Parsi language. Persian language (Farsi)

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Persian is one of the 10 oldest languages, which includes Tamil, Lithuanian, Icelandic, Hebrew, Macedonian, Basque, Finnish, Georgian and the native Irish. These languages ​​were presented by Culture magazine in its report, noting their current positions in different countries of the world, as the 10 oldest languages ​​in the world.

In the introduction of this report it was stated: “The evolution of language is like biological evolution, happening very subtly from generation to generation, so there is no dividing point that distinguishes one language from the next language that is formed from the first... That is why it is impossible to say that one language older than another language, since they are all as old as humanity itself.

Thus, each language listed below has a special difference that distinguishes it from others." In this report, pointing out the difference of the Persian language, against the background of a large number of its speakers, as in Iran, Afghanistan and Tajikistan, as well as minor changes in this language for many years, it has been said: "Today, speakers of Persian can hold in their hands a record written in the year 900 and read it much more easily than an Englishman can when trying to read the works of Shakespeare."

Page from a copy of the Panchatantra, 1429 from Herat

For many centuries, Iranians have kept the sweet Farsi language in their warm embrace as a precious pearl, developing, processing and making it more beautiful day after day. The term "sweet" has been used in Persian for a long time and refers to the lightness and softness of this language. The Manichaean texts, Avesta and Pahlavi materials indicate the sweetness of the tongue. This term has been used for a long time about speech, and then Iranians and foreign Iranianists used it only in relation to language. "Sweet Persian", "Farsi - sugar" and the term "Persian sugar" are used only in connection with the Persian language (Farsi), and not with other languages. Sweet Persian went through quite a long period and evolved into its current form. The history of the Persian language as well as the history of the ancient territory of Iran is ancient and has risen from thousands of years.

What we call the Persian language today is the embryo of the language of the group of so-called Indo-European languages. Due to the common characteristics of the Persian language with the language of the Indians, it formed a group with the Indian languages ​​of the Indo-Iranian language branch.

In past millennia, the Indians took the route on the other side of the Hindu Kush, and the Persians settled in the territory called Iran. Then, the Iranian language group began its development. Iranian languages ​​spread over a large territory, from Maverannahr to the banks of the Syr Darya and Amu Darya rivers in the east. In the north it covered Great Khorasan, Kharasm, the Caucasian regions and the shores of the Caspian Sea. In the west to Mesopotamia and in the south to the shores of the Persian Gulf and the Sea of ​​Oman.

The spread of Iranian languages, which occurred in ancient times, is also continuing at the moment. These languages ​​spread not only to the territory of today's Iran, but also to Central Asia, Transcaucasia, Afghanistan and other countries in the Middle East.

From the point of view of linguists, the Iranian languages ​​of this large area are sister languages, derived from an ancient language called the mother language. The same origin, homogeneity of basic words and grammar of these languages ​​indicate their relationship. The basis of the origin of these languages ​​from the Iranian language group does not lie in the current geographical or political borders of Iran, but the criteria for the relationship of these languages ​​are international linguistic criteria. Based on this, the Ossetian language, which is spoken in the Caucasus, the Yaghnobi language, which is spoken in the Yagnob and Pashto valleys, which is widespread in Afghanistan, from the point of view of science and modern linguistics are part of the Iranian languages.

There are three main periods in the history of the Persian language: the first period, which is called the ancient period. This period begins when the first signs of Iranian languages ​​appeared. This period lasted until the end of the Achaemenid dynasty. The two main languages ​​in which there is valuable literature, i.e. Old Persian, representing the language of the Achaemenid inscriptionsand the language of the Avesta, which is the language of the Zoroastrian religious books, belong to this period.

During this period, languages, like many ancient languages ​​of the world, have complex grammar. In them, nouns are declined in 7-8 cases. Verbs have complex tenses. Additionally, masculine, feminine, and neuter genders play a role in grammar. In addition to the singular and plural, there is a dual number.

The second period or middle period of the Persian language began at the end of the Achaemenid period and continued until the beginning of the Islamic period. During this period, over a large area according to linguistic and geographical foundations languages ​​are divided into two groups: Western and Eastern. The eastern group of languages ​​includes the Sogdian, Khorezmian, Scythian and Bactrian languages. The languages ​​of the Western group include: Parthian and Middle Persian. There is valuable literature in these languages, including translations, comments to Avesta, philosophical, theological and religious books, such as Dinkard, "Bundahishn", "Excerpts from Zadsparam", Pahlavi texts, “Shekand Gumanik Vichar” and many other works.

