rustem Pasha was beheaded.
Only Mustafa and his brothers were spared - they were an obstacle to the throne of Roxalana’s first-born, red-haired Selim, and for this reason they simply had to die! Constantly instigated by his wife, Suleiman agreed and gave the order to kill his children! The Prophet forbade the shedding of the blood of the padishahs and their heirs, so Mustafa and his brothers were strangled with a green silk twisted cord. Gulbehar went crazy with grief and soon died.
The cruelty and injustice of her son struck Valide Khamse, the mother of Padishah Suleiman, who came from the family of the Crimean khans Giray. At the meeting, she told her son everything she thought about the “conspiracy,” the execution, and her son’s beloved wife Roxalana. It is not surprising that after this Valide Khamse, the Sultan’s mother, lived for less than a month: the East knows a lot about poisons!
The Sultana went even further: she ordered to find in the harem and throughout the country other sons of Suleiman, whom wives and concubines gave birth to, and to take the lives of all of them! As it turned out, the Sultan had about forty sons - all of them, some secretly, some openly, were killed by order of Lisovskaya.
Thus, over forty years of marriage, Roksolana managed the almost impossible. She was proclaimed the first wife, and her son Selim became the heir. But the sacrifices did not stop there. Roksolana's two youngest sons were strangled. Some sources accuse her of involvement in these murders - allegedly this was done in order to strengthen the position of her beloved son Selim. However, reliable data about this tragedy has never been found.
She was no longer able to see her son ascend the throne, becoming Sultan Selim II. He reigned after the death of his father for only eight years - from 1566 to 1574 - and, although the Koran forbids drinking wine, he was a terrible alcoholic! His heart once simply could not withstand the constant excessive libations, and in the memory of the people he remained as Sultan Selim the drunkard!
No one will ever know what the true feelings of the famous Roksolana were. What is it like for a young girl to find herself in slavery, in a foreign country, with a foreign faith imposed on her. Not only not to break, but also to grow into the mistress of the empire, gaining glory throughout Asia and Europe. Trying to erase shame and humiliation from her memory, Roksolana ordered the slave market to be hidden and a mosque, madrasah and almshouse to be erected in its place. That mosque and hospital in the almshouse building still bear the name of Haseki, as well as the surrounding area of ​​the city.
Her name, shrouded in myths and legends, sung by her contemporaries and covered in black glory, remains forever in history. Nastasia Lisovskaya, whose fate could be similar to hundreds of thousands of the same Nastya, Khristin, Oles, Mari. But life decreed otherwise. No one knows how much grief, tears and misfortunes Nastasya endured on the way to Roksolana. However, for the Muslim world she will remain Hurrem - LAUGHING.
Roksolana died either in 1558 or 1561. Suleiman I - in 1566. He managed to complete the construction of the majestic Suleymaniye Mosque - one of the largest architectural monuments of the Ottoman Empire - near which Roksolana’s ashes rest in an octagonal stone tomb, next to the also octagonal tomb of the Sultan. This tomb has stood for more than four hundred years. Inside, under the high dome, Suleiman ordered to carve alabaster rosettes and decorate each of them with a priceless emerald, Roksolana’s favorite gem.
When Suleiman died, his tomb was also decorated with emeralds, forgetting that his favorite stone was ruby.

