ancient Rus', culture, everyday culture, structure of everyday life
Annotation:The article discusses the features of the everyday culture of Ancient Rus'
Article text:
Old Russian state - state of the 9th - early 12th centuries. in Eastern Europe, which arose in the last quarter of the 9th century. as a result of the unification under the rule of the princes of the Rurik dynasty of the two main centers of the Eastern Slavs - Novgorod and Kyiv, as well as lands (settlements in the area of Staraya Ladoga, Gnezdov) located along the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks”. In its heyday, the Old Russian state covered the territory from the Taman Peninsula in the south, the Dniester and the headwaters of the Vistula in the west, to the headwaters of the Northern Dvina in the north. The formation of the state was preceded by a long period (from the 6th century) of the maturation of its prerequisites in the depths of military democracy. During the existence of the Old Russian state, the East Slavic tribes formed into the Old Russian nationality.
Power in Rus' belonged to the prince of Kyiv, who was surrounded by a squad that depended on him and fed mainly from his campaigns. The veche also played a certain role. The government was carried out with the help of thousand and sotskys, i.e., on the basis of a military organization. The prince's income came from various sources. In the 10th - early 11th centuries. These are basically “polyudye”, “lessons” (tribute) received annually from the field.
In the 11th - early 12th centuries. In connection with the emergence of large landownership with various types of rent, the functions of the prince expanded. Owning his own large domain, the prince was forced to manage a complex economy, appoint posadniks, volostels, tiuns, and manage a numerous administration.
Palace officials emerged who were in charge of individual branches of government. The cities were headed by the urban patriciate, formed in the 11th century. from large local landowners - “elders” and warriors. The merchants enjoyed great influence in the city. The need to protect goods during transportation led to the appearance of armed merchant guards; among the city militia, merchants occupied first place. The largest part of the urban population were artisans, both free and dependent. A special place was occupied by the clergy, divided into black (monastic) and white (secular).
The rural population consisted of free communal peasants (their number was decreasing) and already enslaved peasants. There was a group of peasants, cut off from the community, deprived of the means of production and who were the labor force within the estate.
During the era of the formation of the Old Russian state, arable farming with harnessed tillage tools gradually replaced hoe tillage everywhere (in the north somewhat later). A three-field farming system emerged; Wheat, oats, millet, rye, and barley were grown. Chronicles mention spring and winter bread. The population was also engaged in cattle breeding, hunting, fishing and beekeeping. Village craft was of secondary importance. The first to emerge was iron production, based on local bog ore. The metal was obtained by the cheese blowing method. Written sources give several terms to designate a rural settlement: “pogost” (“peace”), “freedom” (“sloboda”), “village”, “village”.
The main trend in the development of the social system of Ancient Rus' was the formation of feudal ownership of land, with the gradual enslavement of free community members. The result of the enslavement of the village was its inclusion in the system of feudal economy based on labor and food rent. Along with this, there were also elements of slavery (servitude).
In the 6th-7th centuries. in the forest belt, places of settlement of a clan or a small family (fortified settlements) disappear, and they are replaced by unfortified village settlements and fortified estates of the nobility. A patrimonial economy begins to take shape. The center of the patrimony is the “prince’s yard”, in which the prince lived from time to time, where, in addition to his mansion, there were the houses of his servants - boyars-warriors, the dwellings of smerds, serfs. The estate was ruled by a boyar - a fireman who disposed of the princely tiuns. Representatives of the patrimonial administration had both economic and political functions. Crafts developed on the patrimonial farm. With the complication of the patrimonial system, the estate isolation of unfree artisans begins to disappear, a connection with the market and competition with urban crafts arise.
The development of crafts and trade led to the emergence of cities. The most ancient of them are Kyiv, Chernigov, Pereyaslavl, Smolensk, Rostov, Ladoga, Pskov, Polotsk. The center of the city was a market where handicraft products were sold. Various types of crafts developed in the city: blacksmithing, gunsmithing, jewelry (forging and minting, embossing and stamping of silver and gold, filigree, granulation), pottery, leatherworking, tailoring.
Everyday culture of Ancient Rus'.
Lifestyle. Since ancient times, the Slavs have been distinguished by their respectful attitude towards elders. The head of the family was both his father and his boss; and everyone else: wife, children, relatives and servants obeyed him unquestioningly. Russians were meek and quiet, their modesty simplified marriage life, calmness and chastity reigned in families.
Our ancestors were distinguished by moderation, being content with what nature produced; enjoyed longevity, were strong and cheerful, loved dancing, music, round dances and songs. Tireless in their work and tied to agriculture, they were rewarded with a bountiful harvest, meat, milk and skins, which served as cover from the weather. Kindness of heart, shown everywhere by hospitality and hospitality, was a distinctive feature of our ancestors.
There was a custom to invite a traveler or passer-by to your house, feed him and greet him. The hosts greet the guest with joy, serve everything they have on the table, and do not take any payment from him, thinking that taking money from a passerby for bread and salt is a great sin.
Russians did not like to find fault with words; they were very simple in their manners and said “you” to everyone.
For a long time in Rus', people got up before sunrise and immediately prayed to God, asking for his holy help for good deeds; without praying they did nothing. Whether they were going on a journey, building a house, or sowing a field, first of all they went to church to pray. Before dangerous enterprises, they confessed and received communion. Faith strengthened the people during the greatest adversity. Before setting out on a campaign, no regiment will move forward without serving a prayer service and without being sprinkled with sacred water.
Whether someone sat down at the table or stood up from it, he crossed his forehead with the sign of the cross.
Holidays were celebrated with reverent rituals. During the festivities, everyone forgot their enmity and formed a single society.
Every person who met an acquaintance or passed by someone unfamiliar, but distinguished in some way, greeted him by removing his hat and bowing his head. A stranger who entered a hut or a magnificent chamber first turned his gaze to the icon and prayed; then he bowed and said hello.
