Written speech definition. Features of written speech

Interaction with people is a significant part of our lives. There are two forms of speech: oral and written speech. Every time we write a letter or just talk, we choose the most appropriate presentation style. The success of communication in general and the result of an individual dialogue depend on the correct choice of one of the five styles.

It is especially important in written communication, because the reader cannot see or hear the author’s voice. What types of speech are distinguished? What are the features of speech styles?

Speech

Speech depends on many conditions, changes and has unique characteristics. Communication is carried out thanks to external speech, which is accessible to the hearing and vision of the interlocutor.

Inner speech is silent and is not a means of interaction. This is a process inaccessible to others, thinking in the shell of words. Its peculiarity is brevity and conciseness.

When translating abbreviations of internal speech into expanded external speech that is understandable to the interlocutor, the speaker may experience difficulties: “It’s on the tongue, but I can’t express it!” This explains the difficulty that sometimes arises in explaining the inner thoughts of one person to another.

You can understand your interlocutor and hear his reaction only through oral speech. The reader who perceives written speech cannot see or hear the writer, he does not need to know him. The author and the reader may be separated by time and space.

The lack of direct contact is associated with difficulties in creating written text. The author will not be able to use many verbal and non-verbal means of expression: facial expressions, rate of speech, intonation, gestures, eye contact. There are punctuation marks in the text, but they are not able to replace the means of communication. Therefore, oral speech is more expressive than written speech.

Completeness of thoughts, comprehensiveness, coherence, clarity of presentation - all this is characteristic of written speech. Its main feature is processing, the ability to carefully improve the expression of thoughts over a period of time. Such pauses are unusual for oral speech.

In oral communication, repetition of information already known from previous remarks is not accepted. The same phrases can be used for different purposes. For example, for written and oral speech the question is ambiguous: “What time is it?” In writing it has one meaning - interest in time. The situations of oral communication are varied, and the same question carries different meanings. For overstaying guests, a hint: “Isn’t it time for you to go home?”; for a latecomer, an expression of indignation: “How long can we wait?”

Thus, the norms of oral and written speech are different. You could say, don’t talk the way you write, and don’t write the way you talk!

Monologue and dialogue

The conditions of communication determine the type of oral speech used: monologue or dialogue.

Dialogical speech is a conversation between two or more people speaking alternately. Dialogue can be purposeful or spontaneous, like everyday communication. An ordinary conversation does not imply clear planning; its flow and outcome depend on the interlocutors supporting each other, statements, comments, objections or approvals. A focused conversation is organized for negotiations, obtaining information, and clarifying issues.

To conduct a dialogue, no special training or requirements are required; it is not necessary to practice coherent and detailed statements, as in monologue or written speech. Understanding between the participants in the dialogue is achieved easily, one might say immediately. A necessary condition for interlocutors is the ability to listen to a partner without interrupting, understand his objections and respond to them.

Monologue speech is the speech of one person; others perceive it, but do not participate. Such a “one-sided” conversation often occurs when communicating, for example, in the form of oral or written speeches, lectures, reports. A feature of the monologue is its focus on the listeners. His goal is to influence people, convey knowledge, thoughts, and persuade them to his point of view. Therefore, the monologue is developed, planned, and built on a logical and coherent presentation of thoughts. These requirements are difficult to comply with without preparation.

A monologue is characterized by tension. The speaker monitors the speech and the impact it has on the audience. The content of the speech, the logic of thought, consistency, expressiveness, contact with the audience - all this becomes the subject of attention throughout the speech.

A conversation and exchange of statements between several people is called a form of speech called polylogue.

Speech styles

The style of speech can be called its character, characteristics and originality, historically developed in different spheres of social activity. They differ in linguistic means and their own organization.

You can express thoughts using a scientific, journalistic, artistic, official business and colloquial style. Using texts of different types and styles, you can describe the same object. The conversational style is present mainly in oral form. Both oral and written speech are typical for books (article, report, speech).

Knowledge of the features of styles is absolutely necessary for people whose work activities involve communication in various forms. Functional styles are heterogeneous language systems. They reflect the conditions of communication for different areas and differ in terminology and genre. Let's look at properties and examples of styles.

Scientific style

Scientific speech. Example

"The results of the experiments allow us to conclude that the object under study is homogeneous, has a complex structure, and is lightproof. The object changes properties after exposure to temperatures above 400 K. As a result of research, it has been proven that under the influence of a potential difference the molecular structure of a given substance changes. Mechanical impact on the object to visible does not lead to changes in the structure."

Journalistic style

Let's look at an example:

"An unprecedented court hearing! The Brazilian court recognized poker as a game that depends on luck, and not on skill. The litigation continued for several years. The underground poker club was closed back in 2010. Its owners, without thinking twice, filed a lawsuit to prove that Poker is a sport game.

The judge was adamant: “It is impossible to deny the ability to master the strategy of the game, which is determined by the cards dealt or the position at the table, but these factors are not paramount, unlike luck in poker. Only luck is the most important factor."

After complete defeat, the accused filed an appeal and attracted criminology specialists. Their point of view is that the success of the game is determined primarily by the skills of the players, and not by a successful situation."

Formal business style

“Dear Ivan Petrovich! Having familiarized ourselves with the advertising campaign and the work plan of your shopping center, published in No. 7 of the Business Journal dated April 12, 2014, we are sending you an application for participation in the exhibition. We ask you to include our organization among the participants in the exhibition.”

“I, Pupkov Boris Borisovich, on behalf of Phoenix LLC, express my gratitude to the team of the OJSC Temp corporation, in particular A. A. Petrov and S. N. Ivanov for their high professionalism and timely resolution of problem situations.”