During this period, the Iranian language underwent great changes. The phonetic system has been greatly simplified. The declension of nouns, adjectives and pronouns has disappeared from these languages. Verb inflections have been greatly simplified. Gender and dual number disappeared, the stage was prepared for the appearance of the Dari pearl. Then the third or new period of Iranian languages ​​began, a developed and strengthened language, i.e. the sweet Persian language found itself in a new period to become the language of poetry, literature, culture, science, religion, love and mysticism.

The structure and syllabary system of the Persian language has unique features that baffle linguists. Simple pronunciation of letters, beautiful rhythm of words, simple grammar and word formation ability are the featuresPersian language. Due to its agglutinative structure, the Persian language can endlessly construct words. This feature only exists in a few languages. Agglutinative language assumes that the formation of new vocabulary words with diverse meanings occurs by adding additional parts (affixes) to the stem or root: suffixes, prefixes, etc.

However, the secret to the long life of the sweet Persian language does not lie only in its phonetic, linguistic and grammatical systems. What has preserved the Persian language to this day is the thinking that was expressed in this language. Basically, it is Iranian thinking expressed in Persian that has led to the survival and dynamism of the language.

We still have the Avesta, which has come down from the depths of centuries. We draw the human messages of Zoroaster from the pages of the Avesta. During the Sassanid period, our language conveyed a rich culture. The science and philosophy of Greece and India, both through contacts with scientists and through the books of these countries, enriched our cultural and linguistic components. The literature of the Sassanid dynasty, which was created during the early Islamic period, is very rich. The book "Dinkard" remains from this period., which describes the most complex religious and philosophical issues. By thinking about the words and terms of this book, one can understand the depth of abilities and possibilities of the Persian language. Shekand Gumanik Vichar confronts the reader with powerful verbal and scientific literature in the dialogue between religions. The reader is surprised by the strong rhetoric of that time. The language of the book "Yadegar-e Zariran" is epic, it talks about heroes. The book "Derakht-e Asurig" (Assyrian Tree) depicts pleasant pictures between a palm tree and a goat and the book "Khosrow va Ridag" talks about the most beautiful flowers, perfumes, games, coverings and foodstuffs.

At the end of the Sasanian period, the beginning of the Islamic period, the Persian language with such a rich history becomes a language that takes the forefront, and is not even inferior to the new phenomenon, like the Arabic language. The Persian language consciously attracts words and represents them within its boundaries, so that after more than two hundred centuries, the language of that time is familiar to Iranians.

Iranians don't need a dictionary to understand Rudaki's qasida:

Muliyana suddenly blew a wave,

She reminded me of my beloved.

The Persian language became an Iranian entity and was recognized when Ya'qub Leis Sistani told the poets of his palace: " Call me in the language that is my language." The emirs of the Sassanid dynasty ordered to speak and write in Persian and considered language one of the foundations of the state. From this period, translations of the Holy Quran into Persian began. Thus, the treasury of Persian words was protected from the dangers of the times, and the ground was prepared for the emergence of Shahnam -e Ferdowsi. The book, which until today has been and will forever be in history the identity document of Iranians.

Persian is a sweet language. He is eternal. Its basis is not broken. This is a palace that is not harmed by wind or rain. Since this seed of communication was planted everywhere in Iran, it was strengthened by speakers of this language outside the borders of Iran. From it new flowers will bloom and there will be fresh fruits.

Dear radio listeners, let’s end this program with a poem by the great Iranian poet, Ferdowsi:

I've worked so hard for thirty years

revived the Iranians with the Persian language,

Built a high palace with poetry,

Which will not be destroyed by wind or rain

Persian(فارْسِى (fārsi)) used many different scripts, including Old Persian cuneiform, Pahlavi, Aramaic, and Avestan, and . After the Muslim conquest of the Sassanid Persian state in 642, Arabic became the language of state power, culture and, especially, religion.

Modern Persian appeared during the 9th century. A variation of the Arabic alphabet is used to write Persian. In addition, the Persian language contains many words of Arabic origin. There are also two methods of writing Persian using the Latin alphabet.

During the period of Mongol and Turkish rule, Persian functioned as the language of government in Turkey, Central Asia and India, where it was used for many centuries, and after 1900 in Kashmir.