Nobles and rich people were arrogant towards the poor, but hospitable and polite among themselves. The guest was greeted with hugs and asked to sit down, but the guest, upon entering the room, looked for icons with his eyes, approached them, crossed himself and first made three prostrations, then addressed the hosts with greetings. Having given each other their hand, they kissed and bowed several times, and the lower, the more respectful it was considered; then they sat down and talked. The guest sat down facing the images. Here he was treated to honey, beer, and cherries. At the end of the conversation, the guest, taking his hat, approached the images, crossed himself, made the same bows and said goodbye to the owner, wishing him health. The owner responded with a reciprocal wish and accompanied him without a hat to the porch; the beloved guest was escorted all the way to the gate, and the honored guest was escorted even further, a few steps from the gate.
Clothes, suit (regular, festive) . Finds from layers of ancient Russian cities, tombs and rural burials tell about the variety of locally produced fabrics from which clothes were made. These include woolen fabrics, woven mainly from sheep wool and fabrics from plant fibers of different structures (flax, hemp). Among woolen and half-woolen fabrics there are checkered and striped fabrics. Patterned fabrics are also known. Common for the 10th – 12th centuries are patterned and unpatterned ribbons, braids, laces and fringes made of woolen yarn. Cloth and felt items were widespread. Some of the fabrics were woven from wool in natural brown, black, and gray colors. Mineral dyes were also used - ocher, red iron ore, etc.
The main types of clothing were a shirt and ports, and among the nobility it was underwear, among the people it was the main one. The richer the person, the more layered his suit was. We can say that a shirt is the oldest of clothes, for its name goes back to the ancient word “rub”, i.e. "the rudest" The length of the shirt, the material from which it was made, and the nature of the ornaments were determined by social class and age. Long shirts were worn by noble and elderly people, shorter ones by other classes, since, unlike the measured and leisurely life of princes and boyars, the everyday life of the working people was filled with hard work and clothing should not hinder movements. A shirt was worn for graduation and always with a belt (if a person did not put on a belt, they said that he had loosened his belt). The fabrics were woven narrow (30-40 cm), and therefore shirts were made with one-piece sleeves or a rectangular armhole. For ease of movement, gussets were inserted; for strength, they were placed on a lining made of another fabric (this is what it means to “know the background of the matter”). Festive shirts for the nobility were made from expensive thin linens or silks in bright colors and decorated with embroidery. Despite the conventionality of the pattern of the ornament, many of its elements were of a symbolic nature; they seemed to protect a person from other evil eyes and misfortunes. The decorations were “hanging” - removable: collars, necklaces and sleeves - cuffs, richly embroidered with gold, precious stones and pearls.
Portas, narrowed at the ankle, were made of canvas; noble men wore another one on top - silk or cloth. They were tied together at the waist with a cord called a cup (hence the expression “to keep something in a stash”). The ports were tucked into boots made of colored leather, often embroidered with patterns or wrapped with onuchi (pieces of linen 2.5 meters long), and bast shoes were put on them, with strings pulled through the ears - frills, and the onuchi were wrapped with them. In our minds, all bast shoes are the same. But that's not true. The bast shoes were thick and thin. Dark and light, simple and woven with patterns, there were also elegant ones - made of tinted multi-colored bast.
Outerwear was a retinue, caftan and fur coat. Vita was put on over the head. It was made of cloth, with narrow long sleeves, the knees were necessarily covered, and girded with a wide belt. Caftans were of various types and purposes: everyday, for riding, festive - sewn from expensive fabrics, intricately decorated. A mandatory part of a man's costume was a headdress, in summer - a leather strap, and in winter - a wide variety of hats - leather, felt, fur. Portas, narrowed at the ankle, were made of canvas; noble men wore another one on top - silk or cloth. They were tied together at the waist with a cord called a cup (hence the expression “to keep something in a stash”). The ports were tucked into boots made of colored leather, often embroidered with patterns or wrapped with onuchi (pieces of linen 2.5 meters long), and bast shoes were put on them, with strings pulled through the ears - frills, and the onuchi were wrapped with them. In our minds, all bast shoes are the same. But that's not true. The bast shoes were thick and thin. Dark and light, simple and woven with patterns, there were also elegant ones - made of tinted multi-colored bast.
In Rus', women always covered their heads with a warrior; tearing off a headdress was considered a terrible insult (to lose your hair means to disgrace yourself). Girls braided their hair or wore it loose, secured with a ribbon, braid or hoop made of leather, birch bark, covered with multi-colored fabric.
A festive suit was made for Sundays and patronal feasts, an everyday suit for work at home, in the field and in the forest; Ritual ones were divided into pre-wedding, wedding and funeral - “miserable”. In addition, clothing differed according to age and marital status: girlish and for a young woman (before the birth of her first child), for a mature woman and an old woman. They also dressed smartly on labor holidays: the day of the first furrow, the day of pasture of livestock, the day of the beginning of haymaking and stubble.
One of the most characteristic features of Russian folk clothing is its multi-layered design, which gives the female figure a sculptural monumentality.
In the old days, bright, elegant embroideries played the role of a talisman, so their locations were clearly defined: the collar and wrist trims, the shoulder and bottom of the shirt, and the field of the sleeves. Intensively embroidered, these places seemed to protect a person from evil forces. For embroidery they used flax, hemp, wool, dyed with decoctions of herbs and roots, in addition, multi-colored silks, gold and silver threads. Ancient seams: painting, casting, satin stitch, half-cross determined the nature of the embroidery pattern and its connection with the structure of the fabric. The ornaments reflected phenomena closely related to the life of peasants: the change of seasons, bountiful harvests, flowering trees and plants, figures of a woman - the progenitor of all living things, horses, birds, heavenly bodies - the sun and stars. From generation to generation, under the hands of skilled craftswomen, ancient simple patterns were enriched with new technical techniques, and at the same time they conveyed a range of patterns used only in a given area. Pieces of various fabrics, especially red, were also used to decorate shirts, which were also filled with embroidery, like the main one. textile. This ancient method of decorating clothes was used in boyar costume, when pieces of precious overseas fabrics, left over from cutting large clothes, or already worn out, were sewn as decoration onto a newly sewn dress. In addition to woven and embroidered patterns and fabric inlays, multi-colored “grass” ribbons, bindweed, lace, sequins, gold and silver braids and braids were used. All this decorative wealth was transformed into a precious work of art by the hands of talented embroiderers.