Socio-economic and political situation in the second half of the 17th century
At the beginning of modern times, the Ottoman Empire had already begun to lose its former power. At the end of the 16th century, a period of stagnation began, since most of the reigning sultans were insolvent as rulers. During the time of Sultan Ibrahim (1640-1648), corruption reached unprecedented proportions, and many capable statesmen were executed. Sultan Mehmet IV (1648-1687), who was enthroned at the age of seven, entrusted all affairs to the vizier. Vali, treasury and other officials who received high positions through patronage or through bribes robbed the people.
The military system weakened during this period. Heavy taxes, including ashar, ruined the people. The army began to lose its former strength. The Janissaries started families, engaged in trade, got involved in politics and even rebelled in order to replace the Sultan on the throne. For example, in 1651, the commander of one of the Janissary corps, Bektaş Agha, rebelled in order to bring Mehmet IV’s brother, Prince Suleiman, to power, but Mehmet IV’s supporters suppressed this rebellion. In 1656, a rebellion broke out again and Mehmet IV was even forced to partially fulfill the demands of the Janissaries.
The fleet was not in the best condition. Since the conquest of the island of Crete, the fleet was completely forgotten. Long wars, irregularities in tax collection, and rising costs of maintaining the courtyard led the state treasury to a deplorable state.
Back in 1535, a “Capitulation” was concluded with France, giving the French tax breaks and customs discounts.
The shift in world trade routes also had a negative impact on the fortunes of the Ottoman Empire.
At the instigation of Austria, Venice, the Vatican and Russia, Serbs, Greeks, and Bulgarians regularly rebelled, and groups of robber Haiduks arose. In such a difficult situation, 75-year-old vizier Koprulu Mehmet Pasha was tasked with leading the country out of the crisis. He suppressed the uprisings, again conducted a census of the owners of timars - conditional land grants, at their expense increased the number of feudal militias, filled the treasury, income from waqf lands and part of the income from the Sultan's lands he transferred to the benefit of the state. These measures made it possible to strengthen the army and navy.
Ottoman Empire at the beginning of the 18th century
In 1703, as a result of an uprising, Ahmet III (1703-1730) came to power, who set himself the goal of returning the territories of the Ottoman Empire lost in the 17th century and carrying out new reforms. Unlike the reforms of the 17th century, the transformations of the early 18th century were aimed not at strengthening existing orders, but at updating social life.
These reforms are associated with the name of the chief vizier Ibrahim Pasha. Recognizing the military superiority of the European powers, Ibrahim Pasha tried not to spoil relations with Russia and Austria until a European-type army was created. In 1727, the first printing house was opened, printing books in Turkish.
Resistance from the clergy and Janissaries made the reforms short-lived. The appointment of Ibrahim Pasha to positions of his people, the increase in taxes on trade and the fact that in 1730 Nadir Khan Afshar took Tabriz from the Ottomans overflowed the patience of the residents of Istanbul. Military defeats, deteriorating economic conditions, and bribery led to an uprising in Istanbul in September 1730 under the leadership of the Janissary Patron Khalil.
Ibrahim Pasha was killed. Ahmet III abdicated in favor of his nephew Mahmud I, new taxes were abolished. But by order of Mahmud I, Patron Khalil was executed, and in 1731 the uprising was suppressed.
Although there was a relative improvement in economic life, Turkey was clearly lagging behind European countries. The goods of artisans could not withstand competition with foreign ones.
In 1740, under the Treaty of Capitulation with France, new trade concessions were made to the French, and a 10% customs duty was adopted. If previously such an agreement applied only to the reign of the Sultan who concluded it, now the agreement had an unlimited validity period. Subsequently, preferential rights were given to merchants of England and Holland.
Ottoman-Austrian wars
Austria's attempt to rule alone in Hungary led in 1664 to a war with Turkey (1664-1699). Chief Vizier Fazil Ahmed Pasha moved troops into Hungary and captured the fortified fortress of Uyar. Austria requested help from the Vatican and European countries. France sent 6 thousand soldiers to Austria. The Austrian army was defeated, but at the Rab River near Saint-Gothard the Austrians took revenge. By agreement between the Ottoman Empire and Austria, the Austrian fortresses conquered by the Turks were returned.
A few years later, the Ottomans started a war with Poland over spheres of influence in Ukraine and won. The Poles recognized the Ottomans' right to rule Ukraine.
In 1681, war with Austria began again. The Emperor of Austria, himself a Catholic, wanted to forcibly convert Protestant Hungarians to the Catholic faith. In response, the Hungarians, led by Tekeli Imre, rebelled and turned to Turkey for help. In 1683, the army of Kara Mustafa Pasha besieged Vienna.
In 1684, Austria, Poland, Venice and Malta created the "Holy League". In 1686, Russia joined this League, but France did not.
In 1686, the troops of the Holy League captured Budapest. In 1687, Ottoman troops under the command of Suleiman Pasha near Mohacs were defeated. After this defeat, the Janissaries rebelled and returned to Istanbul. Sultan Mehmet IV was overthrown and Suleiman II took the throne. Koprulu Mehmet Pasha's son, Koprulu Fazil Mustafa Pasha, was appointed chief vizier. He carried out reforms and improved the financial situation of the country. Ottoman troops retook Belgrade and pushed the Austrians north of the Danube. But in 1691, in the battle near the town of Salakalin, the Turks were defeated and retreated to Belgrade.
In 1695, Sultan Mustafa II ascended the throne and organized three campaigns against Austria. The first two were successful, but in the third (1697) the Turks lost. In 1699, in the village of Karlovitsy, Turkey signed agreements separately with Austria, Venice and Poland for a period of 25 years, and with Russia for three years. By agreement with Austria, all of Hungary, as well as part of Croatia, passed to Austria. By agreement with Poland, the Podolsk region and Ukraine were given to Poland. Poland's annual tribute to the Crimean khans was cancelled. By agreement with Venice, the Morea peninsula and the shores of Dalmatia were transferred to Venice. Under the Karlowitz Agreements, the Ottoman Empire lost large territories for the first time.
In 1715, finding the international situation favorable, Türkiye began a war with Venice over the Morea and Dalmatia. Damad Ali Pasha's troops captured Morea and Crete. The Austrian government was concerned about the successes of the Turks, and in 1716 a new war began. The Austrians entered Belgrade. Damad Ali Pasha died. Through the mediation of England and France, the Požarevac Treaty of 1718 was signed. Under the terms of the treaty, the northern regions of Serbia and Bosnia passed to Austria, but the Morea remained in the Ottoman Empire.
Wanting to capture new territories, all of Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Austria began an unsuccessful war with the Ottomans in 1735-1739. In 1739, the Peace of Belgrade was concluded between the two empires, according to which Austria was forced to return the northern parts of Serbia and Bosnia, as well as the city of Belgrade. Because France supported the Ottomans, the capitulation privileges given to it were further expanded in 1740.
Russian-Ottoman wars.
Russian-Ottoman wars in the 30s of the 18th century
In 1736, Russia invaded Crimea, citing that the Crimean Khanate posed a threat to Russia's southern borders and that Türkiye was providing assistance to the Khanate. Russia captured the capital of the Khanate - Bakhchisarai. Subsequently, Russia returned Bakhchisarai, but retained Ochakovo, Azov, and Kinburn.
Russia's ally Austria lost in the war of 1735-1739, Russia's relations with Sweden worsened. This forced Russia to enter into negotiations with the Ottoman Empire. According to the peace treaty of 1739, concluded in Belgrade, only the Azov fortress remained with Russia. Russian ships were prohibited from sailing in the Azov and Black Seas. In trade transportation, only Turkish ships should be used. Russia received the right to open an embassy in Istanbul.
Russia's attempts to seize the Black Sea coast and annex part of the Polish lands again led to a clash with the Ottoman Empire. In 1768, the Sultan demanded from the Russian ambassador to withdraw troops from Poland, but was refused. With support from Austria and France, the Ottoman Empire declared war on Russia in 1768. England was also on Turkey's side. Among the causes of the war were the reprisal of Russian troops against the Turkish population of one of the Crimean villages, and the subversive activities carried out by the Russians among the Christian population of the Ottoman Empire.
The Russian-Turkish War of 1768-1774 unfolded on three fronts - the Danube, Crimean and South Caucasus. Despite the fact that Turkish troops advanced deep into Russia, the 1769 campaign was unsuccessful. The main military actions took place in 1770-1771. Commander-in-Chief of the Russian troops P.A. In the summer of 1770, Rumyantsev achieved victory in the battle of the Larga and Cahul rivers and reached the right bank of the Danube, capturing Bessarabia, Moldavia and Wallachia. In June 1770, the Russian fleet won a victory in Chesme Bay.
