1. Introduction
2. Articulatory characteristics of vowel sounds in the Russian language
3. Articulatory characteristics of vowel sounds in English
4. Sonograms and oscillograms of English and Russian vowel sounds
6. List of references used
Introduction
Phonetics is the science of the sound side of human speech. This is one of the main branches of linguistics (linguistics). The word "phonetics" comes from the Greek. phonetikos "sound, voice" (phone sound). The special position of phonetics as a science is determined by the fact that it, the only one of all linguistic sciences, studies such units of language, the nature of which is material. The material carrier of sounding speech is air vibrations specially generated by the speaker. The listener receives information about the meaning of the message conveyed by the speaker primarily on the basis of his auditory perception.
The sound of speech is the minimal, indivisible unit of speech flow perceived by the ear. This is a real sound uttered by a specific person at a specific moment in time. The variety of speech sounds is endless. Each speaker pronounces sounds in his own way; it is not without reason that you can recognize a person by hearing his speech. On the other hand, we are able to evaluate certain speech sounds as identical, from the point of view of belonging to one or another sound type. This sound type, the standard of sound that exists in the linguistic consciousness of speakers, is called the sound of the language. It combines similar, close speech sounds and is an abstract unit.
In this work I want to consider the formation of vowel sounds in English and Russian. And also make a comparative analysis of them.
All speech sounds are divided into vowels and consonants. They differ articulatory and acoustically.
1. When forming vowels, the air stream passes through the mouth freely, without encountering any obstacles. When consonants are formed, the air stream overcomes an obstacle in the oral cavity. This basic articulatory difference between vowels and consonants determines their other differences.
2. Vowels are tonal sounds; they are formed as a result of vibration of the vocal cords at the moment a stream of air passes through the larynx. These vibrations are periodic, they create a tone, a musical sound. Consonants are characterized by the presence of noise. Noise is a non-periodic sound; it arises as a result of an air stream overcoming various obstacles.
3. Vowels are characterized by a weak air stream, and to overcome an obstacle when pronouncing consonants, a stronger air stream is needed.
4. When forming vowels, muscle tension spreads almost equally throughout the entire oral cavity, and when forming consonants, muscle tension is concentrated in the place where the obstruction occurs.
5. V.A. Bogoroditsky called vowels mouth-openers, consonants - mouth-closers: the louder we want to pronounce a vowel, the wider we should open our mouth, the louder we want to pronounce a consonant, the closer we should bring the organs of speech together.
6. M.V. Panov cited another difference between vowels and consonants: vowels can be shouted, but it is impossible to shout with consonants alone.
Articulatory classification of vowel sounds in the Russian language.
Vowels are purely tonal sounds. Having arisen in the larynx as a result of vibrations of the vocal cords, the musical tone and voice acquires a special timbre in the supraglottic cavities. The mouth and pharynx are the resonators in which differences between vowels are formed. These differences are determined by the volume and shape of the resonating cavities, which can change as a result of movement of the lips, tongue and lower jaw. Each vowel is pronounced in a special position of the speech organs, characteristic only of this sound.
The classification of vowel sounds is based on three characteristics:
· participation of lips
degree of elevation of the tongue vertically relative to the palate
degree of tongue advancement or retraction along the larynx
Based on the participation of the lips, vowels are divided into rounded (labialized) and unrounded (non-labialized) (from the Latin labium - lip () abialized and unrounded () long (about this sound, the position of the ragons can change as a result of the movement of the lip timbre). When rounded vowels are formed, the lips come closer together, rounded and protruded forward, reducing the outlet and lengthening the oral resonator. The degree of rounding can be different: less in [o], greater in [u]. Vowels [a], [e], [i], [s] are unrounded.
According to the degree of rise in relation to the palate, the vowels of the upper rise differ: [i], [s], [y]; medium rise [e], [o]; lower [a]. When articulating high vowels, the tongue occupies the highest position. In this case, the lower jaw usually moves slightly away from the upper, creating a narrow mouth opening. Therefore, high vowels are also called narrow vowels. When articulating low vowels, the lower jaw is usually lowered to its lowest position, creating a wide mouth opening, which is why such vowels are also called wide.