Even “miserable” shirts were decorated, and here, too, the canons in the use of patterns and colors were observed. So, when mourning for parents, they wore white shirts with white embroidery, and for children - with black ones, made with a cross and a set. Only widowed women had shirts without any “decoration”, which they wore when performing the “plowing” ritual. Widow women were collected from all over the village, and barefoot, bare-haired, dressed only in linen shirts, they had to plow the land around the village with a plow to prevent it from cholera and livestock deaths.
The shirt was used on all occasions in the life of a Russian woman and, having stood the test of time, passing through centuries, freely entered our wardrobe in the form of a variety of one-piece dresses and blouses.
But in the ancient costume, the shirt was rarely worn separately; most often in the northern and central regions of Russia a sundress was worn on top, and in the southern regions - a poneva. Poneva is a type of skirt consisting of three panels of woolen or half-woolen fabric, tied at the waist with a woven narrow belt - gashnik: it was worn only by married women. Poneva was round, that is, sewn, or swinging, consisting of separate canvases. Mostly ponevs were dark blue, dark red, and less often black. Its dark field was divided by squares, and their color and size depended on the traditions of the province, village or hamlet in which the ponevs were woven. Ponevas, like shirts, were divided into festive and everyday. Everyday ones were trimmed along the bottom with a narrow homespun strip of braid or strips of red tape. In the festive ponevs, much attention was paid to the “cludge” - the so-called stripe along the hem, in which all the richness of decoration was used to the maximum: multi-color embroidery, braid, tinsel lace made of gilded and silver threads, grass ribbons, bindweed, sequins, glass beads and beads. In round ponies, the seams served not only to connect individual parts, but also as an additional finish. The belt - the “edge” - was woven on a loom from multi-colored woolen threads, its ends fluffed out and threads of beads were woven among the threads.
Over the shirt and blanket they put on an apron - a “curtain”, tied at the back with ribbons - “mutozki”. The intensity of color and decorativeness of the ornament gradually intensified from top to bottom, it was created through inserts of bright chintz, stripes of patterned weaving and embroidery, ribbons, lace, fringe and sequin.
The ensemble was completed with a shushpan made of wool, half-woolen or canvas fabric with very delicate decoration: mainly connecting seams and edging with embroidery in a red pattern. The costume was complemented by a complex headdress. The entire territory of Russia is characterized by two sharply different categories of headdresses. Girls' dresses, leaving the hair and crown of the head open, had the shape of a wreath-hoop or headband. Women's headdresses were varied, but they all completely hid their hair, which, according to popular belief, had witchcraft powers and could bring misfortune.
The basis of all varieties of South Russian headdresses of the “Magpie” type was a hard forehead piece sewn from quilted canvas, compacted with hemp or birch bark, and worn directly on the hair. Depending on its shape, flat or imitating horns extending back, it was called a kichka or a horned kichka. It was this detail that gave its entire structure one form or another, which was completed with the help of the upper part - a kind of cover made of calico, calico or velvet - Soroka; The back of the head was covered with a rectangular strip of fabric - the back of the head. A complex and multi-layered headdress was created around these three elements. Sometimes it included up to twelve parts, and its weight reached up to five kilograms.
Numerous buttons, metal openwork and with a pattern, glass and simple, were used not only for fastening, but were also included in the decorative row of decorations.
Colored wide belts were also a necessary part of the costume. The girls hung elegant handbags “for gifts” sewn from various scraps to their belts.
The legs were wrapped in onuchas made of white “Svei” cloth or canvas and put on bast shoes woven from elm or linden bast, or white wool stockings “knitted in one needle and leather shoes - cats, which were figuratively punched with copper wire in front and back for decoration. The last place in the costume was occupied by various decorations. Necklaces made of pearls, garnets and gaitanas were worn around the neck in large quantities - stringed beads, amber beads, which, according to legend, brought health and happiness, necklaces made of chains. Large “stuffed cabbage” earrings and smaller, graceful ones were very popular. Delicate, easily movable “guns” - balls woven from goose down, which were worn along with earrings, were also a kind of decoration.
Despite the picturesque multicolor, the integrity of the entire ensemble was achieved mainly by finding color combinations and relationships.
Color, ornament, and symbolism acquired a special meaning in ritual and wedding costumes.
Family hierarchy. Family and marriage relations before the Baptism of Rus' were regulated by customary norms, and the state did not interfere in this area at all. The marriage was concluded by abducting the bride by the groom (“smart”). In the Tale of Bygone Years, this pagan method of marriage is attributed to the Drevlyans, Radimichs and some other tribes. Young people from different villages gathered on the banks of rivers and lakes for games with songs and dances, and there the grooms “kidnapped” the brides. The author of the chronicle - a monk - of course, had a negative attitude towards all pagan customs, but even he did not hide the fact that the “snatch” was carried out by prior agreement of the bride and groom, so the word “kidnapping” here, in general, does not fit. The head of the family, the husband, was a slave in relation to the sovereign, but a sovereign in his own home. All household members, not to mention servants and slaves in the literal sense of the word, were under his complete subordination.
The duties of the husband and father included “educating” the family, which consisted of systematic beatings to which the children and wife were to be subjected. Widows were highly respected in society. In addition, they became full-fledged mistresses of the house. In fact, from the moment of the death of the spouse, the role of head of the family passed to them.