Austria did not want Russia to strengthen in the Balkans. Therefore, threats from European countries and the uprising of E. Pugachev forced Russia to enter into negotiations. In 1774, a peace treaty was signed between Russia and Turkey in the Bulgarian village of Kuchuk-Kainardzhi. The territories between the Bug and the Dnieper, the fortresses of Kerch and Yenikala in the Crimea, as well as the lands up to the Kuban went to Russia. The Crimean Khanate emerged from Turkey's vassalage and became independent. Russia received the right to strengthen Azov. Russian merchant ships received the right of free passage through the Bosporus and Dardanelles. For the first time, Russian ships received the right to sail in the Black Sea. The Ottomans were forced to pay reparations in the amount of 4.5 million rubles. Wallachia and Moldova came under the “protection” of Russia. The Ottomans were obliged to comply with the conditions (conditions) for governing these principalities.
Russian conquest of the Crimean Khanate
Not limiting itself to the results of the war of 1768-1774, Russia in the second half of the 70s of the 18th century put forward a plan developed by Prince Potemkin, called the “Greek Project”, according to which the Ottoman Empire was expelled from its European possessions, the Greek Empire and the Danube principalities of Wallachia and Moldova were recreated turned into “Dacia”, independent from Ottoman Turkey.
The Kuchuk-Kainardzhinsky peace greatly facilitated Russia's seizure of the Crimean Khanate, which had weakened and was torn apart by internal strife. Now Ottoman Türkiye could no longer provide him with military assistance. In 1779, Russia removed all Christian merchants and artisans from Crimea, dealing a crushing blow to the socio-economic development of the Khanate.
Taking advantage of the difficult situation of the Crimean Khanate, Russia annexed its lands in 1783, giving them a new name - Taurida. The fertile Black Sea steppes also fell into Russian hands, becoming "Novorossiya". To strengthen Russian rule on the shores of the Black Sea, the cities of Kherson, Nikolaev, and Sevastopol were built, and the Black Sea Fleet was created.
Russian-Turkish War of 1787-1791
The annexation of Crimea to Russia became the reason for a new war with Turkey. Austria became an ally of Russia in exchange for its consent to the first partition of Poland. Türkiye hoped for the support of Prussia, Holland and England and hoped that Sweden and Poland would also declare war on Russia. But in vain. Incited by France and other European countries, Türkiye sent Russia an ultimatum of 7 demands in July 1787. Having received no response, the Ottoman government declared war in August 1787. The war began with an attempt to take the Kinburn fortress, but it was unsuccessful for the Turks. The garrison under the command of A.V. Suvorov repelled the landing attack. In 1788, Russian troops took Ochakov. In 1789, Austria also entered the war against the Ottoman Empire. Although Austria lost the Battle of Banat, Russian troops defeated the Ottomans in the battles of Focsani and Rymnik with the help of the Austrians. Austria also captured Belgrade, but, having concluded a separate peace with Turkey, withdrew from the war. Russia continued the war, and in 1790 Suvorov's troops took the Izmail fortress. In this battle, commander M.I. Kutuzov was wounded and lost an eye.
Left without an ally, Russia made peace with Sweden, and in 1791, under pressure from Western countries, made peace with Turkey in Iasi. According to the terms of peace:
Russia received the lands between the Southern Bug and the Dniester.
The Dniester River became the border between Russia and Turkey.
All Black Sea lands from the Dniester to the Crimea passed to Russia.
The Turks renounced their claims to Crimea and recognized it as belonging to Russia.
Russia has finally established itself on the Black Sea. Turkey's position in the Balkans and the Caucasus has weakened.
"Eastern Question"
The main reason for the defeat of the Ottomans in the wars of the late 18th and early 19th centuries was economic backwardness. During this period, the separatism of large feudal lords intensified. In the Bulgarian city of Vidin, Osman Pazvand oglu even minted coins with his name. European states, taking advantage of the crisis situation in the Ottoman Empire, wanted to dismember its territory. Russian Empress Catherine II initiated a policy called the “Eastern Question.” In reality, this was part of the unrealized “Greek Project”. The "Eastern Question" included:
liberation of the Christian peoples of the Balkans from Ottoman rule;
achieve their autonomy or independence through uprisings;
take Istanbul from the Turks;
carry out reforms in favor of Christian minorities living in different parts of the Ottoman Empire;
crush Anatolia and expel the Turks from there.
Reforms of Sultan Selim III
At the end of the 18th century, Sultan Selim III (1789-1807) began reforms to bring the country out of the crisis. Reformers saw the reasons for the defeats in the disorganization of the army. Therefore, the issue of army formation was at the center of the reforms. Before the reform, the basis of the army was the feudal cavalry and the Janissaries. The Janissaries did not obey any laws or regulations. Sultan Selim III's reforms are known as Nizam-i-Jadid (i.e. new order), which included 72 articles. In 1791, Selim III gave instructions to create an army on a European model. In 1792-1793 they actively began to implement reforms. According to the firman of Selim III: 1) those who did not fulfill their military duty were deprived of timars and ziamet; 2) a military corps was created according to the European model; 3) to ensure financing of reforms, a special cash fund was established and the collection of some taxes was transferred to this cash office. The reforms were carried out under the leadership of the Swedish and French military. The fleet was created anew. To keep abreast of European affairs, embassies were opened in London, Paris, and Vienna. The military engineering school, opened under Mahmud I, expanded significantly. But the conservatives and the Janissaries resisted the implementation of reforms, and Selim III showed indecisiveness. The main reason for the failure of Selim III's reforms was that, while trying to create an army on the model of the bourgeois states of Europe, he did not affect the feudal foundations of the Ottoman Empire. A progressive feature of the reforms was their orientation against the military-feudal system.
The growing rivalry between England and France at the end of the 18th century caused a deterioration in international relations. Initially, hostile relations developed between Napoleon I and Selim III. When Napoleon I marched into Egypt in 1798, Türkiye declared war on France. Failures in Egypt and Syria forced Napoleon I to return to France. The conquest policy of Napoleon I brought Russia and Turkey closer together. In January 1799, an agreement on an alliance between Russia and Turkey against France was signed in Istanbul. Türkiye concluded the same agreement with England. Türkiye joined the anti-French coalition.
Ottoman Empire in the first half of the 19th century
At the beginning of the 19th century, demand for Turkish agricultural products increased in Europe, but the country's economy was in crisis. Conservatives, with the support of the Janissaries, continued to slow down reforms. When Selim III tried to send some of the Janissaries to the front, they rebelled in 1805. Selim III, showing weakness, canceled his firman and dissolved the newly formed corps. The rebels deposed Selim III and installed Mustafa IV on the throne.
In such a difficult situation, Napoleonic wars of conquest brought Russia and Turkey closer together, who entered into an agreement in 1805, and Russian warships received the right of passage through the Bosporus and Dardanelles. However, the activation of the Russians in Wallachia and Moldova, and the British in Egypt and Syria led to the fact that after the Battle of Austerlitz in 1805, Selim III became closer to France. The invasion of Wallachia and Moldova by Russian troops in 1806 caused Turkey to declare war on Russia. Turkey's attempt to return Crimea with the help of France failed, and on May 16, 1812, the Peace of Bucharest was concluded, under the terms of which: 1) Bessarabia passed to Russia; 2) the right of Russian ships to sail along the Danube was confirmed; 3) Moldova and Wallachia remained with Turkey, and Serbia received the right of self-government.
In 1821, the Greeks launched an anti-Turkish uprising in Morea. Russia, England and France took advantage of this and demanded autonomy for Greece. Having been refused, the fleets of England and France defeated the Turkish fleet in the Bay of Navarino in October 1827. Diplomatic relations with England and France were interrupted. And in 1828 a new war with Russia began. The Russians captured Edirne. This war ended on September 2, 1829 with the conclusion of peace in Edirne, under the terms of which: 1) Greece gained independence; 2) the islands in the Danube delta went to Russia; 3) Wallachia, Moldova and Serbia received internal autonomy; 4) a number of fortresses in Anatolia were reassigned to Russia; 5) Russian merchant ships received the right of passage through the straits.
The attempt by the Egyptian governor Muhammadali in 1831 to turn Egypt into an independent state became a cause for conflict. In December 1832, the Turks lost in a battle near Konya. On May 9, 1833, a treaty was concluded between the Ottomans and Egypt in Kütahya. Under its terms, Egypt, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine and Cilicia came under the rule of Muhammad.