The front vowels differ according to the degree to which the tongue is advanced or pushed back horizontally: [i], [e]; middle row: [s], [a] and back row: [y], [o]. When articulating front and back vowels, the tongue is concentrated in the front or back of the mouth, respectively. In this case, the shape of the tongue can be different: when the vowels of the front row are formed, the front part of the tongue is raised towards the front of the palate, and when the vowels of the back row are formed, the back of the tongue is raised towards the back of the palate. When forming the vowels of the middle row of the tongue, it is either concentrated in the middle part of the oral cavity and raised by the middle part to the middle part of the palate, as sometimes happens when pronouncing [ы] (a number of such vowels are otherwise called central), or lies flat, as when pronouncing [a] ( a number of such vowels are otherwise called mixed).
The simplest table of Russian vowels is:
A different pattern is represented by the vowel triangle:
More accurately represents the articulatory space of trapezoidal vowels. It reflects the structural features of the oral cavity and the possibilities of tongue movements: in the lower and back parts of the mouth they are more limited than in the upper and front.
But the division into three rows and three rises does not reflect the full richness of vowel sounds. So, in addition to [and], there is also a sound pronounced with a slightly greater openness of the mouth and a slightly lower rise of the tongue. This sound is called "[and] open"; in a more accurate transcription it is “[and] inclined to [e].”
Shades of sounds can be considered as special sounds. Then the table should be more detailed. M.V. Panov proposed a table with five rows and five rises (although, of course, not all vowels of the Russian language are shown in it):
The vowel [e] is one of the most common sounds in the literary language. It is pronounced in some unstressed syllables, for example in the words p[e]khod. Under stress it occurs extremely rarely, for example in the affirmative Yes, pronounced with a tinge of regret [de?] (“?” Means a sharp closure of the vocal cords, a blow to the glottis). Isolated [e] can be pronounced if you form a continuous series of transitional sounds from [s] to [a] and stop in the middle.
The vowels [a], [e], [o], [u] are advanced and upward compared to [a], [e], [o], [u]. They are pronounced between soft consonants: five[p΄ät΄], aunt[t΄ö t΄]i, tulle[t΄t΄].
The upward shift and closedness of the front vowels [i], [e] between soft consonants can be indicated in transcription in another way: [i], [e], or [i], [e], or [i], [e]. A “cover” over a vowel is also used to indicate the tension of the vowel.
The closed vowel [e] in the first pre-stressed syllable after a soft consonant is usually indicated by the sign [e]: v[e]sna, b[e]ga, r[e]dy. This pronunciation is typical for ekanya - the older literary norm, in contrast to the dominant ikanya in the modern literary language: in[i] c na, b[i]ga, r[i]dy.
The vowel [e] is pronounced under stress after hard consonants: ant[enna]nna, m[er]r, sh[é]st.
Vowels [i], [s], [a] are only in an unstressed position: [i]skrit, d[y]shi, in [a]da. For some speakers, instead of [a], the sound is [l], an unrounded vowel, the position of the tongue is intermediate between [a] and [o]. Such pronunciation, as a rule, is a trace of the former okanya - the distinction between unstressed [a] and [o].
Of course, not all vowel sounds are represented in these tables. A more detailed examination will reveal more subtle positional dependencies of sounds. For example, in words I'll give And gave usually transcribe the same vowel [a]. But in reality, different sounds are pronounced here: [a] of the middle row in the word I'll give and [a] mid-back in a word gave. The sound [l] causes the preceding vowel to shift backward. In words Houses And gave usually transcribe the same pre-stressed vowel [a]. But with a more accurate transcription, one should distinguish between [dama] and [dla]: the consonant sound [l] here affects the pre-stressed vowel in the same way as the stressed one.
Based on the acoustic and articulatory characteristics of sounds.
I. Acoustic classification
Acoustically, speech sounds are divided into sonorant (sonorous) and noisy.
Sonorant - noises are either not present in them at all (vowels), or participate minimally (for example, sonorant consonants m, n, l, r, th);
In noisy ones (and these are only consonants), the timbre is determined by the nature of the noise.