Baptism brought many norms of Byzantine law to Rus', including those relating to family and marriage relations. The family was under the protection of the Orthodox Church, which is why family and marriage relations were regulated mainly by the norms of church law. The marriageable age was set by Byzantine law at 14-15 years for men and 12-13 years for women.
Christianity prohibited polygamy, which was practiced in Rus'. Marital status becomes an obstacle to entering into a new marriage. The charter of Prince Yaroslav threatened a church home (imprisonment in a monastery) for a young wife, because of whom the man’s previous marriage could be shaken. The latter was ordered to live with the old one.
The obstacles to marriage were kinship and property. In an effort to strengthen marriage bonds, church charters prohibited hidden forms of violation of marriage laws: adultery, sexual intercourse between relatives and in-laws. The Church viewed marriage not only as a carnal union, but also as a spiritual one, therefore marriages were allowed only between Christians. Marriage after the Baptism of Rus' should have taken place in the form of a church wedding. Practice also knew the preservation of previous, pagan forms of marriage, which was condemned by law. When an unmarried man and an unmarried woman lived together before marriage, the man was obliged to pay the ransom and marry the girl.
The list of reasons for divorce was almost entirely borrowed from Byzantine laws, in particular from Prochiron, but taking into account Russian traditions. So, the marriage was touched when:
1) it was discovered that the wife had heard from other people about the impending attack on the power and life of the prince, but hid it from her husband;
2) the husband caught his wife with an adulterer or this was proven by hearsay evidence;
3) the wife hatched a plan to poison her husband with a potion or knew about the murder of her husband being prepared by other people, but did not tell him;
4) the wife, without her husband’s permission, attended feasts with strangers and stayed overnight without her husband;
5) the wife attended the games day or night (it didn’t matter) despite her husband’s prohibitions;
6) the wife gave a tip to the thief to steal her husband’s property or she herself stole something or committed theft from the church.
Personal and property relations between parents and children were built on the basis of traditional rules, with changes made by canonical norms. The father's power was unquestionable; he had the right to resolve intra-family disputes and punish children. The law is quite lenient towards illegitimate children. The Church Charter of Yaroslav, of course, punishes a girl who, while living in the house of her father and mother, gave birth to a premarital child. The Charter also punishes a wife who gave birth to an illegitimate child. However, leaving a baby or disposing of a fetus by an unmarried girl is also condemned. The main idea of the legislator is clear: children must be born in marriage, but if an unmarried woman conceives, she must give birth to the baby.
Raising children. The pre-Christian era is characterized by various educational forms. In the 6th century, elements of mentoring activities began to emerge among the ancient Slavic tribes. Under matriarchy, children of both sexes were raised in the mother's house, then the boys moved to the men's house, where they learned practical skills. The upbringing of children was entrusted to mentors who taught worldly wisdom in “youth houses.” Later, the closest relatives (uncles) were involved in raising and educating children. In the absence of such, these functions were performed by the closest neighbors (“nepotism”). Thus, in the VI - VII centuries. among the Eastern Slavs, priority was given to out-of-family education. Since the 8th century, parents stopped giving their children to strangers. From this time on, we can talk about the emergence of an educational function in the family. The main methods of public education were nursery rhymes, ditties, riddles, fairy tales, epics, and lullabies. They revealed the best features of the Slavic folk character: respect for elders, kindness, fortitude, courage, hard work, mutual assistance. They reflected the rich and original history of the Slavic people, strengthening and accompanying it from the first years of life. In the studies of S.D. Babishina, B.A. Rybakov shows a fairly high general cultural level, the original national character of education in pre-Christian Rus'. It is concluded that neither the pedagogical thought nor the education system in Ancient Rus' was a Byzantine copy, and “the general culture of the Russian people was highly pedagogical.”
The Christian era in folk pedagogy began with the illumination of the Baptism of Rus' by the holy Equal-to-the-Apostles Prince Vladimir.
The upbringing of children of the princely family had its own characteristics. Children of the princely family were transferred to another family for upbringing. This form of education is called “feeding”. Feeding is a socio-pedagogical phenomenon in Rus' in the 10th-12th centuries. - characterized as mentoring and responsibility for the moral, spiritual and physical education of young princes. They received their first knowledge at court - at the school of “book learning”, where they studied with the children of boyars and warriors. The first school of “book learning” was opened in Kyiv in 988, then in Novgorod in 1030 and other cities.
In the folk practice of family education in Russia, the main emphasis was on obedience as the main element of honoring God. The logic of reasoning justified it as follows: the husband, as the head of the family, must honor God, and the wife must humble herself before her husband, and children must honor their parents. There was an opinion that the falling away of people from the faith leads to the fact that the husband ceases to honor God, to live according to His will, and the wife disobeys her husband. And as a result, two naughty people grow up with a naughty child.
The main pedagogical principle of this period was the reproduction (transfer) of the way of life into the education system, enshrined in the first literary monuments of Ancient Rus'.
A feature of the educational system in Ancient Rus' with the advent of Christianity was the performance of this function by clergy, which passed to them from respectable neighbors. When the baby was baptized, the godfather was called “godfather” and from then on was considered the second father, revered and respected by the godson. Before God and people, he was responsible for the future of his pupil, his deeds and actions, and in the event of the loss of parents, he replaced them, taking the godson into his house as his own son. But the most important thing that a godfather had to do was to tirelessly pray for his godfather and monitor his spiritual life and spiritual maturity. We can conclude that Christianity contains the prevention of social orphanhood, which is spreading on such a scale in societies that are based on lack of faith and responsibility before God.