Unexpectedly, Russia stood up for Turkey. In July 1833, an agreement on military cooperation for a period of 8 years was concluded between Turkey and Russia in Unkar-Iskelesi.
In 1838, a new conflict occurred between Turkey and Egypt. In 1839, the Turks lost again at the Battle of Nisib. This conflict ended with the Treaty of London in 1840. The treaty was more in line with the interests of England, Russia, Austria and Prussia and prohibited warships of all countries from entering the Bosporus and Dardanelles. Muhammadali remained only the hereditary ruler of Egypt and paid tribute to the Ottomans. England won more than anyone else in this conflict. She gained the opportunity to influence Turkish politics.
The progressive forces of Turkey were aware of the country's backwardness, and therefore fought for reforms. In this way they tried to stop European interference in Turkey's internal affairs and get out of the crisis. A commission led by Mustafa Rashid Pasha prepared the "Hatti Sherif Gülhane" (great firman) of Sultan Abdülmecid, which was promulgated in November 1839 at the Gülhane Palace. The firman provided for: 1) the safety of all citizens; 2) fair assignment of taxes; 3) abolition of the tax farming system; 4) reduction of military service; 5) management of regions based on new laws; 6) equality of all citizens of the country, regardless of religion. Following the Gülhanı firman, other reforms were carried out, which in the history of Turkey were called “Tanzimatihairiye” (useful reforms). In 1840, a firman was published on the rules for collecting taxes, and in 1843 on reorganization in the army. The length of military service was reduced from 15 years to 5 years. These reforms were bourgeois in nature.
Türkiye in the second half of the 19th century
On February 18, 1856, the Sultan issued a firman (“Hatti-humayun”), according to which: 1) non-Muslims were given rights on an equal basis with Muslims; 2) the safety of all citizens was guaranteed, regardless of religion; 3) all concessions were subject to a single tax. Thus began the second stage of the Tanzimat (1856-1870). And these reforms did not bring tangible benefits. Those who could not stand the hard life and decided to overthrow the Sultan were imprisoned in Gyulali prison. Therefore, the events of 1859 were called “Operation Gyulali.”
In the 19th century, there were intellectuals in Turkey who saw the salvation of the nation in its enlightenment, in the creation of a constitutional form of government. At this time, the organizations “Ottoman Education Society” and “Book Society” arose. The founders of these societies were Ibrahim Shinasi and Namig Kemal. They called themselves "New Ottomans". In 1865, a secret society of “New Ottomans” arose in Istanbul. The main task of society was to establish a constitutional monarchy in the country.
To strengthen the fight against the opposition, Sultan Abdul Aziz abandoned the tanzimat policy, taking a course towards open reaction, and in 1871 appointed Mahmud Nedim Pasha as chief vizier. To facilitate control over the opposition, members of the New Ottomans organization were granted amnesty. However, in 1876, the New Ottomans achieved the resignation of Mahmud Nedim Pasha. A member of the Midhat Pasha organization entered the government of the new vizier Muhammad Rüşti Pasha.
In 1876, supporters of Midhat Pasha first overthrew Abdul Aziz and installed Murad V in his place, then brought Abdulhamid II to power. In 1876, the Sultan accepted the Constitution prepared by Midhat Pasha. The Constitution proclaimed: 1) The Ottoman state became a constitutional monarchy. The creation of a bicameral parliament was envisaged; 2) the entire population of the empire was now called “Ottomans”; 3) the entire population, regardless of ethnicity and religion, was equal before the law; 4) the lower house was elected on the basis of property qualifications; the upper house (Senate) was appointed by the Sultan for life; 5) Islam was declared the state religion.
Later, Abdulhamid II sent Midhat Pasha into exile and did not allow the New Ottomans to participate in parliamentary elections. In 1877, parliament began its work, held 20 meetings and was dissolved. The Constitution again remained only on paper.
In the 70s of the 19th century, the international image of the Ottoman Empire faded even more. But England, France and Austria, not wanting Russia to strengthen in the Balkans, forced the Russians to reconsider the terms of the San Stefano Peace Treaty. For this purpose, the Berlin Congress was convened in July 1878, at which: 1) Bulgaria was divided into 3 parts, and only Northern Bulgaria gained independence; 2) Southern Bulgaria received autonomy within the Ottoman Empire; 3) Serbia, Montenegro and Romania received full independence; 4) Kars, Ardahan, Batum went to Russia; 5) Macedonia and Eastern Bayezid were returned to Turkey; 6) Bosnia and Herzegovina came under the protectorate of Austria.
Progressive intellectuals continued to fight against the Sultan's regime. In 1889, cadets of the Istanbul Military Medical School created the Union and Progress society, thereby marking the beginning of the bourgeois-democratic movement. Members of the society were called "Young Turks". Their main demand was the restoration of the 1876 Constitution. In 1891, foreign sections of this organization were opened.
Türkiye at the beginning of the 20th century
At the beginning of the 20th century, the economy of the Ottoman Empire was in a state of crisis, and dependence on foreign countries increased. Foreigners received the greatest profit from Turkish railways. In 1903, an agreement was signed with Germany on the joint construction of the Berlin-Baghdad railway. Russia and England, who considered Germany their enemy, reached an agreement in Reval (Tallinn) on the division of the Ottoman Empire. To prevent this, the Young Turks decided to move ahead of the time determined at the congress in Paris in 1907. On July 3, 1908, Niyazi Bey, the commandant of a small town in Macedonia, spoke first. Enver Bey's group joined him. Thus began the “Young Turk Revolution” (1908-1909). The organization “Unity and Progress” on July 23, 1908 in the city of Monastyr presented an ultimatum to Abdulhamid II, demanding the restoration of the Constitution. The Sultan accepted the ultimatum and on the same day ordered the restoration of the Constitution and the convening of parliament. The Ottoman state became a constitutional monarchy.
The government, formed with the consent of the “Young Turks,” was led successively by Said Pasha, Kemil Pasha, and Suleiman Pasha in 1908.
On November 2, 1908, the first meeting of the Turkish Parliament took place. Of the 230 members of parliament, 150 were Young Turks. In 1909, Abdulhamid II, relying on the British-supported Ahrar party (liberals) and the religious organization Ittihadi Muslims (Muslim society), with the help of the Istanbul garrison, carried out a counter-revolutionary coup and regained power. In response, in April 1909, the Young Turks brought Macedonian troops under the command of Şevket Pasha into Istanbul and proclaimed Mehmet V Reşad Sultan.
The Young Turk revolution was victorious, but did not change the political structure of the empire. It was a superficial revolution.
Noticing the weakness of the Young Turks, foreign states again returned to the plan for dividing Turkish territories. The biggest failure of that time was the Trablis War. Based on the Russian-Italian Racconigi Agreement of 1909, Italy recognized Russian interests in the Balkans, and Russia recognized Italian interests in Trablis. In September 1911, Italy demanded that Turkey hand over Trablis to it. Having received a negative answer, the Italians went on the offensive and won. The voluntary squads of Enver Pasha and Mustafa Kemal Pasha were not effective. On October 18, 1912, an agreement was concluded in Lausanne, according to which Trablis and Cyrenaica, under the general name Libya, were transferred to Italy. This treaty further weakened the Ottoman Empire.
In October 1912, Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece and Montenegro, forming the “Balkan Union”, declared war on Turkey. The First Balkan War (1912-1913) began. The Turkish troops, not ready for war, were defeated. In May 1913, a peace treaty was signed in London, according to which Türkiye ceded territories in the Balkans, most of the islands in the Aegean Sea; Albania, which gained independence in 1912, was declared a principality.
Bulgaria, seeking supremacy in the Balkans, encouraged by Austria-Hungary and Germany, declared war on Serbia and Greece in 1913. The Second Balkan War began. In this war, Montenegro and Romania supported Serbia and Greece, and Türkiye entered the war against Bulgaria. The war began on June 30, 1913 and ended on August 10 with a heavy defeat for Bulgaria. The Young Turks took advantage of this and returned Edirne and the surrounding territories.
The Balkan Wars further complicated the internal situation in Turkey. Then, at the beginning of 1914, the Young Turks created the dictatorship of the “Young Turk Troika” in the country. It included Minister of War Enver Pasha, Chairman of the Union and Progress Party, Minister of Internal Affairs Talat Pasha and Vali of Istanbul Jamal Pasha.
During the reign of the Young Turks, a number of important events were carried out in state building. In the economic field, the most important thing was the elimination of the capitulation regime since 1914.
In 1914, the first women's university was opened in Istanbul. In subsequent years, it was specified that correspondence in government institutions should be conducted only in Turkish. Instructors and advisers were invited from Germany to reorganize the army.