Those. From an acoustic point of view, sounds are divided into vowels, consisting of tone, and consonants, formed by noise or a combination of noise and tone.
II. Articulatory classification
> considers speech sounds from the point of view of their pronunciation, i.e. articulation.
Articulation is the work of the speech organs (lungs; windpipe; larynx; vocal cords located across the larynx; oral cavity, lip cavity, tongue, etc.) aimed at producing speech sounds.
Based on their role in pronouncing sounds, the speech organs are divided into active and passive.
- - active organs of speech produce the movements necessary for the formation of sounds, and are thus particularly important for their formation. The active organs of speech include: vocal cords, tongue, lips, soft palate, uvula, posterior dorsum of the pharynx (pharynx) and the entire lower jaw;
- - passive organs do not perform independent work during sound production and play an auxiliary role. The passive organs of speech include the teeth, alveoli, hard palate and the entire upper jaw.
The articulation of each sound consists of three parts:
The initial transitional element is an attack (or excursion) of sound, when the organs of the speech apparatus from a calm state are rearranged to pronounce a sound into a working position
The stage of the stationary part is exposure, when the organs have established themselves for a given articulation,
The final transitional element is the indentation (or recursion) when the organs return to an inoperative state.
Vowel classification
Vowel sounds are speech sounds in the formation of which the outgoing stream of air does not encounter obstacles in the oral cavity, and therefore, acoustically, they are characterized by the predominance of a musical tone, or voice.
There are 6 vowel sounds in the Russian language: [a], [o], [e], [i], [s], [u]. They are most clearly heard under stress.
When pronouncing vowels, the tip of the tongue does not play a role; it is usually lowered down, and articulates the back of the tongue with its anterior, posterior, and less often middle parts.
Vowels are classified according to the following main articulatory features:
1) Row, i.e. depending on which part of the tongue is raised during pronunciation.
When raised (1-2-3) parts of the tongue are formed
- 1. front - front vowels (i, e, b),
- 2. middle - middle vowels (ы, ъ),
- 3. back - back vowels (o, u).
- 2) Lifting, i.e. depending on how high the back of the tongue is raised, forming resonator cavities of varying volumes.
The simplest scheme involves three lifts:
low vowels (a),
medium rise (e, o, b, b),
upper rise (i, s, y).
3) Labialization - the participation of the lips in the articulation of sound.
Depending on whether the articulation of sounds is accompanied by rounding of the lips extended forward or not,
different rounded (labial, labialized): o, u
and unrounded vowels.
4) Nasalization - the presence of a special “nasal” timbre that occurs depending on whether the palatine curtain is lowered, allowing a stream of air to pass simultaneously through the mouth and nose, or not.
Nasal (nasalized) vowels are pronounced with a special “nasal” timbre.
5) Longitude. In a number of languages (English, German, Latin, Ancient Greek, Czech, Hungarian, Finnish), with the same or similar articulation, vowels form pairs, the members of which are contrasted in duration of pronunciation, i.e. vary
for example, short vowels: [a], [i], [o], [u] and long vowels: [a:], [i:], , .
For the Russian language, the length of vowels does not have a distinctive meaning, however, you can notice that vowels under stress are longer than in an unstressed position.
6) Diphthongization
In many languages, vowels are divided into monophthongs and diphthongs.
Monophthong is an articulatory and acoustically homogeneous vowel.
A diphthong is a complex vowel sound consisting of two sounds pronounced in one syllable. This is a special speech sound in which articulation begins differently than it ends. One diphthong element is always stronger than the other element.
There are two types of diphthongs - descending and ascending.
There are no diphthongs in Russian.
A diphthongoid is a stressed heterogeneous vowel that has at the beginning or end the sound of another vowel, articulatory close to the main, stressed one. There are diphthongoids in the Russian language: house is pronounced “DuoOoM”.
Classification of consonants
Consonants are speech sounds consisting only of noise, or of voice and noise, which are formed in the oral cavity, where the stream of air exhaled from the lungs encounters various obstacles.