Literary and artistic style

During the day, the cook prepares lunch several times for the hungry sailors, and this is a crowd of 100 people. They eat in shifts, for each group he sets the tables, cleans and washes all the dishes. Despite the fact that submariners have a very good menu. They most often have cottage cheese with honey or jam for breakfast. It can even be made from rose petals or walnuts. Red caviar is always served with lunch or dinner; sometimes it is replaced by sturgeon balyk.

Submariners are served daily 100 g of red wine, chocolate and roach. This tradition comes from Soviet times, when they decided how to increase their appetite. Opinions were divided: some members of the commission believed that beer was better, while others believed that something else was better. Those who favored wine won, but the roach for beer remained in the ration.

Conversational style

"Salute, dude! What kind of life is there if there is no energy, adrenaline and speed in it! I live for extreme sports, for the thrill. Drive is cool! I love it when the adrenaline blows the roof off. I can’t live without a bike, a road. Now Are you in the know? I’m fine as long as I can challenge this life.”

"It happened that I spent the night in the forest. It was somehow scary. It was cold, it chilled me to the bones. Then I met a bear. I went to the current, to listen. It was already dark. Aha! They were sitting, they could hear everything. Well, it seems, they can sense tells you what’s there... It’s covered with a shadow - an eagle owl is flying up from above, about two meters away, turning its head. Well, my dear, I’ll swat you!”

Someone else's speech

Another type of speech is someone else's speech. It is present in some book styles, consists of replicas of persons included in the narrative, in addition to the author's, and is conveyed through direct and indirect speech.

Direct speech is a person’s statement given verbatim, and indirect speech is the transfer of the content of what was said, while the speaker’s words can be changed. They differ mainly in terms of syntax. Direct speech is an independent clause. Indirect - a subordinate clause in a sentence with the words of the author, and his speech plays the main role.

Direct speech does not always reflect verbatim what was said; it may be accompanied by various words from the author: “She answered something like this...”; “He asked with dissatisfaction...” and others. When brought together, these types of speech form improperly direct and semidirect speech.

Conclusion

It is undesirable to mix different types of speech, oral, written directions and styles. The conversational style is best left for oral implementation.

When writing, bookish styles predominate, such as scientific, business and artistic. Journalistic is used in all forms. There are exceptions. Let’s say that in a literary story there is a conversational form; at an oral presentation, a student presents a report in a scientific or official style.

The forms of oral and written speech are in many ways similar, since they are based on literary vocabulary. Both types must be used in compliance with the norms of the Russian language.

All forms considered relate to active speech. In life, passive is often used, when a person does not talk, does not write down, but simply listens. Passive speech consists of receiving and understanding the story of another.

What is "Written Speech"? How to spell this word correctly. Concept and interpretation.

Written Speech - speech depicted on paper (parchment, birch bark, stone, linen or any other surface) using special graphic characters (writing signs). The use of a written form of speech allows the writer to deliberately select linguistic means, build a statement gradually, correct and improve the text. This contributes to the emergence of more complex syntactic structures than in oral speech (see), greater logic, consistency, coherence of presentation, and high normative speech. P.r. necessary for communication in all functions. spheres: scientific (works related to the genres of monographs, articles, textbooks, etc.), official business (laws, decrees, regulations, agreements, statements, etc.), journalistic (articles in newspapers, magazines), artistic ( literary works), colloquial (notes, private letters). Scientific, journalistic, official business texts are formed mainly on the basis of the written implementation of lit. language. It is no coincidence that these functions. styles are called book styles. In the form of P. r. there is also an artist. literature. In this area, only oral folk art has oral as its primary form of existence; folklore records are a secondary form of its implementation. For the Russian (Old Russian) language, the first fixations of P. r. belong to the X–XI centuries. The appearance of writing among the Eastern Slavs became the main prerequisite for the formation of lit. a language that arose precisely as a written language (Latin littera - letter, letter). Under Old Russian lit. language is understood as the language that has come down to us in written monuments of the 11th–13th centuries, belonging to various genres, namely: the genres of secular narrative literature (the literary and artistic work “The Tale of Igor’s Host”, chronicle narratives, etc.), business writing (the code of laws "Russian Truth", contracts, deeds of sale, letters of grant and other letters), church and religious literature (sermons, lives), where the Old Church Slavonic language was widely represented, but East Slavic elements were also used. Rus. lit. the language existed only as a written language throughout the pre-national period. For the development of written literature. The activities of outstanding wordsmiths are of great importance in the language. Writers play an important role in the evolution of artistic styles. prose and poetry, in the literary treatment of the popular language. So, A.S. Pushkin, guided by the principles of proportionality and conformity, achieved in his art. creativity of a bold synthesis of all viable elements of lit. language with elements of living folk speech. The great role of major scientists (among domestic ones - primarily M.V. Lomonosov and other scientists from the period of formation of the scientific style of the Russian lit. language) in the creation of special terminology, in the formation of speech systematicity of the functional style, in improving the ways of expressing reasoning as a logical construction textual nature, formed and used primarily in written scientific research. speech. The contribution of V.G. is significant. Belinsky, N.G. Chernyshevsky, N.A. Dobrolyubova, D.I. Pisarev in the formation of the style of literary critical works. Lit.: Sobolevsky A.I. History of Russian lit. language. – M., 1980; Vinogradov V.V. Essays on Russian history. lit. language of the 17th–19th centuries. – 3rd ed. – M., 1982; His: Problems of literary languages ​​and patterns of their formation and development. – M., 1967; Vinokur G.O. Rus. language. Historical sketch // Selected articles. works in Russian language. – M., 1959; Efimov A.I. History of Russian lit. language. – M., 1971; Meshchersky N.A. History of Russian lit. language. – L., 1981; Gorshkov A.I. Theory and history of Russian. lit. language. – M., 1984; Zemskaya E.A. Written speech // Rus. language: Enz. – M., 1998. T.B. Trosheva

Written Speech- Category. Type of speech. Specificity. Based on visually perceived stable fixation of the tongue... Great psychological encyclopedia

Written Speech- Written speech - speech - based on visually perceived stable fixation of linguistic con...