The Persian language is part of the Iranian branch and has about 130 million speakers, mainly in Iran, Afghanistan and Tajikistan. There are also significant numbers of Persian speakers living in other countries, including Uzbekistan, Bahrain, Iraq, Turkey, Kuwait, Azerbaijan, Israel, Turkmenistan, Oman, Yemen, UAE and the United States.

In Afghanistan, the Persian language is known as Dari (درى), or Persian Dari, and in Tajikistan - as the Tajik language (Toҷiki / تاجيكى).

Persian alphabet

Persian, Farsi or Parsi?

In English and other languages, the official language of Iran is sometimes called "Farsi". This is the correct transliteration of the language's self-name, although many experts, including the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and the Academy of Persian Language and Literature, prefer to call the language Persian. Some Persian speakers use the older local name: Parsi (پارسی).

Iran or Persia?

Until 1935, modern Iran was officially called Persia. Despite this, the Persians called their country Iran since the reign of the Sassanids (226-651).

Accent

Stress in the Persian language is two-component - force (dynamic) and tonic. It usually falls on the last syllable: xân e h'house', xâneh â 'Houses'. Some grammatical indicators at the end of a word (for example, izafet), as well as particles, are usually unstressed. In verb forms beginning with prefixes mi- And be-, the main emphasis is on the prefix, and the secondary emphasis is on the personal ending: miravam'I'm coming'.

Syllable structure

The main types of syllables are: CV - do'two', to'You'; CVC- dud'smoke', mâr'snake'; CVCC- mast'drunk', sabr'patience', goft'said'; VCC- ârd'flour', asb'horse'; VC- âb'water', az‘from, from’; V- u‘she, he’. Since the word and morpheme cannot have an initial CCV structure, a prosthetic vowel /e/ or /o/ is usually inserted into loanwords of this type: estekân(rus. cup), doroške(rus. droshky). An exception is borrowings with initial C + l or C + r: plan'plan', prože'project'.

Morphology

Persian is an inflectional-analytical language. Remnants of inflection predominate in the verb, where at the same time there are many new analytical forms. The name is characterized by the so-called isafet construction and agglutinative type affixes to express number, belonging, degrees of comparison. There is no category of gender in the Persian language.

Name

Names in Persian are traditionally divided into nouns, adjectives, pronouns and numerals. A noun has the categories of number and definiteness/indeterminacy, an adjective has degrees of comparison (comparative - suffix -tar, excellent - -tarin: bad'bad' - badtar'worse' - badtarin‘worst’), personal pronouns - category of person. All names are characterized by analyticity and the agglutinative appearance of a few affixes. There is no case category in the Persian language, but the so-called isafet indicator is used ( -e), which marks the main word in a noun phrase ( ketâb-e mâdar‘mother’s book’; ketâb-e mâdar-e Amin‘book of Amin’s mother’; šâh-e bozorg‘great king’).

The plural is consistently expressed only in nouns where two main indicators are used: -ân(only for animate persons, paired human body parts and some groups of nouns) and -hâ(for any categories of nouns): mard - mardan/mardhâ‘man’ - ‘men’; setâre - setârehâ‘star’ - ‘stars’. Words borrowed from Arabic tend to retain Arabic plurality indicators: entehâbât- ‘elections’. Demonstrative pronouns form the plural in the same way as nouns, but adjectives do not have a number category at all. For personal pronouns, number is expressed lexically.

The plural indicator can also be used with uncountable nouns, for example, “water,” to denote a large quantity. At the same time, if there is an indication of quantity (two, three, etc.), then the plural indicator is not used.

In addition to izafet, special possessive affixes (pronominal enclitics) are also used to denote possession: -am('my'), -at('your'), -aš('his'), -emân('our'), -etân('your'), -esan('their').

Case meanings are usually expressed by prepositions and a single postposition -râ, marking a direct object if it denotes a specific object. Persian also has an unstressed indefinite article. -i: pesar-i‘some (one) boy’; the same meaning can be conveyed by numerals yek: yek pesar(in colloquial speech also yek pesar-i). In general, the expression of certainty/uncertainty is not as rigid as in languages ​​like French or English.

Cardinal numbers do not change and always come before the word they define, which has a singular form. Ordinal numbers are formed from cardinal numbers using suffixes -om And -omin.