There are 37 sound units in the consonant sounds of the Russian language
Consonants vary
- 2) By the presence or absence of a voice source
- 4) According to the place of noise generation
- 5) By timbre color (by hardness-softness).
- 1) According to the ratio of noise and voice
- (Acoustically, consonants differ in their noise-to-voice ratio and in the presence or absence of a vocal source.)
Sonorant sounds are characterized by the fact that in the composition of these sounds the voice predominates over noise. In modern Russian these include: l-l", mm", n-n", r-r", j.
Noisy consonants are characterized by the fact that their acoustic basis is noise, but there are noisy consonants that are formed not only with the help of noise, but with some participation of the voice.
consonant sounds are divided into:
A) Voiced:
sonants ([l-l"], [mm"], ]n-n"], ]rr"], [j]),
noisy voiced ones are formed with the help of noise accompanied by a voice. In modern Russian these include: [b-b"], [v-v"], [g-g"], [d-d"], [z-z"], [zh], [zh? " ].
B) Deaf: noisy deaf are formed with the help of noise, without the participation of the voice. When pronouncing, their vocal cords are not tense or vibrate. In modern Russian these include: [k-k"], [p-p"], [s-s"], [t-t"], [f-f"], [x-x], [ ts], [h"], [sh], [w?"].
Most noisy consonants of the Russian language are contrasted by deafness and voicedness:
[b] - [p], [b"] - [p"], [c] - [f], [v"] - [f"], [d] - [t], [d"] - [ t"], [z] - [s], [z"] - [s"], [g] - [w], [g] - [k], [g"] - [k"]
Unpaired voiced consonants are sonorants.
Unpaired deaf: noisy deaf: [w?"], [ts], [x-x"], [h"].
- 3) According to the method of noise generation
- (According to articulatory characteristics, the initial ones are the method of formation and place of formation).
Method of education: the essence of this method is the nature of overcoming an obstacle.
Based on this feature, 2 groups of consonants are distinguished:
Slotted (otherwise: fricatives, spirants, slotted, cleft, flow-through, blowing) - are formed when certain organs in the mouth, coming together, create a gap in which a stream of air produces friction against the walls of the passage: [f], [v], [s], [z], [w], [zh], [sch], [j], [x], as well as glottal aspirates [h].
Closures - are formed when, in the path of a stream of air, the contacting organs create a complete barrier (bow), which either must be directly overcome, or the air stream should seek to bypass the bow; these consonants are divided into a number of subtypes depending on how the stop is broken.
Stoppers are divided into groups depending on the nature of the obstacle:
explosive. Their bow ends with an explosion (p, b, t, d, k, g);
affricates. Their bow passes into the gap without explosion (ts, h);
closure-passage. When pronouncing them, the speech organs are completely closed, but are not interrupted by air, since the air passes through the nose or mouth:
nasals, which have a stop without a stop (m, n).
lateral (oral, lateral) (l), in which the bow and fissure are preserved (the side of the tongue is lowered);
trembling (vibrants) (p), with the alternating presence of a bow and a gap.
4) According to the place of noise generation
According to the place of noise generation, i.e. Based on which speech organs take part in pronunciation, sounds are divided into labial and lingual.
A) Labial consonants, in which the barrier is formed using the lips or lower lip and upper teeth. In Russian, labials are divided into labiolabials ([b], [p], [m], [b"], [p"], [m"]) and labiodentals ([v], [v"] , [f], [f"]).
When producing labial sounds, the active organ is the lower lip, and the passive organ is either the upper lip (labial sounds) or the upper teeth (labial sounds).
B) Linguistic consonants. Depending on which part of the tongue creates a barrier, linguals are divided into:
Forelinguals can be dental [t], [d], [s], [z], [ts], [n], [l] and palatodental [h], [sh], [sch], [zh] , [p]
Middle tongue - middle palatal [j];
Rear lingual - posterior palatal [g], [k], [x].