DYSLEXIA: WAYS TO IDENTIFY AND OVERCOME

( COURSE WORK )

speech therapy

Introduction……………………………………………………………………...p. 3

Chapter I. Written speech

1.1. The concept of “written speech”……………………………………………………………p. 4

1.2. Psychophysiological mechanisms of reading………………………...p. 6

Chapter II. Dyslexia is a partial specific disorder

reading process

2.1. Definition and symptoms of dyslexia………………………….p. 11

2.2. Studying the state of reading……………………………………..p. 16

Conclusion…………………………………………………………………….p. 25

Bibliography…….……………………………………………………pp. 26

Introduction

The problem of written speech disorders among secondary school students is one of the most relevant problems of modern speech therapy.

Reading disorders are one of the common forms of speech pathology in school-age children.

By now, a certain concept has emerged for the interpretation of written speech as a complex mental activity of a person, necessary for him in everyday life. The works of Luria A.R., Kornev A.N., Lalaeva R.I., Levina R.E. are devoted to the problem of written speech. and other specialists.

As object research is reading, which is subject to direct study in this work.

Subject research is to study the specifics of reading disorders.

Target course work - to determine methods for identifying reading disorders and ways to overcome these disorders in secondary school students.

The implementation of the set goal is achieved by solving the following tasks :

Give a general idea of ​​writing;

Consider the psychophysiological mechanisms of reading;

Consider the specifics of reading disorders;

Determine methods for identifying reading disorders;

Determine the directions of correctional work to eliminate reading disorders.

Chapter I . Written speech

1.1. The concept of “written speech”

Written speech is one of the forms of language existence, opposed to oral speech. This is a secondary, later in time form of the existence of language. For various forms of language activity, both oral and written speech can be primary (for example, folklore and fiction). If oral speech separated man from the animal world, then writing should be considered the greatest of all inventions created by mankind. Written speech not only revolutionized the methods of accumulating, transmitting and processing information, but it changed man himself, especially his ability to think abstractly.

The concept of “written speech” includes reading and writing as equal components. “Writing is a symbolic system for recording speech, which allows, with the help of graphic elements, to fix speech in time and transmit it over a distance.” Any writing system is characterized by a constant composition of characters.

Russian writing refers to alphabetic writing systems. The alphabet marked the transition to symbols of higher orders and determined progress in the development of abstract thinking, making it possible to make speech and thinking objects of knowledge.

Both oral and written forms of speech are a type of temporary connections of the second signaling system, but, unlike oral, written speech is formed only under conditions of purposeful learning, i.e. its mechanisms develop during the period of learning to read and write and are improved during all further education. As a result of reflexive repetition, a dynamic stereotype of a word is formed in the unity of acoustic, optical and kinesthetic stimuli. Mastering written language is the establishment of new connections between the audible and spoken word, the visible and written word, because The writing process is ensured by the coordinated work of four analyzers: speech-motor, speech-auditory, visual and motor.

The shortest unit of speech, in accordance with this, can be conditionally represented as follows:

A.R. Luria defined reading as a special form of impressive speech, and writing as a special form of expressive speech, noting that writing (in any of its forms) begins with a certain idea, the preservation of which helps to inhibit all extraneous tendencies (running ahead, repetitions, etc.). ).

1.2. Psychophysiological mechanisms of reading

Modern ideas about higher mental functions are based on the teachings of A. R. Luria, L. S. Tsvetkova. and others who became the founders of the systematic study of neurophysiological mechanisms of the psyche. According to the theory developed by these researchers, any higher mental function is a complex system, the work of which is ensured by a number of interconnected brain areas.

A. R. Luria identified three blocks formed by special structures of the brain and performing all mental functions at different levels. The first block provides regulation of tone and wakefulness. The second block receives, processes and stores information. The third block implements programming, regulation and control of mental activity. It was A.R. Luria who first described the functional writing system in his works. Taking into account the psychophysiological, psychological and social proximity and inseparability of writing and reading skills, we can identify the components of a functional reading system:

Selective activation;

Processing of visual information;

Processing of auditory-verbal information;

Processing of kinesthetic information;

Processing of visual-spatial information;

Serial organization of movements serving reading (oculomotor and articulatory);

Programming, regulation and control of reading operations.

Selective activation as a component of the functional reading system, it is part of the block regulating tone and wakefulness and is determined by the work of the stem and subcortical formations of the brain. These departments create the optimal tone of the cortex, its energy base necessary for purposeful activity. The structures of the first block, which have a nonspecific effect on the cortical centers, also maintain a state of readiness for a reaction, that is, they perform the function of attention. When the structures of the first functional block are dysfunctional, the general dynamic characteristics of any activity deteriorate: its speed decreases, performance decreases, and exhaustion quickly sets in.

The block for receiving, processing and storing information implements the following functional components of reading: processing of visual and visual-spatial, auditory-verbal and kinesthetic information. The second block includes the posterior sections of the cerebral cortex: the occipital, parietal and temporal regions of the left and right hemispheres. A distinctive feature of the second block, compared to the first, is its hierarchical structure, which is expressed in the presence of primary, secondary and tertiary fields.