The number of adverbs in the Persian language is very small, and very often nouns and adjectives act as adverbs, including without a preposition: for example, šab means both ‘evening, night’ and ‘evening, night’.

Verb

Main article: Persian verb

Verbs in the Persian language in finite forms are conjugated according to persons and numbers. Voice, tense and modal meanings are expressed through a developed system of personal verbal forms. There are three moods: indicative, subjunctive and imperative. Several frozen forms of the 3rd person singular have also been preserved. numbers of the desired mood (optative). Transitive verbs have two voices: active and passive, which is expressed by an analytical construction with an auxiliary verb šodan.

The Persian verb is characterized by the presence of two stems: presentation(present tense) and preterital(past tense), for example: kon- : card-'do', row- : raft-'go'. The formation of the past tense stem, as in many other Iranian languages ​​(for example, Ossetian), is characterized by the addition of an affix to the present tense stem -t(d) and non-trivial vocal alternations at the base and consonantal ones at the end: suz- : suxt-‘burn, burn’, ruy- : growth-‘to grow (of plants)’.

In modern Persian, the linking verb has two variants: full (basics hast-/bud-/bâš-) and enclitic (forms in colloquial language completely coincide with personal verb endings; in Literary language the only difference is the form 3 l. units. h. ast). In many contexts the two are used interchangeably, and the use of one form or the other is determined by pragmatic factors. However, in perfect forms only the enclitic version of the copula can be used. Complete coincidence of the latter with personal verb endings in spoken language, as well as the loss of the past participle indicator in live speech -e allowed some researchers to consider perfect forms as synthetic along with present and preterite.

Below is the traditional classification of the basic forms of the Persian verb. The accent, unless otherwise indicated, falls on the prefix or (in the absence of the latter) on the stem. Negation looks like na-/ne-(before palatalized consonants), while in the conjunctive it replaces the indicator be-. Also, this indicator is usually omitted in complex verbs.

• Synthetic forms
  • Indicative
    • Present-future tense: mi mi-kon-am‘(I) do’). Used in the following meanings:
      • 1) ordinary present regularly repeated action ( man dar kârxâne kâr mikonam ‘I work at a factory’);
      • 2) the action of the present moment ( hâlâ esterâhat mikonam ‘(I’m) resting now’);
      • 3) future action ( hatman miâyad ‘(he) will come now’).
    • Simple past tense (aorist): ( na) + past tense stem + personal endings ( card-am‘(I) did’). Simple past forms of linking verbs are expressed regularly from the stem bud.
      • 1) expresses a past action without specific characteristics ( pandž bâr maqâle-râ xândand ‘they read the article five times’);
      • 2) in subordinate temporal and conditional clauses it can denote a future action, which is thought of as completed ( agar u-râ didi, salâm-am-râ bede‘if you see him, say hi’).
    • Past continuous: mi+ past tense stem + personal endings ( mi-kard-am‘(I) did’), in 3 l. units h. personal ending zero;
      • expresses a long-term, repeated action ( sâl-e gozâšte hafte-i yek bâr sinemâ miraftam ‘once a week last year (I) went to the cinema’).
  • Subjunctive
    • Present tense: be/na+ present tense stem + personal endings ( be-kon-am). Present tense forms of the conjunctive of a linking verb are formed from the stem bâš with the addition of standard personal endings.
  • Imperative
    • Has 2 liter forms. units and many more h. It is formed identically to the conjunctive in the corresponding forms (with the exception of some verbs, for example. bokon (kardan), boro (raftan)), but in 2 l. units h. the personal ending is omitted.
• Analytical Forms
  • Indicative
    • Perfect: past tense stem + past participle suffix ( -ecard-é am‘(I) did’). In spoken language there is usually a contraction to forms like card-ám, with the result that the perfect differs from the simple preterite only in the location of the stress.
    • Long perfect: mi+ past tense stem + past participle suffix ( -e) + enclitic forms of linking verb ( mí-kard-e am‘(I) did (and did)’). In spoken language, the same rules of contraction apply as for the simple perfect.
      • perfect forms express the effectiveness of an action for the present moment ( hanuz nayâmade-ast ‘(he) hasn’t arrived yet’);
      • can also convey the meaning of obviousness, non-obviousness ( miguyând ke u fomt karde ast ‘they say he died’).
    • Plusquaperfect: past tense stem + past participle suffix ( -e) + past tense forms of linking verb ( card-é bud-am);
      • denotes an action preceding another ( dust-am nahâr xorde bud, ke man be u telefon kardam‘my friend had already had lunch when I called him’);

In addition to the basic forms, the Persian language also distinguishes a number of complex verbal forms that express different aspectual and tense meanings.