Forelingual according to the position of the tip of the tongue:
dorsal (Latin dorsum - back): the front part of the back of the tongue approaches the upper teeth and the front palate (s, d, c, n);
apical (lat. arekh - top, tip), alveolar: the tip of the tongue approaches the upper teeth and alveoli (l, eng. [d]);
kakuminal (lat. cacumen - apex), or bifocal, during the articulation of which the tip of the tongue is bent upward (w, g, h) to the front palate, and the back is raised to the soft palate, i.e. There are two foci of noise generation.
5) By timbre coloring
The presence of timbre coloring is articulatory associated with the special work of the middle part of the back of the tongue towards the hard palate - palatalization or softening.
Palatalization (Latin palatum - hard palate) is the result of mid-palatal articulation of the tongue, complementing the main articulation of the consonant sound. Sounds formed with such additional articulation are called soft, and sounds formed without it are called hard.
The timbre coloring of consonants allows us to generalize all consonants into 2 large classes according to hardness and softness.
Unpaired on this basis: [j], [h], [sch]; [ts], [f], [w].
Vowel sounds, being simpler in articulation, are acquired by children relatively early and easily. Disadvantages in their pronunciation are rare. Therefore, we give a description of the normal articulations of all vowels, which will help the teacher, if necessary, correct this or that defect. The technique is given only for more frequently observed cases.
Normal articulation of vowels
The lips are freely parted. The distance between the upper and lower incisors is approximately the size of a child's thumb, placed edge-on. The wide tongue lies flat on the bottom of the mouth, the tip almost touching the lower teeth.
Articulation of sound O. The teeth are slightly rounded forward. The distance between the incisors is less than with A(the width of the child’s index finger). The tongue is wide, somewhat pulled back, the back of it is slightly raised.
Articulation of sound at. The lips are significantly pushed forward, forming a small oval opening. The distance between the teeth is small. Language even more than when O, pulled back, its tip is far away from the lower incisors, and the back of the tongue is significantly raised.
Articulation of sound uh. The lips are slightly open and stretched to the sides. The vertical distance between the teeth is slightly less than with A. The tongue is wide, the tip of the tongue touches the lower teeth, and the middle part is noticeably curved upward.
Articulation of sound And. The lips are opened in the form of a slight smile and pressed to the teeth. The distance between the incisors is small. The wide tongue is sharply curved towards the middle of the palate, forming a gap with it; the tip of the tongue rests on the lower incisors.
Articulation of sound s. The lips are freely opened in accordance with the opening of the mouth. The distance between the incisors is almost the same as with And. The tip of the tongue is pulled back significantly, and the entire tongue, especially its back, is raised towards the palate (but does not touch it).
The soft palate is raised when pronouncing all vowels.
Elimination of deficiencies in the pronunciation of sounds and, s
Sound And sometimes pronounced almost like uh or e(egla - needle, sang - saw); sound s likened to sound And. Children distinguish vowels by ear And And e (e) on approximately the following speech material: sing - drink, white - beat, drank - sang, sat - strength, child - children, shadows - mud.
For auditory differentiation s - and: was - beat, drank - dust, Dima - smoke, howled - pitched, skis - licked, soap - sweet, mouse - bowl, saw - dust.
And.
"Horses." Children in sleds run and neigh: aaaaaaaaand...
And And e (e). The teacher corrects.
Poems, nursery rhymes, in which sounds are often interspersed and, uh (e):
Kiryushka has a cockerel
He can sing well.
Well, how? And like this:
“Ki-ryush-ka!”
He is with Kiryushkina's palms
Eats grains and crumbs.
He'll bite a little
And he will sing “thank you.”
Well, how? And like this:
“Ki-ryush-ka!”
Kiryushka will run into the garden,
The cockerel is calling back.
Well, how? And like this:
"Ki-ryush-ka."
This poem can be dramatized: the narrator is all the children, and the teacher or one of the children asks.
Games and texts for teaching sound s.
"Telephone". Children pass sounds to each other one by one and-s.
Poems, nursery rhymes, in the text of which sound is often found s next to And:
Wash yourself more cleanly - don’t be afraid of water.
The gray bunny washes himself,
Apparently he's going to visit.