Primary fields, being projection fields, receive information of a strictly defined modality and are symmetrically located in both the left and right hemispheres of the brain. Above them are built secondary, gnostic, fields that process the information received in more detail. These fields are also closely related to certain analyzers, but are presented asymmetrically in different hemispheres, which is associated with the characteristics of the left- and right-hemisphere information processing strategy. It is known that the left hemisphere is characterized by an analytical strategy for processing information. Traditionally, the left hemisphere is considered “speech,” that is, responsible for speech processes. The right hemisphere is more responsible for the synthesis of received information; it is characterized by a holistic information processing strategy. It is primarily responsible for processing visual and visuospatial information. The tertiary fields of the second block represent an area of ​​overlap of the cortical sections of various analyzers. The function of tertiary fields is to organize the joint activity of various analytical systems, to process and synthesize multimodal information, including providing visual-spatial analysis and synthesis.

Processing of visual information carried out by the occipital parts of the brain hemispheres. The projection fields of the left and right hemispheres receive primary information coming from the visual analyzer. Gnostic fields are responsible for the analysis, processing and storage of this information, and these operations are distributed unevenly between the left and right hemispheres of the brain. This is due to the information processing characteristics characteristic of each hemisphere. The right hemisphere, having an integral, holistic strategy for processing information, selects significant features and synthesizes a holistic image, and then identifies the emerging image and standard images, that is, it carries out global perception. For visual field dysfunction right hemisphere one-sided spatial agnosia, fragmented perception, and impaired recognition of individual features of an object occur. The left hemisphere uses analytical methods of processing information, identifies and analyzes all the details in the object of perception (their size, shape, etc.), correlates them with existing patterns, and classifies the object. Disturbances in the visual lobe of the left hemisphere lead to the ignoring of individual elements and the inability to establish a hierarchy of selected features.

Recognition of visual stimuli depends not only on the external properties of the perceived object, but also on the internal ones: verbalized stimuli are recognized predominantly by the left hemisphere, non-speech, difficult to verbalize - by the right hemisphere. Accurate visual perception can only be ensured by the joint activity of the left and right hemispheres.

Processing of auditory-verbal information carried out by the temporal region of the cerebral cortex. Its primary fields receive all auditory information, which is then processed by the secondary, gnostic fields of the left hemisphere - Wernicke's area. The processes of phonemic perception, as well as auditory-verbal memory, are associated with the work of the gnostic zones of the temporal region. Dysfunction of the primary fields of the temporal zone of the brain leads to varying degrees of severity of physical hearing impairment, up to complete deafness if they are affected bilaterally. Dysfunction of secondary fields, without affecting the physical characteristics of hearing, causes a violation of the differentiation of phonemes according to oppositional characteristics (voiced-voiced, hard-soft). The left hemisphere is primarily responsible for performing these speech operations, but the right hemisphere also makes its own specific contribution to this process, creating opportunities for analyzing the rhythmic-intonation and melodic characteristics of speech.

Phonemic analysis of speech sounds is impossible without their pronunciation, since it is based on the establishment of acoustic-articulatory connections. Processing of kinesthetic information occurs in the parietal lobe of the cerebral cortex. The primary and secondary fields of the parietal lobe provide the afferent basis for any movement. Damage to the gnostic fields of the kinesthetic analyzer leads to impaired precision of movements. If the disorder extends to speech movements, then errors in the choice of articulatory structures and confusion of similar articles occur.

Visuospatial information processed by the tertiary fields of the second functional block, which are areas of overlap between the parietal and occipital regions. These fields integrate the activities of the kinesthetic and visual analyzers. This component of the functional reading system provides orientation on the plane of the page, compliance with the sequence of reading words, lines, etc. In addition, visual-spatial analysis underlies the differentiation of letters as graphic objects.

Serial organization of movements, programming, regulation and control of reading represent the functions of the third block, which includes the anterior parts of the brain. These structures also have a hierarchical organization. The primary zones of the block are the place of output of motor impulses, the programs of which are created by secondary zones located above the primary ones. The tertiary zones of this block provide control of complex forms of activity and general regulation of behavior.

Programming, regulation and serial organization of reading are manifested in articulatory and voluntary oculomotor movements. In the process of reading aloud, articulatory programs arise, then individual articulomes are combined into “sequential kinetic melodies,” giving reading aloud a smooth, holistic character. The eye movements that underlie the visual component of reading, that is, text tracing, also represent serially organized motor acts that successively replace each other.

Chapter II . Dyslexia is a partial specific disorder

reading process

The doctrine of writing disorders has existed for more than 100 years. The problem of written speech disorders has been studied and is being studied by such specialists as Luria A.R., Egorov T.G., Kashe G.A., Lalaeva R.I., Levina R.E., Spirova D.F., Ananyev B. G., Efimenkova L.N., Kornev A.N., Povalyaeva M.A., Sadovnikova I.N., Kovalenko O.M., Kozyreva L.M., Mazanova E.V., Misarenko G.G. , Paramonova L.G., Prishchepova I.V., Rossiyskaya E.N., Rusetskaya M.N. and others.

2.1. Definition and symptoms of dyslexia

Dyslexia is a partial disorder of the reading process, manifested in persistent and repeated reading errors caused by the immaturity of higher mental functions involved in the reading process.

This definition highlights the main signs of dyslexic errors, which makes it possible to differentiate dyslexia from other reading disorders:

1. Reading errors in dyslexia are persistent, and without special correction work they can persist in a child for many months and years. This allows us to differentiate dyslexic errors from reading errors, which act as regularities in the process of mastering reading and are observed in all children at the initial stages of mastering the skill of reading.

Reading errors, which naturally occur in all children when mastering the skill of reading, are not persistent and quickly disappear as they move from one stage of mastering the skill of reading to another.