• present definite (concrete): present-future tense of the verb dâštan+ present-future tense of the main verb.
  • is used instead of the present-future to emphasize that the action is being performed at the present moment ( dâram miâyam‘(I’m) going now’).
• past definite (specific): simple past tense of the verb dâštan+ past continuous tense of the main verb.
  • denotes an action that took place at some specific moment in the past, in particular at the time of the commission of another action ( hasan madrase rafte bud va mâdarbozorg-aš dâšt nahâr mipoxt ‘Hassan went to school, and his grandmother cooked dinner’);
• future categorical: auxiliary verb xâstan+ so-called short infinitive of the main verb (coinciding with the past tense stem).
  • book-literary form ( tehrân xâham raft ‘(I) will go to Tehran’), in modern living language the present-future tense is used instead;

Persian has two prefixes that express aspectual meaning. Prefix mi-, which gives the verb form the meaning of duration, repetition, joins the following verbal forms:

• present-future indicative;
• past continuous indicative tense;
• long perfect indicative mood;
• the second component of the analytical forms of the present and past definite tenses of the indicative mood (e.g. dâram mi-ravam‘I (now) go’, dâšt mi-raft‘he was walking’);

Prefix be-, on the contrary, denotes one-time, completeness, and can be used in the forms of the present-future subjunctive mood.

The Persian verb also has the following non-finite forms:

• infinitive (preterital stem + suffix -an: kardan ‘to do’);
• past participle (preterital stem + suffix -e: karde'made');
• present participle (present stem + suffixes -ande, -â , ân: xânande‘reader, reader’, dânâ'knowing', suzan'burning');
• future participle (infinitive + suffix -i: kardani ‘that which should be or can be done’).

Pronouns

Polite pronoun man(“I”) can be replaced by bande(بنده), “ânhâ” (“they”) - on išan (ایشان).

There are no possessive pronouns in Persian. Instead, an isafet chain is used: medâd -e u (“his pencil”) or pronominal enclitics: medâd am (“my pencil”)

Interrogative pronouns

• كی (ki) - Who?
• چه (çe) - What?
• كی (key) - When?
• كجا (koja) - Where?
• چرا ( çera) - Why?
• چطور ( Cetor) - How?
• چگونه (çegune) - how?
• چند (çand) - How many?
• كدام (code) - Which? which?

Syntax

Persian is one of the nominative languages. The normal word order in a sentence is Subject-Object-Predicate: ahmad dust-am-râ mibinad'Ahmed sees my friend.' Cases of inversion are observed in colloquial speech, folklore and poetry. The usual order of words in a sentence is as follows: in the first place or after the adverbial tense is the subject, in the last place is the predicate, which agrees with the subject in person and number. A direct object with a postposition râ- or without a postposition is placed immediately before the predicate verb (sometimes it can be separated from it by an indirect object or an adverbial word): u in ketâbhâ va daftarhâ-râ be šomâ midahad‘he gives you these books and notebooks’, man name minevisam‘I’m writing a letter’.

The definition, qualitative or by affiliation, is placed after the word being defined, which has the isafet indicator -e: šahr-e zibâ‘beautiful city’, xodnevis-e barâdar‘brother’s fountain pen’. If a word has several qualitative definitions, then they follow one after another and after each of them, except the last one, an isafet indicator is placed.

Pronouns are placed in preposition to the word they define.

In general, syntactic relations are expressed by agreement (of the predicate with the subject), control (of the predicate by its dependents with the help of various prepositions and postpositions -râ), adjacency (predicate and unformed direct object; modifier and definition expressed by superlative adjectives, numerals and some types of pronouns; predicate with adverbial), word order, as well as division of the sentence into groups of words related to each other in meaning and intonation.

Dialects

The dialects of the Persian language are poorly studied today, and it is hardly possible to provide a complete list of them. The Tehran dialect, which occupies a leading place among all others, is the most studied. The dialects of Kerman, Isfahan, Novgan (Mashhad), Birjand, Sistan, Sebzevar are also known. Dialects and dialect groups are distinguished on the basis of lexico-grammatical and phonetic features. The differences with the literary language can be so significant that one can, in fact, talk not about Persian dialects, but about many closely related languages; Unfortunately, the degree of study of dialects is too small to draw any more or less unambiguous conclusions on this issue.