Christianity, as a methodology, has significantly influenced the overall spread of knowledge and literacy. The clergy, fulfilling God's will, actively influenced these processes. Thus, Holy Metropolitan Michael of Kyiv blessed teachers and gave instructions on how to properly teach. In Novgorod, Smolensk and other cities, schools and colleges were organized at the bishops' departments to teach children to read and write. Gradually, in different cities of Rus', priests began to teach literacy in churches, schools and colleges to children of all classes. Over time, not only priests, but also people of non-church rank - “masters of literacy” - began to teach children. Boys received education from priests or “masters”; women’s education was concentrated mainly in women’s monasteries, of which there were about 10 before the Tatar-Mongol invasion. The daughter of Chernigov Prince Mikhail Vsevolodovich, Efrosinya, opened a women’s school at the monastery, in which she taught children of all classes literacy, writing and singing prayers.
A special place in the system of family education in Ancient Rus' was given to women. A woman was recognized with the right to care for children and raise them in good manners. A woman was supposed to be educated, since she was not only the keeper of the home, but also the first teacher of children in good and righteous deeds.
Home and its organization. Initially, the dwellings were log houses, which were usually located randomly. Inside there was one common room, and adjacent to it were outbuildings for livestock and poultry, for storing agricultural implements, bread, hay, etc. Barns or threshing floors stood not far from the huts.
The desire to create maximum comfort using minimal means determined the laconicism of the interior, the main elements of which were a stove, fixed furniture (benches, beds), movable furniture (table, bench) and various arrangements (chests, boxes).
The ancient Russian stove, entirely included in the hut, was both literally and figuratively a home - a source of warmth and comfort.
Judging by the prostate customs of that time, it can be assumed that huts and mansions were erected without decorations, built of wood. The living quarters were located inside the courtyard and were surrounded by wooden fences with or without bars and a palisade. Of course, the rich did it; and the rest surrounded their homes with fences or left them open. In the middle of the 10th century, stone buildings appeared.
Rural huts built in those days were almost no different from each other: they were low, covered with boards and straw. The townspeople built tall houses and usually lived at the top. The lower part of the house was then allocated for cellars, called medushas, since honey was stored in them, and for storerooms. The house was divided into cages (rooms). It was divided in half by a vestibule, sometimes called a platform. At a distance from the house, special resting rooms, or odrins, were built, whose name indicates that there were beds here that served not only for night sleep, but also for afternoon sleep.
The reception rooms in the grand ducal chambers were called gridnitsa. Boyars, gridniks, centurions, tens and all deliberate people were treated there. In the yard they built towers and huts for pigeons (golubnitsy). Mansions were tall wooden houses, and towers were chambers or rooms located in the upper tier.
The living quarters were illuminated by candles and lanterns. Wax candles burned in the grand ducal and boyar mansions, because wax was in abundance. People of modest means burned ordinary oil, poured into round clay vessels - kaganets or zhirnik.
The walls of the rooms were not decorated with anything, only the rich had oak tables and benches; they stood along the walls and were often covered with carpets. In those days there were no chairs or armchairs. When receiving ambassadors, the Grand Dukes sat on an elevated round seat that replaced the throne; during lunch - on ordinary benches covered with fabrics - silk and velvet. The decorations of the rooms usually consisted of images of holy martyrs and saints, inserted into icon cases and hung in the corner. A lamp glowed in front of them, and on holidays the images were illuminated with wax candles. There was a place of honor under the icons; There was a table covered with a white cloth right there.
Much later, such types of buildings as log huts, mud huts, huts and stone buildings appeared in Rus'.
Food intake standards. Our ancestors, living in patriarchal simplicity, were content with little: half-raw food, meat, roots. In the 11th century they also ate millet, buckwheat and milk; then we learned to cook food. They spared nothing for the guests, showing their hospitality with abundant food.
Honey was boiling at the table - the oldest and favorite drink of all Slavic tribes. Honey was our first drink, and it was made very strong. They didn’t breed bees back then; they lived in the forests themselves. There were honeys: cherry, currant, juniper, mixed, raspberry, princely, boyar, etc.
Our ancestors began to grow grain, and then they began to bake bread and make kvass. In the 10th century it was already in general use, and they even doused themselves with kvass in the bathhouse.
Beer was formerly called “olui”. It was made strong, had different names and colors (light or dark).
In Ancient Rus' there was no shortage of fruits or dishes: fish, game and meat were in abundance.
Feasts were then common, and it was customary for the rich to treat the poor. The grand dukes themselves treated the guests; ate and drank with them.
Pepper came to us from Constantinople and Bulgaria. From there we received almonds, coriander, anise, ginger, cinnamon, bay leaves, cloves, cardamom and other spices that served as seasoning for dishes.
Flour for baking bread was prepared in mills or in millstones by hand.
The common people ate rather poorly: bread, kvass, salt, garlic and onions constituted their main food. Cabbage soup, porridge and oatmeal jelly were being prepared everywhere. Cabbage soup was prepared with a piece of lard or beef. They were a favorite food at court.
Delicious bread, fish - fresh and salted, eggs, garden vegetables: cabbage, cucumbers - pickled, vinegared and fresh, turnips, onions and garlic were considered the best foods.
Since ancient times, our ancestors did not eat veal, hares, pigeons, crayfish and the meat of those animals that were slaughtered by the hands of a woman, considering them defiled.
Domestic servants did the cooking. But if a woman needed to kill a bird for the table, and none of the men were at home, she would go out the gate with a knife and ask the first passerby to do it.
Our ancestors strictly observed fasting: on Mondays, Wednesdays, Fridays and even Saturdays. Even seriously ill people did not dare to eat meat.
Baking bread required knowledge and experience, and a housewife who did not possess this skill was not valued, because it was believed: whose house has good bread is a good housewife. Wheat and coarse breads were baked on sweets, with different images.
Pies were baked with various fillings: eggs, cabbage, fish, mushrooms, rice, etc. Sweet pies prepared with sugar, raisins, jam and spices were called levashniki.
They ate several times a day, but usually had breakfast, lunch, afternoon snack and dinner. After a hearty lunch we rested for several hours.