2. Reading errors in dyslexia are specific. These are repeated, typical mistakes. This sign of dyslexic errors allows us to differentiate dyslexia from random, variable errors that can be observed during fatigue, due to inattention, and insufficient control processes when reading.

3. Reading errors in dyslexia are caused by the immaturity of higher mental functions that ensure the normal reading process. This sign of dyslexic errors makes it possible to distinguish dyslexia from reading errors that can be observed in children due to pedagogical neglect, incorrect teaching methods, and violations of elementary functions.

Thus, delayed acquisition of reading and reading errors can be observed in lazy children, with behavioral disorders, and pedagogically neglected, even in cases where they have sufficiently developed the higher mental functions necessary for mastering the skill of reading. In this case, the child has reading disorders of a nature other than dyslexia.

Reading errors can also occur if the method of teaching reading is incorrect (letter-by-letter reading, whole-word method, etc.). Thus, letter-by-letter reading, on the one hand, can manifest itself in a child as a result of improper teaching of reading in the family. And if the child does not have disorders of phonemic development, then in this case, letter-by-letter reading does not yet indicate the presence of dyslexia. But, on the other hand, letter-by-letter reading may be a sign of dyslexia if it is associated with immaturity of phonemic analysis and synthesis.

Reading errors can occur in children with poor vision due to inability to distinguish letters. If these errors are not associated with immaturity of visual-spatial functions, but are caused only by decreased vision, they are not classified as dyslexic errors and disappear when visual acuity impairment is corrected.

Thus, the presence of reading errors in itself does not indicate the presence of dyslexia. We are talking about dyslexia only when reading errors are caused by underdevelopment of higher mental functions.

Dyslexia manifests itself in a slowdown in the process of mastering reading, in a slow pace of reading (bradylexia), in impaired eye movement along a line during the reading process, in persistent and repeated errors when reading.

The number and nature of errors varies depending on the severity of dyslexia in the child, the stage of mastering the skill of reading, and the complexity of the speech material being read (syllables, words, sentences, text). The more severe the dyslexia, the more complex the speech material being read, the more numerous and varied the reading errors. At the initial stages of mastering reading, reading errors are more varied; errors in the technical side of the reading process predominate; understanding of what is being read is impaired for the second time. At subsequent stages of reading skill formation, errors become less diverse and more specific.

With dyslexia, the following groups of errors are noted:

1. Failure to assimilate letters, inaccurate correlation of sounds and letters, which manifests itself in substitutions and mixtures of sounds when reading. With dyslexia, a different nature of substitutions and mixtures can be observed: a) replacements and mixtures of phonetically similar sounds (voiced and voiceless, for example TEVOCHKA, LOBATA); affricates and sounds included in their composition (for example, DADVANTIK); b) replacing graphically similar letters (X-Zh, P-N, etc.); c) undifferentiated, variable substitutions (F-M-L, etc.).

2. Letter by letter reading- violation of the fusion of sounds into syllables and words. With this method of reading, the letters are called alternately strung on top of each other (FRAME - P, A, M, A).

3. Distortions of the sound-syllable structure of a word. The most common reading errors of this group are: a) omissions of consonants in conjunction (BENCH - KAMEKA); b) omissions of consonants and vowels in the absence of a confluence (PAROVOS - PARVOZ); c) adding sounds (UNDER THE RAIN - UNDER THE RAIN); d) rearrangement of sounds (SHOVEL - LOTAP); e) omissions, rearrangements of syllables (KANAVA - KAVANA).

4. Reading comprehension impairment which can manifest itself both at the level of a single word and at the level of sentences and text. Impaired reading comprehension may be primary, but it may also be secondary. In the first case, a violation of reading comprehension is observed during technically correct reading, in the second case it is a consequence of incorrect reading.

5. Word substitutions(SWASHED - SLAMMED).

6. Agrammatisms when reading. Most often, errors in the agreement of noun and adjective, violations of case endings, changes in the endings of verbs, etc. are observed. Agrammatisms in reading are detected, as a rule, at the analytical-synthetic and synthetic stage of mastering the skill of reading.

The ratio of reading errors largely depends on the stage of acquisition of reading skills. At the analytical stage of mastering reading (at the stage of mastering sound-letter notations, as well as at the stage of syllable-by-syllable reading), sound substitutions, violations of the fusion of sounds into syllables (letter-by-letter reading), and distortions of the sound-syllable structure of a word predominate. Reading comprehension disorders are most often secondary in nature, they are caused by technically incorrect reading. At the analytical-synthetic and synthetic stage of mastering the skill of reading, the dominant errors are distortions of the sound-syllable structure of a word, agrammatism, word substitutions, as well as violations of reading comprehension.

The course of dyslexia is regressive in nature with a gradual decrease in the number and types of errors, as well as the degree of dyslexia.

Dyslexia negatively affects the development of a child's personality. Failures of a student in mastering reading can contribute to the emergence and consolidation of character traits such as self-doubt, timidity, anxious suspiciousness or, conversely, aggressiveness, anger, and negativism. In some cases, these affective reactions are a consequence of dyslexia. In other cases, they are not directly related to dyslexia, but only accompany its course, being included in the general structure of neuropsychiatric diseases, for example, with some organic brain lesions.

2.2. Reading Status Study

There are many different techniques for examining reading in children, and they must be used strictly differentiated, depending on the child’s level of reading skills, the stage of its formation, and also in order of gradually increasing complexity, starting with the most basic. This will allow the speech therapist to determine what the child’s main difficulties are.