1. Internal structure of the Ottoman Empire.

2. The beginning of the crisis of traditional society and the Koprulu reform.

3. Systemic crisis in the Ottoman Empire in the 18th century.

By the beginning of modern times, Asia Minor, the main part of the Balkan Peninsula and the Crimean Khanate were under the rule of the Turks. In the 16th century The Turks continued their military campaigns and significantly expanded the territory of their state. They conquered Syria, Mesopotamia, Palestine, Arabia and North Africa. In Europe, the Turks captured Hungary and laid siege to Vienna for the first time in 1529. It was not until 1571, after the Battle of Lepanto, that strategic equilibrium was achieved, although local skirmishes continued. Thus, in the 16th century. The Ottoman Empire became a large and formidable power.

In its internal structure, the Ottoman Empire was a typical eastern country. The economy was based on the military-feudal system. All lands were divided into state (87%) and wakf (13%). The sultans distributed state lands among Turkish soldiers in the form of timars and zeamets - conditional holdings for military service. Their owners (timariots and borrowers) did not run their own farms and were primarily tax collectors. They transferred the bulk of the collected funds to the treasury, and the rest went to feed the captives and to maintain their military detachments. At the same time, the state strictly controlled the activities of the captives and the amount of their income, so the main source of funds for Turkish soldiers was military booty. It is no coincidence that many experts call the military system an institution that produces the desire for aggression. Civil officials also received land plots (khasses and arpalyks), the income from which they kept entirely for themselves, but they could not pass on these lands by inheritance.

In cities populated mainly by people of other faiths, traders and artisans united into trade guilds and workshops with their own charters. Unlike Europe, in the Ottoman Empire the urban population was entirely under the control of the state bureaucracy, having almost no rights or guarantees.

A feature of the social structure of the Ottoman Empire was the complete lack of rights of all its inhabitants in the face of the state, regardless of origin and wealth. In Ottoman sources, the population was divided into 4 categories (clergy, military, artisans and peasants), but these categories cannot be considered classes, since they did not have a legally established status. From the point of view of administrative, judicial and tax practice, the population was divided into 2 categories: military (askeri) and tax-paying (reaya). The first included warriors, clergy and officials. Their main duty was to serve the state, which exempted them from paying taxes. The second category included peasants and artisans, whose main responsibility was paying taxes.