They had breakfast early in the morning, lunch around noon, lunch around four or five o'clock, and dinner after sunset. Then, an hour later, they prayed to God and went to bed.
Family rituals and ceremonies.
BAPTISM. Childbirth and raising children in Rus' have long been surrounded by various beliefs, rituals and traditions. Many centuries ago, as now, expectant mothers sought to be easily relieved of their burden; parents wanted to protect their children from the evil eye, raise them to be hardworking and polite, and teach them to read and write.
Even during pregnancy, women learned from the midwives an ancient spell, which they then read to their children in the womb: “From you, my light, my little drop, I myself will take away all trouble. My love will be your dome, all your patience will be your cradle, and your prayer will be consolation. I’m waiting for you, my light, like the land of dawn, like the grass of dew, like the flowers of rain.” The sound of these gentle words had a beneficial effect on the child, and created the right mood for the mother before giving birth.
The birth of a person has always been considered a great sacrament, for which a woman began to prepare long before the event itself. Already at the wedding, it was customary to wish the newlyweds: “God grant you, Ivan Ivanovich, to get rich, and for you, Marya Petrovna, to be hunchbacked in front.” Midwives who mastered the art of obstetrics enjoyed special honor in Rus'. Not every woman could become a midwife; for example, this was prohibited for those whose own children suffered from some kind of illness. And, of course, great attention was paid to the purity of the midwife’s thoughts, because the lives of both the woman in labor and the new person directly depended on her.
As soon as a woman's contractions began, the midwife took her away from her home (childbirth often took place in a bathhouse). It was believed that one should be wary of “dashing people” or the “evil eye”, which could harm the newborn. Therefore, the presence of anyone, even the closest family members, during childbirth was prohibited. The child's father was ordered to pray fervently in front of the icon and fast.
The day of baptism was chosen randomly. If the child was weak or was in danger of imminent death, he was immediately baptized.
In ancient times, people were named at birth by the name of the saint who fell on the eighth day after birth. Our ancestors had two names, one given at birth, the other (secret) at baptism.
The custom of having godparents has existed in the Christian Church since ancient times. Baptism was immersive. The priest reads incantatory prayers. Then follows the renunciation of the catechumen, or in the case of his youth, his godfather, from Satan. Moreover, when they say “I deny,” they blow and spit three times, turning back; and then, turning to the east, they assure of unity with Christ and read the “Creed.” Then the priest, having anointed him with oil, immerses the catechumen three times in lukewarm, as if summer water, reads a prayer and puts white clothes and a cross on the baptized person.
When putting on white clothes, the troparion is sung. After baptism, chrismation follows; the forehead, eyes, nostrils, lips, ears, chest, hands and soles of the feet are anointed with myrrh.
Then the priest, having walked around the baptismal font three times with the person being baptized and his godparents, having read the Gospel and washed the members of the body anointed with myrrh, cuts his hair in a cross shape while reading the prayer; Having sealed them in wax, he gives them to his godfather, who throws them into the font; the water is then poured into a place that cannot be trampled underfoot.
When a baby is baptized, the recipient (godmother) provides him with a shirt and a headdress, and the recipient with a cross; each of them gives the mother and the child a generous gift, which is called “to the tooth”: material, money, whatever they can.
The parents of the person being baptized are not present at the baptism of their child. After baptism, the priest instructs the godparents to take care of the instruction of the godson or goddaughter in the Orthodox faith and in everything that a Christian needs.
In addition to weddings and christenings, in Ancient Rus' there were many rituals and celebrations, both Orthodox and pagan: name day, Red Hill, Radonitsa, Yarilo, Easter, Rusal Week, Trinity Day, Christmastide, Maslenitsa and many others. Each holiday had a certain providential algorithm and was celebrated on a special scale.
Literature
- "Archeology. Ancient Rus'. Life and culture”, ed. B. A. Rybakova. M. - 1997
- Belovinsky L.V. “History of Russian material culture”, M. – 2008
- Ovsyannikov Yu. M. “Pictures of Russian life”, M. - 2000.
- Rabinovich M. G. “Essays on the material culture of a Russian feudal city,” M. - 1990.
- Semyonova M. “Life and beliefs of the ancient Slavs”, St. Petersburg. – 2001
- Tereshchenko A. V. “History of the culture of the Russian people.” M. - 2007
Books, having appeared in human cultural life, undoubtedly began to play a key role in the development of world civilization. With the invention of printing, their scope of use expanded significantly. Modern people need to remember that our ancestors always had a special cult of the book. In Ancient Rus' and other countries of the world, it occupied a separate place in the general culture.
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Book functions
The invention of writing and printing led to the fact that for centuries the book has been a means by which all the life experiences accumulated by mankind are transmitted.
People are educated through books. Thanks to the book, people have the opportunity to communicate with each other. They don't have to be in close proximity to do this. Communication through a book does not depend on either spatial or temporal boundaries.
The special cult of the book in Ancient Rus', the countries of Europe, and Asia led to its worldwide reverence and love. There is an opinion that humanity has two main inventions - writing and printing. Everything else is just a consequence.
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Great miracle
At all times, any book was considered a miracle of miracles. After all, she could heal the soul, enrich her with knowledge, give strength and wisdom. The special cult of the book in Ancient Rus' and other countries of the world is confirmed, for example, by the following statements:
- a book is a repository of treasures;
- a book is a river that fills the entire Universe with life-giving moisture;
- A book like sunlight illuminates the path for everyone.
When did the first book appear?
Scientists have not yet been able to establish the exact date and place of birth. But an interesting fact is that among many Slavic peoples the sound of the word is very similar. And in order to understand that we are talking about a book, a Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Czech, or Pole will not need a special translation: people will already understand each other.
It remains to make an assumption: man knew how to make books; they were in his everyday life even before the division of peoples along territorial and linguistic lines occurred. And the preservation of the word in the modern language of different peoples in an unchanged form also determines the special cult of the book.