Children who have just started learning are offered reading individual letters. The speech therapist shows the child one letter of the split alphabet, and he names them. You can use font variations to complicate the task. Next, the speech therapist asks the child to find a specific letter among others. Letters for recognition should be named in such an order that they correspond to oppositional phonemes, for example: S-SH-CH-SHCH-Z-ZH-C, R-L, G-K, etc. It is imperative to pay attention to the rate of recoding by the child of a grapheme into a phoneme and vice versa, the persistence and instability of errors.

This test already allows the speech therapist to determine how automated the connection between the grapheme and the corresponding phoneme is, whether the child clearly perceives speech sounds by ear, whether he has phonemic or optical difficulties, or mnestic problems. This is determined by the nature of the errors made by the child: substitutions of letters based on phonemic or optical similarity, other substitution options, the length of time it takes to complete tests, or the impossibility of completing them.

Next, children should be offered reading syllables. The child must first read syllables that include the corresponding oppositional phonemes: SA-SHA, ZA-ZHA, TSA-CHA, RA-LA, etc. In addition to direct syllables, reverse syllables are also presented, as well as syllables with consonant clusters. The speech therapist pays attention to the possibility of merging sounds into a syllabic complex, especially in straight syllables, as well as to the child’s ability to differentiate sounds. This test allows the speech therapist to determine the formation of sound-letter synthesis and phonemic generalizations.

The next test in assessing reading skill is reading words. First, children should be offered the simplest words to read, and then more complex in syllabic and morphological composition. It is necessary to use all possible variants of monosyllable words: GHS (house, poppy), SGSS (bush, bow), SSGS (elephant, hail), SSG (two, seams), GSSS (Omsk), where S is a consonant, G is a vowel.

Children are also offered various options for two-syllable words: with emphasis on the last and first syllable (moon, fly); with a consonant cluster (curtains, window); multi-letter (pass, was a friend). Then the reading of three syllables is studied: SGSSGSG (milk), SGSGSGSGS (hammer), SGSSSGSSG (gloves), SSGSSSGSG (sheet) and polysyllabic words.

Already at this stage, it is possible to use words with the same root, differing in morphological elements that perform a semantic distinguishing function (hand -hands, entered - came out). In the process of completing these tasks, you should invite the child to select a picture for the word read, show the corresponding object, draw it, explain the meaning or demonstrate the action. This test allows the speech therapist to evaluate the technical and semantic aspects of reading: whether the child reads syllables abruptly or smoothly, whether he reads letter by letter or whether he retains elements of letter-by-letter reading in consonant clusters or at the end of words (robe); whether he reads mechanically or consciously. Errors noted during the test may indicate the child’s lack of development of sound-syllable synthesis, morphological generalizations, syllable fusion skills, the skill of holistic perception of what is being read, insufficient visual perception, and lack of ability to relate the word read to its meaning.

An additional breakdown could be a task to identify the skills of visual syllabification of words, which is one of the important conditions for the formation of the ability to navigate in any structure of a visually perceived word and, therefore, the basis for smooth syllable-by-syllable reading. The speech therapist suggests that the child divide printed words of different syllabic structures into syllables, focusing only on the vowel letter, which is the boundary of the syllable.

The next step in skill assessment is reading individual sentences. When using this technique, the method, correctness, expressiveness of reading, as well as the child’s understanding of what is read is examined. The analysis of the latter is carried out on the basis of the child’s selection of a picture for the phrase or the display of an object or action. For reading, you can also offer similar sentences that differ in lexical and grammatical format. For example: This is my chair - This is your chair - This is your table; Give Masha a book - Give Masha books; Zhenya drew a car - Zhenya drew a car.

To determine the formation of the initial elements of expressiveness in reading (the ability to use the correct intonation in accordance with final punctuation marks), children can be asked to read narrative, interrogative and exclamatory sentences of various linear lengths. Examples of such sentences:

A) Fine. Beauty! Where? An expressive reading of such sentences should not be complicated by technical difficulties.

b) How nice it is in spring! Are you happy with the gift? It rained yesterday.

At the same stage, you can try to determine whether the child has lexical-grammatical prediction, which is an important component of reading. Here you should use elementary samples, including “unfinished sentences”:

1) I came to visit my grandmother....

I came to visit my grandmother.... (Grandson, granddaughter, sister.)

2) A girl is going to school... A girl is going to school...

3) Rocket let... Rocket let...

First, you should find out the understanding of such sentences in oral speech.

At a higher reading level, children are encouraged to reading specially selected texts . They must meet the following requirements:

2) correspond to the child’s knowledge and be accessible to him;

3) be small in volume;

4) express the communication of events to facilitate their understanding and retelling by the child;

5) include dialogues and direct speech, which will allow analysis of the formation of expressive reading;

The speech therapist records the features of the reading method (unproductive - elements of letter-by-letter reading, abrupt syllabic; productive - smooth syllabic, smooth syllabic with a holistic reading of individual words, reading whole words and groups of words), as well as its correctness. The speech therapist pays special attention to letter substitutions based on phonemic similarity, violations of the sound-syllable structure, grammatical errors, as indicators of the immaturity of phonemic, morphological and syntactic generalizations. Expressiveness is noted: does the child observe pauses, does he use correct intonation, does he make logical and psychological emphasis, does he read loudly and clearly enough.

To assess a child’s reading comprehension, the following types of tasks can be offered:

1) retell what you read;

2) arrange a series of plot pictures in accordance with the sequence of events in the read text and, as an option, retell the text based on them;

3) choose a story picture that corresponds to what you read from a number of those proposed;

4) answer questions. There are two types of questions:

Reflecting the plot of the story;

Revealing understanding of the meaning of what is read, which will allow you to determine the level of depth of understanding of the text by the child.