Politically, the Ottoman Empire was a typical eastern despotism. The country was ruled by sultans from the House of Ottomans, who were both secular and spiritual rulers. The power of the sultans was almost absolute, but in their actions they were obliged to take into account the norms of Sharia. The peculiarity of the empire's management system was that at the beginning of the 16th century. ethnic Turks were removed from government of the country, and it was concentrated in the hands of the Sultan's slaves (kapikulu). From them officials were recruited and elite military units were formed, among which the most famous were the infantry troops - the Janissaries.

The Ottoman Empire reached its peak of development during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent (1520-1566). But already in the second half of the 16th century. the country began to plunge into a protracted crisis, which at its core was a crisis of traditional society.

The impetus for the crisis was given by the “price revolution” in Europe, which caused a rapid rise in prices in the Ottoman Empire due to the depreciation of money. Inflation hit the position of the Timariots, Janissaries, and officials the hardest. The Timariotes began to reduce the amount of tax payments to the treasury and evade military service, officials became massively corrupt, and the Janissary corps was rapidly losing discipline and fighting qualities. From the end of the 16th century, periodic revolts of the Janissaries and Sipahi troops began.

The state was unable to improve the situation, since the economic crisis coincided with a crisis of power. It manifested itself in the growing interference of the harem and janissaries in the government of the country. Period 1596-1658 received the name “Jelali Troubles”, when the country was swept by a wave of uprisings, banditry, and separatism of governors and vassals.

The country was on the brink of disaster, which required internal reforms. They unfolded during the reign of Mehmed IV (1648-1687) and were carried out by the great viziers from the Albanian Keprulu family. They used tough methods to balance the budget, removed the administration from subordination to the harem, and increased discipline among the Timariots and Janissaries. The reforms led to the restoration of the authority of the central government and made it possible to resume military campaigns (in 1683 the Turks again besieged Vienna). However, the main miscalculation of the reformers was that the reforms were aimed at restoring the traditional system, which did not allow them to catch up with Europe, which, after the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, began to rapidly increase its economic and military potential. In 1683, the Turks were defeated near Vienna, suffered a number of military defeats and, according to the Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699, lost part of their European possessions. Military failures led to the execution of Köprülü and the deposition of Mehmed IV, and to the resumption of separatism. In the 18th century Only Rumelia, Anatolia and the Crimean Khanate were under the rule of Istanbul. In the remaining provinces, the power of the Sultan became nominal.

At the same time, in the 18th century. Significant changes took place in the life of the empire:

1) the final decomposition of the military-feudal system took place and private land ownership began to be created;

2) in the provinces a layer of ayans was formed - an influential provincial nobility not controlled by Istanbul;

3) the pauperization of the peasantry intensified, which increasingly lost hereditary rights to land and turned into tenants of private lands;

4) a struggle developed between the top officials and the ayans, who were not allowed into the ranks of the highest bureaucracy;

5) the national liberation movement of Christian peoples began to intensify due to increased economic and religious oppression.

At the same time, the foreign policy position of the Ottoman Empire continued to degrade. In 1740, the Sultan signed the so-called agreement with France. General surrender, according to which the imperial authorities lost the ability to independently determine the privileges of French merchants in the country. This document opened the way for Western European traders to the Ottoman economy, and at the end of the 18th century. foreign trade of the Ottoman Empire was in the hands of French and British companies. During the Russian-Turkish wars of the last third of the 18th century. The Ottoman Empire lost the Northern Black Sea region, Crimea, and the lands between the Dnieper and the Southern Bug. The Ottoman Empire acquired the nickname “the sick man of Europe,” and already at the end of the 18th century. the first plans for the division of her possessions appeared.

In fact, the Ottoman Empire was experiencing a structural crisis. At the same time, new phenomena appeared in the socio-economic sphere that allowed Ottoman society to move to a new model of development. However, the process of change did not affect the spiritual sphere. This circumstance made it difficult for the Ottoman Empire to adapt to new realities.

About US payments of tribute to the Turks
Akhmad Salpagarov January 2016

The victory of the United States of America over the British Empire ended the war between them in 1783. The USA achieved full recognition of its independence. But the future world power began its independent path of development by paying tribute to the Muslim Turks. This fact of world and Turkic history is practically unknown to the Russian-speaking reader. And it is worth talking about it at least briefly.

Beglerbeks and deys of Algeria - from Hayreddin Barbaros to Hassan Pasha

Territory of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th-18th centuries with dates of annexation.

Ottoman capture of American ships in the Mediterranean

Recognition of US weakness and agreement with the Algerian vilayat

US President George Washington had to ask the Algerian vilayat for a truce and sign an agreement with its representative.

Thus, according to the agreement of (21 Safar al-Khair 1210 AH) respectively 09/05/1795, composed of several articles in Turkish, America signed the following:

« The United States will immediately pay the Algerian Vilayat of the Ottoman Caliphate the amount of 642 thousand gold dollars,and will also pay 12 thousand Ottoman gold liras annually in exchange for the release of American prisoners in Algeria and non-aggression of the Algerian vilayat on American ships, neither in the Atlantic Ocean nor in the White Sea ».

The Turkic name for the Mediterranean Sea is “Ak Tengiz (Ak deniz)”, which is why the contract contains a translation from Turkic - White Sea. The treaty was signed and ratified by George Washington and Hasan Pasha, the beglerbek and daya of the Algerian vilayat. Here beglerbek or beylerbey is an Ottoman and Golden Horde title meaning “prince of princes.” Materials on American-Ottoman relations, incl. The agreement with the Algerian Vilayat exists in the American state archive “National Archives of the United States” and translated into English “Hunter mi l er Treaties of the United States (276-317. 1. 1939: Washington)”.

This is the only agreement that America, throughout its history, has signed in a language other than its own, as well as the only agreement in which it has agreed and committed itself to paying an annual tax, which is essentially a tribute to a foreign country for sailing on international seas.
Even more interesting is the content of Article 11 of the treaty. I quote the Turkish text "ABD yönetimi hiçbir anlamda Hıristiyan dini üzerine kurulmuş olmadığından – ki hükümet kendi içinde hiçbir şekilde Müslüman kanunlarına, dinine ve düzenine düşmanlık beslemez – ve ı geçen Devletler hiçbir zaman bir İslam devleti ile bir savaş ve husumet halinde bulunmadıklarından, ilân ederler ki dinî görüşler hiçbir zaman iki ülke arasında hüküm süren uyumun bozulmasına meydan vermeyecektir"
( )
“The US government, although formed on a Christian understanding, on its own initiative will not show hostility towards Muslim laws, religion and order, will never fight with the Islamic State and show hostility towards it, the parties declare that religious opinions will not be found a place to disturb the harmony between them."