I washed my nose, I washed my tail,
I washed my ear and wiped it dry.
Mom did not regret soap,
Mom washed Mila with soap.
Look at the stumps,
Strawberries are growing.
Behind every snag
One thousand berries each:
Which are ripe,
Which are white
Which are sweet
Which are disgusting.
The game “Theater” is useful. Sounds are guessed from postcard photographs of children's heads or dolls.
Techniques for individual lessons in difficult cases
To eliminate replacement And sound e (e) use the following methods:
1) do tongue gymnastics - raising and lowering the middle part of the back of the tongue;
2) repeat the same with the appropriate pronunciation with slightly bared teeth, alternately: eeeeee..., then i-i-i-..., pi-bi-ki-gi.
If s pronounced like And(ril - dug, sipal - poured), the tip of the tongue is moved away from the front teeth, and the middle part of the back of the tongue is lowered (with a spatula) slightly lower.
In the case of generally indistinct pronunciation of vowels (the mouth opens a little, the child speaks through teeth, the tongue does not lie quite correctly, the lips do not stretch enough, protrude, rise and open), after gymnastics of the tongue and lips, each sound is pronounced separately and then their combinations (together on one exhalation ): aouaiy, iouaiy, Then baby-baby-baby etc.
Popular site articles from the “Dreams and Magic” section
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Sounds IN And F- occur when o di nave position of the mouth. Upper lip rip dressed, upper teeth exposed, lower lip in contact ka fits with upper teeth.
When articulating sound F strength n th air flow supplied to the engine en diaphragm, tends to penetrate the narrow opening between ve upper teeth and lower lip.
At the sound IN lower lip eg ka presses against her teeth. Exhaled air percent e lives, reminiscent of the sound of a cello. By purity swarms relationship, the sound B is one of the most difficult days s. At first, the air stream should be insignificant so that it does not ri the sound of F and V was interfered with and did not lose sound h ness.
Articulation of sound L- first al e tongue is pulled to the palate, and the tip is ra is formed in the upper teeth in the same place where T is formed. Strong p oto to the air, getting to the front of me PS ka, makes sound. The larynx opens at the same time. Do it co just once, without taking your tongue away. When meh feel the formation of the tongue clearly, say L from the open in the m of the language.
Sound R- obtained from fast to ol fucking or vibrating the front of the tongue s ka. If the tip of the tongue is little mobile, thick, strongly zn Repeat the sound D and sr several times az it has the sound R. It turns out: drrrr.
Sound H- lips softly skr yty. The lower lip does not press against the teeth. Russ That The gap between the teeth is very narrow, the front part of the tongue is whether presses against the dental part of the palate. For production n For the purpose of pure breathing, the force of exhalation is of great importance. Strong co ro gentle movement of the diaphragm m Give as much air as possible without overexhaling. For duration flax om exhale CH sounds like Shch.
Sound C- language articulates to er fuck your teeth. The lower lip is not pressed against the teeth. AND on Why will there be a lisp? Strong and short exhalation, for example r applied to the lower lip and chin. At dl it As soon as you exhale, C will turn into S.
To C And H were short ki Mi, you need to close your mouth immediately after releasing the sound.
Sound WITH- tongue is easily soldered days yat to the teeth. Open lips, lower nya I keep my lip slightly behind my lower teeth to prevent a lisp. Pr otya gentle and strong exhalation, flow into building ear directed towards the chin. Make sure that the tip of the tongue yk but was not between the teeth.
Sound Sh- teeth are exposed, lips are ra sk dug, the distance between the teeth is unknown ah literal. The tongue is free, not pressed anywhere, articulates to the tooth ac you palate. Air jet n Apr pressure on the lower teeth, causing them to feel cold. If the lower lip is Izh ata to the teeth, or lower jaw boo de t in front of the top, it will cause a lisp.
Sound SCH- polo and mouth - as with Ш, but the front part is PS ka articulates closer to the dental part of the palate. Requires a very drawn out and si exhale.