Tehran dialect has a great influence on the language of fiction; the media, cinema and theater are oriented towards it. In fact, the Tehran dialect has become the generally accepted literary and colloquial norm of the modern Persian language.

The phonemic composition of the Tehran dialect is identical to the literary one, but differs significantly in the implementation of phonemes. Apparently, the most common sound is [e], which often replaces the literary [æ], as well as the short form of the linking verb -ast. Consonantism is characterized by the alternation of /l/ and /r/. The plural of most nouns is formed using the suffix -â . The personal endings of the verb do not coincide with the literary language; many verbs have contracted inflections.

Spoken language

Spoken Persian is quite different from literary Persian. The differences between these styles concern not only phonetics, but also grammar, syntax, and word formation. In addition, in Persian (unlike Russian, where bookish vocabulary is acceptable in conversation), the use of literary forms instead of colloquial ones is often erroneous or undesirable, for example, in a telephone conversation.

The most common rule is replacing the long [â] with [u] before the consonants [m] and [n]: Iran - Ir u n, Tehrân - Tehr u n, bâran - bâr u n. Linking verb ast and the ending of the verb in the third person singular -ad goes to ending -e: bârân mibârad - bâr u n mibar e (it's raining) dorost ast - dorost e (right, right) U javâni ast - jav u ni ye (he is young). After words ending with -e or -A bunch ast takes the form -ass: U tešne ast - U tešn ass (he is thirsty).

When conjugated, the linking verb merges with the noun, taking on the form of a personal ending: Man dânešju hastam - dânešju yam (I'm a student) ânhâ tehrâni hastand - tehr u ni yand (They are Tehranians).

2nd person plural ending -id in spoken language it has the form -in: Cherâ diruz telefon nakard in ? (Why didn't you call yesterday?)

The 5 most used verbs in the language have a present tense stem reduced to one consonant sound and a vowel-consonant pair in their colloquial version: goftan-g(speak), dâdan - d(give) raftan-r(leave), šodan - š(become), âvardan - âr(bring). Bahâr barf ab mi šavad- bahâr barf ab mi še (In spring the snow melts) in râ âbejo miguyad - in râ âbejo mi ge (He calls it beer). In the imperative mood, some verbs also have a shortened form.

Postposition râ in colloquial language it is converted into ro, if the highlighted noun ends in a consonant - to the ending -o: Man râ bebakhš - Man o bebakhš(I'm sorry).

Language Descriptions

There are no academic grammars or dictionaries of the Persian language. Persian grammars created in Iran are divided into two directions: a description of the language of classical poets that continues medieval traditions (with examples almost exclusively from them) and a description of the modern language based on European models. In Russia, grammarians of the Persian language (classical and modern) were compiled by Zaleman and Zhukovsky, Bertels, Zhirkov, Yu. A. Rubinchik and others. Of the Western European Persian grammars, one of the most outstanding is considered to be that compiled by the French Iranian scholar Gilbert Lazare. The largest dictionary of the Persian language was compiled by Dehkhoda (in Iran it is still considered standard, although its vocabulary is partially outdated).

Writing

Basic fonts for writing Farsi: naskh (1, 2), nastaliq (3)

The Persian alphabet, based on Arabic, is used to write the modern Persian language. The Arabic alphabet was supplemented with four letters to represent sounds not found in Arabic. The alphabet consists of 32 letters in total. Most letters have four types of styles depending on which part of the word it is in. There are no capital letters. The writing direction is from right to left. Numbers in complex numerals and dates are written from left to right.

A characteristic feature of the Persian language in Iran is the widespread use of the Nastaliq (Tahriri) script, which in other countries with Arabic writing is considered archaic and is used extremely rarely. At the same time, the standard “naskh” is also widely used in Iran.

Many letters are identical in spelling and differ from each other only in diacritics.

• Letter "Be" ( ﺏ ) has a general appearance with the letters "Pe" ( پ ), "Te" ( ﺕ ), "Se" ( ﺙ );
• Letter "Jim" ( ﺝ ) has a general appearance with the letters "Che" ( چ ), "Ha-ye hotti" ( ﺡ ), "He" ( ﺥ ).