• However, judging by this article of the treaty and taking into account the seizure of an American ship in Kadish off the coast of Lebanon in the very heart of Ottoman possessions, it can be concluded that the seizures of ships and the subsequent treaty were of a protective and defensive nature on the part of the Ottomans against uninvited intruders into their territorial waters guests.

In 1801, Thomas Jefferson came to power in the United States, and immediately after his inauguration, another vilayat, the vilayat of Libya, led by Yusuf Karamanly (Tripoli Pasha) demanded 225 thousand dollars. Jefferson finally had the chance to refuse these demands, which immediately led to a declaration of war. There was no formal exchange of declarations; Karamanly declared war in the traditional way - he cut down the flagpole with the American flag at the embassy. Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia soon joined their ally. The American merchant fleet in the Mediterranean was under threat of attack by the Algerian vilayat and its allies and the capture of American ships.

The greatly deteriorated situation: the economy exhausted by a long blockade and raids, the immediate danger looming over Tripoli after the capture of Derna, and the claims to the throne of the previously deposed Hamet Karamanli forced the Pasha of Tripoli Yusuf Karamanli to sign a treaty on the cessation of hostilities on June 10, 1805. The First Barbary War ended here, although the US Senate approved the treaty only in 1806.....

However, the main problem - piracy - remained unresolved. Already in 1807, Algeria resumed attacks on US merchant ships and taking American citizens hostage. The rapidly escalating international situation did not allow us to respond to the provocations.
It was only in 1815, during the Second Barbary War, that this problem was solved and attacks on American ships stopped. In 1830 The French conquest of Algeria began. The Ottoman Empire was weakening and could not prevent the growing European empires. In 1911, Libya was lost to the Ottomans.

But the weakening Ottoman Empire, not even in its own person, but in the person of its provinces-wilayats of Algeria and Libya, exacted a tax (tribute) from the future hegemon of world history from the United States of America for sailing their ships in the Mediterranean Sea for 17 years, from 1795 to 1812.

A few additional facts

about the connections of the Alan-Karachaybalkars with the Mediterranean

1. In the Middle Ages, the Ottoman army included many people from the territory of modern Karachay and Balkaria. American professor Kennedy. He claims to have found documents in Spain that show Karachays from the Ottoman army were captured by the Spanish in the 15th century, and from there immigrated to the United States with Columbus's crew and became a major component of the American Melungeon ethnic group. Modern Melungeons consider themselves descended from the Karachais and study Karachay-Balkar dances. At the beginning of the article, I reported that Arouj Barbarossa conquered Algeria from the Spaniards.

Flag of Hayreddin Barbarossa (16th century)
3. On the flag of the main pirate of the Mediterranean, who later became the admiral of the Ottoman fleet, Hayredin Barbarossa, a hexagonal star is drawn. Karachaybalkars and noble Russian Ukrainian, Polish noble families used this symbol along with the crescent. The Karachaybalkars engrave this ancient Turkic symbol on their gravestones, and the noble families of Eastern Europe on their coats of arms.

4. In Italy, the genera Caraccioli and Caracciolo have been known since the 15th centuries. Caraccioli, Caracciolo, Сaracioli, Caraciolo, which come from the geographical self-name “Karachaily”. These were Alan-Karachais who fled after Tamerlane’s destruction of Alania in 1395-1396. It was the name Caraccioli that the Italian missionary A. Lamberti named the Karachais in his book “Description of Colchis and Mingrelia” at the beginning of the 16th century.
3. And finally, in the 13th-16th centuries, Egypt was ruled by the Mamluk Turks. And after the loss of power, they remained an influential force in Egypt until the 19th century. The bulk of the Mamluks, incl. The Mamluk-Circassians were of Kipchak origin, originally from the southern regions of modern Russia.

The Turks are a relatively young people. Its age is only a little over 600 years. The first Turks were a bunch of Turkmens, fugitives from Central Asia who fled to the west from the Mongols. They reached the Konya Sultanate and asked for land to settle. They were given a place on the border with the Nicaean Empire near Bursa. The fugitives began to settle there in the middle of the 13th century.

The main one among the fugitive Turkmens was Ertogrul Bey. He called the territory allocated to him the Ottoman beylik. And taking into account the fact that the Konya Sultan lost all power, he became an independent ruler. Ertogrul died in 1281 and power passed to his son Osman I Ghazi. It is he who is considered the founder of the dynasty of Ottoman sultans and the first ruler of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Empire existed from 1299 to 1922 and played a significant role in world history.

Ottoman Sultan with his soldiers

An important factor contributing to the formation of a powerful Turkish state was the fact that the Mongols, having reached Antioch, did not go further, since they considered Byzantium their ally. Therefore, they did not touch the lands on which the Ottoman beylik was located, believing that it would soon become part of the Byzantine Empire.

And Osman Ghazi, like the crusaders, declared a holy war, but only for the Muslim faith. He began to invite everyone who wanted to take part in it. And from all over the Muslim east, seekers of fortune began to flock to Osman. They were ready to fight for the faith of Islam until their sabers became dull and until they received enough wealth and wives. And in the east this was considered a very great achievement.

Thus, the Ottoman army began to be replenished with Circassians, Kurds, Arabs, Seljuks, and Turkmens. That is, anyone could come, recite the formula of Islam and become a Turk. And on the occupied lands, such people began to be allocated small plots of land for farming. This area was called “timar”. It was a house with a garden.

The owner of the timar became a horseman (spagi). His duty was to appear at the first call to the Sultan in full armor and on his own horse in order to serve in the cavalry army. It was noteworthy that the spahi did not pay taxes in the form of money, since they paid the tax with their blood.