Sound Z- put en e mouth - as with S. The sound Z feeds slightly shi m amount of air. The air stream barely perceptibly falls down. tip i PS ka is brought into slight vibration. If I PS k will stop vibrating, the sound Z may be joined ini to be S. Therefore, for the sound Z to be pure, well and but say it briefly and immediately close your mouth.
Sound AND- teeth about on wife, lips softly open, distance between dec The tongue is small, the tongue is raised, but does not come into contact with the palate and teeth. Co. whether quality of exhaled air is unknown cheat Indeed, its vibration is felt on the tongue.
The consonant sounds T, D, P, B, K and G are formed by op gentle air movement. These sounds are not lz I will stretch without adding anything to them bo vowel.
In the sounds X, L, R, Zh, Sh, Shch, N, M, V, F, Z, S, k ro me strength, there is and lasting OS There is no sound. These sounds are produced both on the lower and on the ve Let's take a deep breath.
Sounds H And C, if there are otya no, contact Shch and S. For ease and tko In order to pronounce the sounds Ts and Ch, they should be repeated as often as possible A further, connecting with sounds:
P-H, T-H,
TO- Ch, F-Ch, S-Ch, X-Ch, Sh-Ch, C-Ch, Ch-Ch.
P-C, T-C, K-C, F-C, S-C, H-Ts, Sh-Ts, Ts-Ts, Ch-Ts
After the oh We are all in strong agreement, let's get to work on me soft consonants. Some consonant sounds are pronounced OS are only solid (C, W, F), others only m yagk o (Shch, Ch). All the rest - soft or hard, everything depends si t from the vowel that follows them. When zn osim soft consonants the column of air that feeds them ae t, much weaker.Particular attention should be paid to YES And TH, T ak as often mixed with Дь no Xia is the sound Z, and to Ть is the sound C. It needs to be wider from roofs open your mouth The tip of the tongue is directed towards the front eats parts of the palate.
LH- softened us th tongue moves deeper into the mouth, it is He The cheek touches the palate. The air flow does not tend to the tip PS ka, but creeps along him bo cam.
Pb- tongue vibration iru is lower than with solid P, near and e to the upper teeth. Sometimes it happens that the tongue fluctuates badly. In such a word uch ae train: dr, dr b-d- ry... Then move on to pure rye. Make sure that instead of Pb there is no I'm a moose RI.
Linguistics.
TOPIC 1
PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY
Phonetics is a science that studies speech sounds, sound laws, syllables, stress, intonation.
Phonology studies speech sounds in terms of their functions. Phonology is part of phonetics.
1. Speech sounds as the natural matter of language.
2. Principles of classification of speech sounds.
3. Syllable and its types
4. Stress and its types. Proclitics and enclitics.
5. Intonation
6. Interaction of sounds in the speech stream.
7. Orthoepia
8. Phonetic and historical alternations
9. Phonemes and phoneme systems
1. SPEECH SOUND is the shortest indivisible unit of language, distinguished by the sequential sound division of a word.
Speech sounds have acoustic, articulatory and functional aspects.
ACOUSTICS OF SPEECH SOUNDS.
Speech sounds are vibrational movements of the air. Such oscillatory movements arise as a result of vibrations of the speech organs. The organs of speech vibrate and continuously form elastic waves consisting of successive condensation and rarefaction of air. These waves reach our ear and we hear sound.
Speech sounds differ from each other in pitch, strength, duration and timbre. The pitch of speech depends on the frequency of vibration. The higher the vibration frequency, the higher the sound. The unit of sound height is the hertz (1 oscillation per second). For example, the pitch of the sounds o and u is 400Hz.
A person is able to perceive sounds from 16 Hz to 20,000 Hz. Sounds below 16 Hz (infrasound) and sounds above 20,000 Hz (ultrasound) are not heard by humans, although some animals hear them (mice, dogs, dolphins). Each person has their own pitch of speech sounds. Changing the pitch of sounds during speech is the basis of intonation. In many languages, changing the pitch of the sound emphasizes the stressed syllable. The strength of the sound depends on the amplitude of the vibrations: the larger the amplitude, the stronger the sound. In speech, we use sounds of different strengths, which depends on the conditions of communication. Unstressed vowels are less strong than stressed vowels. From the point of view of auditory perception, the strength of sound is called loudness.