7 letters of the Persian alphabet are not connected to the following letters: “Aleph” ( ﺍ ), "Dal" ( ﺩ ), "Hall" ( ﺫ ), "Re" ( ﺭ ), "Ze" ( ﺯ ), "Zhe" ( ژ ) and "Vav" ( و ).

Some letters with different spellings represent the same sounds. For example, the letters “Hall” ( ﺫ ), "Ze" ( ﺯ ), "Rear" ( ﺽ ) and “For” ( ﻅ ) transmit sound [z]. Other letters, on the contrary, can mean different sounds. So, "Vav" ( و ) can be used to record the sounds [в], [о] and [у].

Most letters are written on the line, while "Re" ( ﺭ ), "Ze" ( ﺯ ), "Zhe" ( ژ ) and "Vav" ( و ) are written below the line.

Spelling

The problem of Persian spelling is acute. The fundamental problem is that the Arabic script does not correspond to the structure of the Indo-European language, does not convey short (weak) vowels in writing (except for educational books and dictionaries), and there are many homographs in the language. In addition, there are still no clear spelling norms, many letters, originally intended only for Arabisms, are used contrary to etymology in original words, many words have several reading or writing options, prepositions, prefixes and other formants are written by some authors together, by others separately etc. Neither the Shah's government nor the Islamic regime welcomed the desire for romanization or spelling reform. It was not until the 1930s that the romanization movement was relatively active.

Despite this, in the orthography of at least the literary language a number of principles are strictly observed. With very rare exceptions, long vowels in writing are expressed as separate signs (alif, vav, yod), while short vowels (including the isafet ending -e or -ue) are not expressed. The spelling of consonants is strictly phonetic, although some sounds correspond to several different letters (this applies in most cases to Arabic borrowings, sometimes to distinguish homonyms).

Example text

Prose text

Poetic spoken text

During its historical development, Farsi has undergone significant changes in phonetic, grammatical and lexical systems, going from a language with a developed system of inflectional forms to an analytical language.
The oral form of modern literary Persian is based on Tehran dialect. The dialects of Kerman, Isfahan, Novgan (Mashhad), Birjand, Sistan, Sebzevar and others are also known. In addition, several specific Farsi dialects are spoken by Persian Jews; these dialects should not be confused with the separate Bukharan-Jewish and Mountain-Jewish languages.
Phonetic system Farsi has 6 vowels and 22 consonants. Russian-speaking students familiar with English phonetics do not have any particular problems with developing Persian pronunciation.
Not too complicated and Persian grammar. Farsi nouns are characterized by the categories of number and definiteness/indeterminacy. The stress in most words falls on the last syllable. There are no categories of case and gender. The verb is characterized by the categories of person, tense, voice and mood. All verbs vary according to the same type of conjugation, and according to their structure they are divided into simple and complex.
To connect words in a sentence, the isafet construction, prepositions and postposition -ra are used. An izafet construction is a special way of expressing an attributive connection in which its indicator (an unstressed izafet particle; in Persian -e) is attached to the word being defined, and not to the definition, for example: ahr-e bozorg “big city” (literally “the city that big"), sb-e pedr "father's horse". Something similar exists in Hebrew (smichut).
Lexical core Farsi is a native Iranian word. There are many borrowings from Arabic (up to 50% of all vocabulary), Turkish, French, English and other languages. The current Tehran authorities are fighting borrowings from European languages ​​(trying to replace them with words derived from original Persian roots), and leaving Arabic ones alone.
At letter Farsi uses Arabic script with the addition of four letters (for sounds not found in Arabic), which was quickly adopted after the Arab conquest of Iran in the 7th century AD. The influence of Arabic on Persian turned out to be so strong that the self-name of the local language changed into Arabic (Parsi -> Farsi).
Students of Farsi, and indeed native speakers themselves, face a serious problem: Arabic graphics do not correspond to the structure of the Persian language. In particular, it does not capture short (weak) vowels, and there are many homographs in the language. In addition, clear spelling standards have not yet been developed; letters, originally intended only for Arabisms, are used contrary to etymology in original words; many words have several reading or spelling options; prepositions, prefixes and other formants are written by some authors together, by others separately. About the transition to the Latin alphabet since the 1930s. there is no talk...

overview of the history, phonetics, grammar, dialectology and orthography of the Persian language (Farsi)
Persian alphabet, numbers
Persian pronouns
Russian-Persian dictionary online