In Ancient Rus', as some modern scientists suggest, books existed already in the middle of the first millennium. True, they were handwritten and did not correspond much to our ideas about them. It must be said that even then the first attempts were made to invent a printing method.
The creation of manuscripts was an expensive procedure, but this did not stop people, which also indicates a special cult of the book. In Ancient Rus' this treasure was valued very highly. The cost of the book was equal to the cost of an average-sized estate with all the buildings, lands and peasants living here.
The dominant position of the church in the rewriting of books could not be disputed by anyone in those days. The church determined the content of the volumes; it was subordinated to the interests of the clergy. Most of the books copied in Rus' were translated.
Development of book publishing
The situation began to change after the adoption of Christianity. This influenced the development of interstate relations. Throughout the subsequent period, a special cult of the book continued to be created in Ancient Rus'.
Grade 4 of some modern educational programs contains a list of literary works created during a period when rewriting books was no longer only the work of the church. The first examples of secular literary creativity have survived to this day. "The Tale of Igor's Campaign", "Russian Truth",
Already in that era, the predominant industry in Rus' was agriculture. Its development, of course, was closely related to soil and climate. Meanwhile, in the black earth zone of southern Russia it brought a rich harvest, although it sometimes suffered from drought, locusts, digging animals, worms, etc. enemies; in the northern regions, especially in the Novgorod land, agriculture developed with great difficulty. Early autumn or late spring frosts often destroyed bread and led to years of famine, and only deliveries from other Russian regions or from foreign countries saved the population from pestilence. Meanwhile, in the southern zone, the abundance of free, rich fields, with a relatively small population, made it possible to often plow and sow virgin land, or new land, i.e. virgin soil, and then, in case of depletion, let it go for a long number of years; in the northern zone, the farmer had to wage a persistent struggle with poor soil and impenetrable forests. To get a piece of convenient land, he cleared a plot of forest, cut down and burned trees; the ash that remained from them served as fertilizer. For several years, such a plot gave a decent harvest, and when the soil was depleted, the farmer left it and went deeper into the forest, clearing a new plot for arable land. Such areas cleared from under the forest were called priterebs. As a result of such mobile farming, the peasant population itself acquired a mobile character. But at the same time, our peasantry spread Slavic-Russian colonization far in all directions and, with their sweat or their suffering (hard work), assigned new lands to the Russian tribe.
Various evidence confirms to us that the cultivation of the land was carried out with the same tools and methods that have been preserved in Rus' to our time. Spring grain was sown in the spring, and winter grain was sown in the fall. But in the south, in the same way, they plowed more with a “plow”, and in the north - with a plow, or “rawl”; they harnessed horses, but, in all likelihood, used them for plows and oxen; the plowed field, or "roly", was passed through with a harrow. The ears were also removed with a sickle and a scythe. The compressed or mowed bread was piled up, and then taken to the threshing floor and placed there in “stacks” and “tables”; Before threshing, they dried it in “barns” and threshed it with “flails.” Threshed grain, or “zhito,” was kept in “cells” and “susekas” (bins), but for the most part they were buried in pits. They ground grain into flour mainly with hand millstones; Mills are rarely mentioned and only about water mills. The hay was harvested in the same way as now, i.e. they mowed the grass in the meadows (otherwise known as “hay harvests” or “stubbles”) and stacked them in stacks. The main item in grain products and folk food even then was rye, as the plant most suitable for Russian soil. Wheat was also produced in the south; in addition, millet, oats, barley, peas, spelt, lentils, hemp, flax and hops are mentioned; We just don’t see any buckwheat in those days.
As for growing vegetables, or gardening, it was not alien to ancient Russia. We have news of vegetable gardens being planted near cities and monasteries, especially somewhere in Bologna, i.e. in a low place near a river. Among garden plants, mention is made of turnips, cabbage, poppy seeds, pumpkin, beans, garlic and onions - all the same ones that hitherto form a common part of the Russian economy. We also have evidence of the existence in cities and monasteries of gardens containing various fruit trees, mainly apples. Nuts, berries and mushrooms, of course, served the needs of the Russian people even then. For wealthy people, trade brought expensive foreign vegetables and fruits brought from the south, from the Byzantine Empire, especially dry grapes or raisins.
Since ancient times, rye bread has been baked sour. During crop failures, poor people mixed in other plants, especially quinoa. There were also wheat breads. Porridge was made from millet, and jelly was made from oats, which was sometimes eaten with honey. They knew how to make sweet pies with honey and milk. Oil was extracted from hemp and flaxseed; butter was also extracted from milk; They also knew how to make cheese. Meat food, apparently, was very common in Ancient Rus' due, among other things, to the abundance of game and constant hunting. Our ancestors not only ate grouse, hazel grouse, cranes, deer, elk, aurochs, boars, hares, etc., but did not disdain bear meat and squirrels, against which the clergy rebelled, classifying them as “filth,” i.e. to unclean animals. The clergy also rebelled against eating animals, even clean ones, but not slaughtered ones, but strangled ones, considering the latter “carrion”; This included black grouse and other birds that were caught with snares. During the famine, commoners, of course, did not pay attention to such prohibitions and ate not only linden bark, but also dogs, cats, snakes, etc., not to mention horse meat, which in pagan times was generally consumed by Russians as food. The main source of ordinary meat food was, of course, supplied by poultry and animals: chickens, ducks, geese, sheep, goats, pigs and cattle; the latter was called "beef" in the old days. Strict observance of fasts, which later distinguished Russian Orthodoxy, in the first three centuries of our Christianity was still just one of the pious customs, and, despite the efforts of the clergy, many Russian people have not yet given up eating meat on fasting days.