DURATION of a sound is its duration in time. The duration of speech sounds is measured in milliseconds, that is, millionths of a second. In some languages (English, German, French, Czech). There are long and short stressed vowels. In Russian, stressed vowels are longer than unstressed ones. For example, in the word garden the longitude of the sound a is 150 m/s.
Depending on the nature of the vibrations, sounds are divided into musical (tones) and non-musical (noise).
Tone arises as a result of rhythmic vibrations of the speech organs (for example, vocal cords), noise - as a result of non-rhythmic vibrations (for example, lips). Vowel sounds are made up of tone (voice) only. From tone and noise - voiced consonants. The only noise is voiceless consonants.
The sound of speech consists of a fundamental tone and overtones. The fundamental tone is the strongest, the overtones are slightly higher. The relationship between the fundamental tone and overtones creates the timbre of the sound, its individual coloring.
ARTICULATION OF SPEECH SOUNDS
Speech sounds are formed as a result of a certain operation of the speech apparatus. In order to pronounce the sound of speech, the speech organs must perform certain work and occupy certain positions. The movements and positions of the speech organs necessary to pronounce a sound are called the articulation of this sound. There are 3 phases of articulation:
1) Attack (at this moment the speech organs move from a calm state to the position necessary to pronounce any sound.)
2) Exposure (this is maintaining the position necessary to pronounce a sound).
3) Indentation (this is a transfer of the speech organs to a calm state or to an attack to pronounce the next sound).
In each language, the speech organs occupy different positions and make different movements. The entire set of movements and positions of the speech organs necessary for the formation of the sounds of a language is called the articulatory base of this language.
Each language has its own articulatory base. For example, the Russian articulatory base is not characterized by the use of the posterior part of the soft palate and pharynx. Therefore, in the Russian language there are no “burr” consonants (like the English r), pharyngeal and guttural consonants (which are present in the Georgian language)
The articulatory base of the language gradually changes, therefore the system of sounds of the language also changes. For example, in the Old Russian language there were nasal vowels (o-nasal and e-nasal)
1. PR INCIPLES FOR CLASSIFICATION OF SPEECH SOUND
In all languages of the world there are 2 types of sounds: vowels and consonants. Their difference lies in the role they play in the formation of syllables and how they are formed.
Vowel sounds are the apex of a syllable (sonant) and form a syllable. Consonants accompany vowels (they are a consonant). They accompany vowels and do not form a syllable.
However, in some languages, the sonorant consonants “r” and “l” can also form syllabics. For example, in Czech v!k (in Russian - wolf). The circle shows the sound-forming syllable.
When vowels are formed, the speech channel is open, tension is spread throughout the entire pronunciation apparatus, and a weak air stream does not encounter an obstacle. During the formation of consonants, the tension is focused, at the point of formation of an obstacle, which the air stream overcomes, exploding or passing through a gap, resulting in the formation of noises that make up the characteristic of the consonant.
KL VOWEL ASSIFICATION
The basis for the classification of vowels is the work of the lips, the row and the work of the tongue. According to the work of the lips, vowels are labialized (rounded) and non-labialized (unrounded). Labialized sounds are [o], [u]. non-labialized - all others.
ZEMSKY 1h par.73.
When classifying vowels, nasalization, tension and length are additionally taken into account. In a number of languages, there are nasal (nasal) vowels, when pronounced, the air stream passes not only through the oral cavity, but also through the nasal cavity. Such vowels exist in French and Polish, and were in Old Church Slavonic.
In many languages, stressed vowels can be short or long, resulting in vowel pairs of duration. Pas - pas, vapa - vapaa, ship - sheep, man - men. In addition to long vowels, in the languages of the world there are diphthongs - these are vowels with complex articulation, pronounced in 1 syllable, and acting as a single sound of speech. Diphthongs are either ascending or descending. In an ascending diphthong, the 2nd element is strong. Nuova – bueno. In descending diphthongs, the first element is strong. baum – mein, home.