“Reading is a complex, complex activity consisting of a number of operations. Quite complete reading skill can be characterized by a combination of several of its parameters: method, speed, correctness, automation (the so-called “fluency”) and reading comprehension.” Goretsky V.G. and Tikunova L.I. highlight another parameter - expressiveness.

The most important component that makes up the reading technique and affects its other aspects is way of reading. There are five main ways of reading: 1) letter by letter; 2) abrupt syllabic; 3) smooth syllabic; 4) smooth syllabic with a holistic reading of individual words; 5) reading whole words and groups of words. The first two methods refer to unproductive. They are highly undesirable. The last three ways are productive.

Studying correct reading involves identifying the presence or absence of reading errors. Reading without errors is called correct. Error analysis includes their qualitative and quantitative interpretation.

Under reading speed is understood as the pace of reading at which one understands the text (in grade 1) and the main idea of ​​the text (in grades 2-4).

Study reading comprehension possible in several ways: retelling the text read, answering questions about the content of individual parts and the entire text as a whole, as well as explaining the meanings of individual words of the text. Goretsky V.G. and Tikunova L.I. The content of each text, selected by them to test their reading technique, is answered by questions aimed at determining their understanding of the content of individual parts and the entire text, the meaning of words, and the ability to determine the main idea. But the developers do not provide any indication of how many incorrect answers indicate insufficient understanding and how many indicate a complete misunderstanding of what was read. This may be due to the fact that after the texts there are a different number of questions (from 1 to 6) and their level of difficulty is also different.

Reading expressiveness- this is the ability to recognize in time the punctuation mark in front of the text and tune in to the intonation suggested by this sign.

The final judgment about the level of reading skill can be made only on the basis of the totality of data for each of the components, when correlating data on the semantic and technical aspects of reading and taking into account the leading role of the first.

There is a certain relationship between the level of development of reading skills, oral speech and visual functions of children. This dictates the need to include in correctional work to eliminate dyslexia not only traditional speech therapy techniques for the formation of all components of oral speech, but also the development of students’ visual functions.

There are two main areas of correctional work to eliminate reading disorders in primary schoolchildren:

Elimination of dyslexia, caused mainly by immaturity of oral speech;

Elimination of dyslexia, caused primarily by immature visual functions.

Let us consider the goals, objectives and main content of these areas of work.

Correction of dyslexia caused primarily by immaturity of oral speech

Children's mastery of certain reading operations is influenced by disorders of phonemic perception, sound analysis and synthesis, lexico-grammatical structure of speech and coherent monologue speech.

Purpose work aimed at eliminating dyslexia caused by immaturity of speech components is the development and correction of all aspects of oral speech. In order to properly organize correctional education that is adequate to the structure of the defect, the speech therapist needs to clearly know what kind of speech disorders the child has.

Basic tasks correction of dyslexia caused by FFN:

Formation of accurate differentiation of phonemes of the Russian language;

Formation of complete ideas about the sound composition of a word;

Strengthening the skills of sound-syllable analysis and synthesis of speech units;

Correction of sound pronunciation defects.

Elimination of dyslexia caused by systemic underdevelopment of speech in primary schoolchildren, in addition to the correction of phonetic-phonemic processes, should address the following: tasks:

Quantitative and qualitative enrichment of the child’s active vocabulary;

Development of inflection skills;

Clarification of the meanings of syntactic structures;

Development of skills in constructing a coherent statement.

The named tasks are implemented in the system of traditional speech therapy classes and constitute their main content. The content of speech therapy work aimed at solving each problem was developed and covered in the works of O. E. Gribova, L. N. Efimenkova, G. G. Misarenko, G. A. Kashe, R. I. Lalaeva, A. K. Markova , N.V. Serebryakova, T.B. Filicheva, G.V. Chirkina, A.V. Yastrebova and others.

Correction of dyslexia caused primarily by immature visual functions

Purpose Corrective pedagogical work with such schoolchildren is to teach the child ways of processing visual material that would allow him to effectively perceive visual information of varying degrees of complexity and provide the conditions for successful mastery of the visual components of reading.

The objectives of the work to eliminate this type of dyslexia are the development and correction of the gnostic and motor components of students’ vision. Therefore, the proposed methodology includes two main blocks. The first block involves the development and correction of gnostic visual functions. The object of the correctional influence of the second block is the motor functions of vision. The sequence of work on visual functions is determined individually for each child and depends on the greatest severity of violations of the gnostic or motor functions of vision.

The tasks of each block are selected according to the principle of increasing complexity: according to the complication of the task instructions and according to the complication of the visual stimuli used in the tasks.

At each stage, correctional and developmental tasks are solved first using picture material that is well known to the child, and only then letter material (letters, syllables, words, sentences) is introduced into the work. In addition, the picture material offered to children for performing exercises also gradually becomes more complex: from color realistic to black and white and then to silhouette and contour, which is a preparation for the perception of letters and numbers.

Basic tasks development and correction of gnostic visual functions:

Development of voluntary visual attention;

Development of visual analysis and synthesis skills;

Development of visual memory.

Basic tasks development and correction of visual motor functions:

Development and correction of precise tracking eye movements;

Formation of strategies for scanning the perceptual field;

Formation of visual-spatial representations;

Development of hand-eye coordination.

Conclusion

The goal of the course work was achieved by solving the assigned problems. The author of the work did the following:

Gave a general idea of ​​writing;

Considered the psychophysiological mechanisms of reading;

Considered the specifics of reading disorders;

Defined methods for identifying reading disorders;

Identified the directions of correctional work to eliminate reading disorders.

The problem of studying the state of written speech among secondary school students requires further research. To do this, the author of the work needs to study new theoretical sources and have a desire to continue research activities in this direction.