Cattle breeding was an occupation as widespread in Rus' as agriculture, but even more ancient. Of course, it did not have significant development in the northern forest belt, but flourished more in the southern lands, where there was an abundance of pastures and even steppe spaces. However, we do not have direct information to what extent these lands abounded in cattle. We come across more indications of the prosperity of horse breeding, but even that of the prince. The size of this latter can be judged from the chronicle news that the Novgorod-Seversk princes grazed several thousand mares on the Rakhna river alone (in 1146). However, the princes had to take special care of the horse herds because they delivered horses not only to their squad, but also to part of the zemstvo army that gathered in wartime. The horses of noble people were usually distinguished by a special brand, or “spot”. Southern Rus' also took advantage of the proximity of nomadic peoples and acquired from them a large number of horses and oxen through trade; and in wartime, herds and herds of steppe inhabitants served as the main prey of Russian squads; but the nomads, in turn, stole Russian cattle during raids. Particularly famous were the Ugric pacers and horses, which the chronicle calls “headlights.” In general, the “greyhound” horse was highly valued in Rus' and was the joy of the Russian youth.
Along with agriculture and cattle breeding, fishing occupied an important place in the national economy, with a great abundance of fish lakes and rivers. Since ancient times, it was produced with the same gear and tools as in our time, i.e. a seine, a drag net, a long net, or a snare, and a fishing rod. The most common custom of fishing was through eza, i.e. partitions made of stakes driven across the river, with a hole in the middle, also fenced, where fish enter. Along with squads of animal catchers, the princes had entire squads of fish catchers; when going fishing, they were usually called “vatagami”, and their leader was called “vataman”. By the way, the Novgorodians gave their princes the right to send fishing teams to Northern Pomerania, specifically to the Terek coast; and they themselves sent their teams to other shores of Pomerania, where, in addition to fish, they also caught walruses and seals. Since ancient times, in especially fishing areas, a whole class of people was formed who were primarily engaged in this fishery. Due to the prohibition of meat for monks, monasteries especially valued fishing grounds; and therefore princes and rich people tried to provide them with waters where fish were found in abundance. The monks themselves were engaged in fishing and received fish rent from the inhabitants who lived on the monastery land. Sturgeon has always been considered the most valuable fish in Rus'. The need to stock up on fish for the winter, especially with the gradual establishment of fasts, taught us to cook fish for future use, i.e. dry it and salt it. Russians already knew how to prepare caviar.
Salt was obtained in Rus' from different places. Firstly, it was mined in the Galician land on the northeastern slope of the Carpathian Mountains; The salt pans in the vicinity of Udech, Kolomyia and Przemysl are especially famous. From Galich, salt caravans were sent to the Kyiv land either by land through Volyn, or in boats they descended the Dniester into the Black Sea, and from there they went up the Dnieper. Secondly, salt was extracted from the Crimean and Azov lakes. Some of it was also transported by sea and the Dnieper, and partly by land on carts. Even then, apparently, there was a special trade of salt carriers (Chumaks), who traveled from Southern Rus' to these lakes for salt. The duty on salt was one of the items of princely income; sometimes trade in it was farmed out. In Northern Rus', salt was either obtained through foreign trade or extracted through boiling. The latter was produced both on the shores of the White Sea and in various other places where the soil was saturated with salt sediments; It was especially mined in large quantities in Staraya Russa. In Novgorod there were a number of merchants who were engaged in salt fishing and were called “prasols”. In the Suzdal land, Soligalich, Rostov, Gorodets, etc. are famous for their breweries. Salt was boiled down very simply: they dug a well and made a solution in it; then they poured this solution into a large iron frying pan ("tsren") or into a cauldron ("salga") and boiled the salt.
Common drinks in Ancient Rus' included kvass, mash, beer and honey, which were brewed at home; and wines were obtained through foreign trade from the Byzantine Empire and Southwestern Europe. Beer was brewed from flour with malt and hops. But a particularly common drink was honey, which served as the main treat during feasts and drinking parties. It was brewed with hops and seasoned with some spices. Rus', as you know, loved to drink both for joy and sorrow, at weddings and funerals. Noble and rich people, along with wine and beer, always kept large reserves of honey in their cellars, which were mainly called “medushas”. We saw what huge reserves the princes had during the capture of the court of the Seversky prince in Putivl in 1146, and this is very understandable, since the princes had to constantly treat their squad with strong honey. In those days when the use of sugar was not yet known, honey served in Rus' as a seasoning not only for drinks, but also for sweet dishes. Such a great demand was satisfied by the widespread beekeeping, or beekeeping. A hollow was called a natural hollow or hollowed out in an old tree, in which wild bees lived; and a grove with such trees was called a boarding area, or “grooming.” On-board fishing occurs throughout the Russian land, under different soil and climate conditions. The princes in their volosts, along with animal and fish catchers, also had special beekeepers who were engaged in beekeeping and cooking honey. Sometimes these grooms were given to free people with the condition of paying the prince a certain portion of the honey. In addition, honey made up a prominent part of the tributes and quitrents to the prince's treasury. The usual measure for this was a “bow,” or a certain size box of splint (where our “bun” comes from).
Beekeepers in North-Eastern Russia were also called “tree climbers”: some dexterity and the habit of climbing trees were required, since honey sometimes had to be obtained at a considerable height. In general, on-board fishing was very profitable, because, in addition to honey, it also supplied wax, which was not only used for candles for churches and wealthy people, but also constituted a very significant item in our trade with foreigners.
Belyaev “A few words about agriculture in ancient Russia” (Temporary General. I. and Others XXII). Aristov’s wonderful essay “Industry of Ancient Rus'”. St. Petersburg 1866. In addition to chronicles, there are many indications about agriculture, cattle breeding, fishing and airborne crafts in the Russian Pravda, the Life of Theodosius and the Patericon of Pechersk, as well as in treaty and grant letters. For example, fishing gangs are mentioned in the agreements between Novgorod and the great princes (Collected G. Gr. and Dog. I).