With such internal organization, the territory of the Ottoman state began to expand rapidly. In 1324, Osman's son Orhan I captured the city of Bursa and made it his capital. Bursa was just a stone's throw from Constantinople, and the Byzantines lost control of the northern and western regions of Anatolia. And in 1352, the Ottoman Turks crossed the Dardanelles and ended up in Europe. After this, the gradual and steady capture of Thrace began.

In Europe it was impossible to get along with cavalry alone, so there was an urgent need for infantry. And then the Turks created a completely new army, consisting of infantry, which they called Janissaries(yang - new, charik - army: it turns out to be Janissaries).

The conquerors forcibly took boys between the ages of 7 and 14 from Christian peoples and converted them to Islam. These children were fed well, taught the laws of Allah, military affairs, and became infantrymen (janissaries). These warriors turned out to be the best infantrymen in all of Europe. Neither the knightly cavalry nor the Persian Qizilbash could break through the Janissaries' line.

Janissaries - infantry of the Ottoman army

And the secret of the invincibility of the Turkish infantry lay in the spirit of military camaraderie. From the first days, the Janissaries lived together, ate delicious porridge from the same cauldron, and, despite the fact that they belonged to different nations, they were people of the same destiny. When they became adults, they got married and started families, but continued to live in the barracks. Only during vacations did they visit their wives and children. That is why they did not know defeat and represented the faithful and reliable force of the Sultan.

However, having reached the Mediterranean Sea, the Ottoman Empire could not limit itself to just the Janissaries. Since there is water, ships are needed, and the need arose for a navy. The Turks began to recruit pirates, adventurers and vagabonds from all over the Mediterranean Sea for the fleet. Italians, Greeks, Berbers, Danes, and Norwegians went to serve them. This public had no faith, no honor, no law, no conscience. Therefore, they willingly converted to the Muslim faith, since they had no faith at all, and they did not care at all whether they were Christians or Muslims.

From this motley crowd they formed a fleet that was more reminiscent of a pirate fleet than a military one. He began to rage in the Mediterranean Sea, so much so that he terrified the Spanish, French and Italian ships. Sailing in the Mediterranean Sea itself began to be considered a dangerous business. Turkish corsair squadrons were based in Tunisia, Algeria and other Muslim lands that had access to the sea.

Ottoman navy

Thus, such a people as the Turks were formed from completely different peoples and tribes. And the connecting link was Islam and a common military destiny. During successful campaigns, Turkish warriors captured captives, made them their wives and concubines, and children from women of different nationalities became full-fledged Turks born on the territory of the Ottoman Empire.

The small principality, which appeared on the territory of Asia Minor in the middle of the 13th century, very quickly turned into a powerful Mediterranean power, called the Ottoman Empire after the first ruler Osman I Ghazi. The Ottoman Turks also called their state the Sublime Porte, and themselves not Turks, but Muslims. As for the real Turks, they were considered the Turkmen population living in the interior regions of Asia Minor. The Ottomans conquered these people in the 15th century after the capture of Constantinople on May 29, 1453.

European states could not resist the Ottoman Turks. Sultan Mehmed II captured Constantinople and made it his capital - Istanbul. In the 16th century, the Ottoman Empire significantly expanded its territories, and with the capture of Egypt, the Turkish fleet began to dominate the Red Sea. By the second half of the 16th century, the population of the state reached 15 million people, and the Turkish Empire itself began to be compared with the Roman Empire.

But by the end of the 17th century, the Ottoman Turks suffered a number of major defeats in Europe. The Russian Empire played an important role in weakening the Turks. She always beat the warlike descendants of Osman I. She took the Crimea and the Black Sea coast from them, and all these victories became a harbinger of the decline of the state, which in the 16th century shone in the rays of its power.

But the Ottoman Empire was weakened not only by endless wars, but also by disgraceful agricultural practices. Officials squeezed all the juice out of the peasants, and therefore they farmed in a predatory way. This led to the emergence of a large amount of waste land. And this is in the “fertile crescent”, which in ancient times fed almost the entire Mediterranean.

Ottoman Empire on the map, XIV-XVII centuries

It all ended in disaster in the 19th century, when the state treasury was empty. The Turks began to borrow loans from French capitalists. But it soon became clear that they could not pay their debts, since after the victories of Rumyantsev, Suvorov, Kutuzov, and Dibich, the Turkish economy was completely undermined. The French then brought a navy into the Aegean Sea and demanded customs in all ports, mining concessions and the right to collect taxes until the debt was repaid.

After this, the Ottoman Empire was called the “sick man of Europe.” It began to quickly lose its conquered lands and turn into a semi-colony of European powers. The last autocratic sultan of the empire, Abdul Hamid II, tried to save the situation. However, under him the political crisis worsened even more. In 1908, the Sultan was overthrown and imprisoned by the Young Turks (a pro-Western republican political movement).

On April 27, 1909, the Young Turks enthroned the constitutional monarch Mehmed V, who was the brother of the deposed Sultan. After this, the Young Turks entered the First World War on the side of Germany and were defeated and destroyed. There was nothing good about their rule. They promised freedom, but ended with a terrible massacre of Armenians, declaring that they were against the new regime. But they were really against it, since nothing had changed in the country. Everything remained the same as before for 500 years under the rule of the sultans.

After defeat in the First World War, the Turkish Empire began to die. Anglo-French troops occupied Constantinople, the Greeks captured Smyrna and moved deeper into the country. Mehmed V died on July 3, 1918 from a heart attack. And on October 30 of the same year, the Mudros Truce, shameful for Turkey, was signed. The Young Turks fled abroad, leaving the last Ottoman Sultan, Mehmed VI, in power. He became a puppet in the hands of the Entente.

But then the unexpected happened. In 1919, a national liberation movement arose in the distant mountainous provinces. It was headed by Mustafa Kemal Ataturk. He led the common people with him. He very quickly expelled the Anglo-French and Greek invaders from his lands and restored Turkey within the borders that exist today. On November 1, 1922, the sultanate was abolished. Thus, the Ottoman Empire ceased to exist. On November 17, the last Turkish Sultan, Mehmed VI, left the country and went to Malta. He died in 1926 in Italy.

And in the country, on October 29, 1923, the Grand National Assembly of Turkey announced the creation of the Turkish Republic. It exists to this day, and its capital is the city of Ankara. As for the Turks themselves, they have been living quite happily in recent decades. They sing in the morning, dance in the evening, and pray during breaks. May Allah protect them!