Bibliography

Conceptual and terminological dictionary of speech therapist / Ed. V.I. Seliverstova. – M.: Academic project, 2004.

Luria A.R. Essays on the psychophysiology of writing. – M.: Publishing House of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the RSFSR, 1950.

Kornev A.N. Reading and writing disorders in children. – St. Petersburg, 1994.

written speech consists of a system of signs that conventionally designate sounds and words of oral speech, which, in turn, are signs for real objects and relationships. Gradually, this middle or intermediate connection dies out, and written speech turns into a system of signs that directly symbolize the designated objects and the relationships between them. mastery of this complex system of signs cannot be accomplished solely mechanically; from the outside, mastery of written speech is in fact the product of the long-term development of complex functions of the child’s behavior. (5.3, 155) written speech is a completely different process (from the point of view of the psychological nature of the processes that form it) than oral speech; its physical and semitic side also changes in comparison with oral speech. The main difference: written speech is the algebra of speech and the most difficult form of complex volitional activity. (18.1, 61) the slowdown in written speech causes not only quantitative, but also qualitative changes, since as a result of this slowdown, a new style and a new psychological character of children's creativity are obtained. The activity that came first in oral speech fades into the background and is replaced by a more detailed look at the object being described, listing its qualities, characteristics, etc. (11.1, 54) Difficulties of written speech: it is without intonation, without an interlocutor. It represents the symbolization of symbols, and motivation is more difficult in it. Written speech stands in a different relationship to inner speech; it arises later than inner speech, it is the most grammatical. But it is closer to internal speech than external speech: it is associated with meanings, bypassing external speech. (1.1.9, 163) The situation of written speech is a situation that requires double abstraction from the child: from the sounding side of speech and from the interlocutor. (1.2.1, 237) Written speech is more arbitrary than oral speech. The child must realize the sound side of the word, dismember it and arbitrarily recreate it in written signs. (1.2.1, 238 – 239, 240) the most verbose, precise and detailed form of speech (1.2.1, 339) If we take into account the listed points: speech without real sound, speech divorced from the speech activity that we have , and speech taking place in silence, we will see that we are not dealing with speech in the literal sense, but with the symbolization of sound symbols, i.e. with double abstraction. We will see that written language is to spoken language as algebra is to arithmetic. Written speech also differs from oral speech in terms of motivation. .. in written speech the child must be more aware of the processes of speaking. The child masters oral speech without such full awareness. A young child speaks, but does not know how he does it. In writing, he must be aware of the very process of expressing thoughts in words. (3.5, 439 – 440) See Inner speech, Sign, Motivation, Thought, Speech, Word, Function

Written speech is speech that is recorded, graphically formatted, written or printed.

Written speech - definition

Written expression has its own special means.

First of all:

• sound of words conveyed using letters, letters can also be used to emphasize the accuracy and logic of the text.

• author's intonation conveyed using punctuation marks.

They can be compared to musical notes: just as tones help us read a piece of music the way the author wanted it, punctuation marks, along with words, help us understand what is written

(Remember the famous “Execution cannot be pardoned”).

• To convey ideas in written text, indentation, or indentation, is used, which helps regulate the reader's perception.

As a rule, each new topic, new thought begins with a new paragraph. A space - an increased distance between lines - allows you to separate one part of the text from another and is used if the paragraph indentation, from the point of view of the author, is not enough.

• The author can use different fonts and highlighting in order to draw the reader's attention to a certain part of the text.

It is believed that when creating it, the author does not focus on a specific reader. However, this is not entirely true. The author, indeed, does not know him, but the generalized image of the reader is certainly taken into account (Compare whether the text of a textbook on rhetoric for junior schoolchildren and for high school students is the same in style and content. The difference is obvious.).

Academician Dmitry Sergeevich Likhachev in the article "How to Write" stated:

“You must always specifically imagine or imagine the reader of your future work and, as it were, write down your conversation with him.”

The undoubted advantage of a written text for the author is the ability to improve the text, edit it, return to what was written, make edits, change the composition, and much more. The author can predict the visual perception of the text, emphasizing his own, the author’s, concept when creating the text: break it into paragraphs, highlight some words, use a different font when writing, create numbering and much more.

Written text:

It is initially perceived visually, and the visual perception of the text is regulated by the author.

The written statement is not designed for an immediate reaction from the addressee. It is separated from the reader by time. Sometimes the author cannot even say with certainty when his text will reach the reader. For example, there are often cases when writers or poets write “on the table”: they know that in this period the publication of their work is impossible (Remember the history of the publications of “The Master and Margarita” by Bulgakov, “Doctor Zhivago” by Pasternak. I think you can bring your own examples.

Written speech for the reader is an opportunity to become a direct interlocutor with people of other eras. By reading Lomonosov or Derzhavin, we comprehend the thoughts and feelings of those living in the 18th century; by reading Pushkin or Dostoevsky, we become interlocutors with people of the 19th century.

Such a text gives us, like the author, a unique opportunity to return to what was written. This property of the text is called retrospection. We return to what we read earlier for various reasons: the meaning is not clear and we can return to the text to better understand it; sometimes it is necessary to re-read the text many times, as our work requires it; and sometimes you just want to once again receive aesthetic pleasure from an already known text (this is how we reread Pushkin and Turgenev, Bulgakov and Tsvetaeva). Often the text or its parts (for example, the title) are interpreted differently by us after re-reading.

Written speech gives us the opportunity to re-read it in parts or in separate fragments in order to select a quote for our work or just for the pleasure of re-reading a favorite passage. Try re-reading the novel “The Master and Margarita” along different plot lines. For example, you read only what is connected with Woland’s visit to Moscow or the story of Yeshua Ha-Nozri.

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