Introduction to the practice of translating scientific and technical literature into English. Pumpyansky A.L.

M.: Nauka, 1965. – 304 p.

A. L. Pumpyansky wrote a series of three books on translating our scientific and technical literature into English: “Introduction to the practice of translating scientific and technical literature into English”, “Manual for translating scientific and technical literature into English”, “Exercises” on translation of [scientific and technical literature into English]. Thus, we have a complete cycle of work, starting from questions of translation theory and ending with exercises.

A. L. Pumpyansky is known as an author whose books successfully combine linguistic erudition and the ability to penetrate the logic of scientific and technical texts. Dealing with little-studied problems, A. L. Pumpyansky pays a lot of attention to topical, practically important problems, and briefly and clearly presents complex material.

Many scientists and engineers use the works of A. L. Pumpyansky on reading and translating English scientific and technical literature; they significantly facilitate the hard work of the many thousands of staff of the All-Union Institute of Scientific and Technical Information in processing the huge flow of foreign literature in English. In recent years, there has been an urgent need for similar books on translating our scientific and technical literature into English.This series of works is intended to help improve the quality of translations and, consequently, a better understanding abroad of the achievements of Soviet science and technology. It is also of considerable interest to anyone interested in the language of English scientific and technical literature.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface 3

Introduction

I. Some issues of translation of scientific and technical literature 7

II. Translation of scientific and technical literature as a special discipline 9

III. Style of English scientific and technical literature.... 10

IV. Vocabulary of English scientific and technical literature... 12

V. Grammar of English scientific and technical literature. . 14

VI. Method of presentation of material in English scientific and technical literature 15

VII. Two movements seeking to revise the language of English scientific and technical literature 18

VIII. Attempts to simplify the language of modern English scientific and technical literature 18

IX. Attempts to ignore the changes occurring in the language of modern English scientific and technical literature. . 24

X. Requirements for translation and translator of scientific and technical literature 29

XI. The need for manuals for translating Russian scientific and technical literature into English 32

Some grammar issues when translating Russian scientific and technical literature into English

§ 1. Fixed word order 33

Noun

§ 2. The main difficulty in translating a noun. 34

Indefinite article

§ 3. Lexical meaning of the indefinite article 34

§ 4. The indefinite article before the numerals dozen, hundred, thousand, million 35

§ 5. The indefinite article in the meaning of “some” 35

§ b. Indefinite article in combinations 36

§ 7. Classifying function of the indefinite article. . 36

§ 8. The indefinite article before a noun denoting a device. 36

§ 9. Transition of the classifying function of the indefinite article to the definition before the noun 37

§ 10. Extension of the function of the indefinite article to the entire attributive complex 39

§ 11. Use of ordinal numbers and the adjective further with the indefinite article 39

§ 12. The use of the indefinite article after conjunctions like: and, or, but, rather than 40

§ 13. The indefinite article after intensifying particles and pronouns like: what, such, many, quite, so, too 40

§ 14. Stable phrases in which the noun has an indefinite article. 41

Definite article

§ 15. Lexical meaning of the definite article 43

§ 16. The definite article before cardinal numbers 44

§ 17. Individualizing function of the definite article 45 § 18. The definite article before terms denoting the names of substances 46

§ 19. Extension of the function of the definite article to the entire group of nouns with definition 47

§ 20. The definite article before a noun, followed by a definition introduced by the preposition of 49

§ 21. The definite article before a noun, followed by a definition introduced by any preposition (except of), or a participle in the function of definition 52

§ 22. The definite article after the pronouns all and both ... 53 § 23. The main cases of traditional, unmotivated use of the definite article 53

No article

§ 24. Absence of an article before a singular noun 54

§ 25. Absence of an article before terms denoting the names of substances 54

§ 26. Absence of an article before uncountable nouns like: water, sand, light, air, work, gas, steam, ice, blood, tar 55

§ 27. : oxidation, deformation, tension, polygonisation, rotation, detection, description, attention, reaction, experience, experiment, evidence, throughput, activity, equilibrium, resonance, viscosity, diamagnetism, hydrolysis, alcoholysis, pyrolysis, addition, separation, distillation, dilution , substitution, methylation, alkylation, racemisation, reduction, irradiation, ultrafiltration, transfer, fission, dehydration, decomposition, sublimation ...,... 56

§ 28. Lack of article before nouns like: hardness, machinability, ease, composition, toughness, microstructure, weight, conductivity, resistance, shrinkage, porosity warping, purity, size, load, flow, volume, activity, test, weight, content, shape, height, temperature, distance, equilibrium, behavior, consti tution, transfer, rate, ratio, drop 58

§ 29. Absence of articles before nouns in the attributive function, introduced by prepositionof,after nouns like: field, type, problem, degree, evidence, concept, hypothesis, discussion, theory, criterion, scheme, apparatus, mechanism, method, mode, technique, condition, influence, direction, effect, operation, restriction, temperature 60

§ 30. , behind which there is a definition, introduced by prepositionof,type: knowledge, inspection, measurement, effect, evidence, bromination, determination, confirmation, activity, formation, decomposition, fission, coordination, addition, precipitation, separation, isolation, breakdown, oxidation, hydrogenation, infection, synthesis, depletion, diffraction, polymerization, insolubility 62

§ 31. No article before nouns, preceded by a pretextforor followed by a prepositionfrom,type: progress, distillation, fractionation, involvement, hydrogenation, preparation, rotation, lysis, chromatography, conversion, chemisorption, freedom, isomerisation, recrystallisation 64

§ 32. No article before nouns, followed by prepositionsbyorwith,type: increase, filtration, oxidation, adsorption, reaction, chlorination, extraction, precipitation, evidence, spectroscopy, diffraction, consideration, lack, hydroxylation, passage, solution 65

§ 33. Absence of an article before nouns as a function of circumstance after prepositions and prepositional combinationsbe fore, at, in, on, after, when, following, regarding, due to, on the basis of, by means of 66

§ 34. Absence of an article before nouns in combinations like: in energy, in intensity, in degree, in accuracy, in course, in value, in yield, in number 68

§ 35. The absence of an article before nouns after verb combinations like: to lead to, to be due to, to result from, to attribute to, to turn to, to expose to, to respond to, to judge by, to be based on (upon), to be independent of 68

§ 36. No article before nouns, coming after verbs like: to undergo, to involve, to come to, to maintain, to present, to offer, to effect, to seek, to reach, to acquire, to require, to favor, to prevent 69

§ 37. Lack of an article before nouns like: chapter,table, figure, equation, formula, type, case, fraction, appendix 71

§ 38. Absence of an article before proper names, names of seasons, months, days of the week, geographical names 72

§ 39. Set phrases with a noun without an article 73

§ 40. Different meanings of words: number, few, little, people depending on the article. 79

§ 41. Excerpts from articles in English, American and Canadian scientific and technical journals 81

Number

§ 42. Formation of the plural of nouns 84 § 43. Formation of the plural of words of Latin and Greek origin, in particular those ending in the suffixes is, ies, ics, us 34

§ 44. Nouns used only in the plural 86

§ 45. Changing the meaning of the nouns export and import depending on the number 86

§ 46. Use of words in the singular and pluralmeans, works, series, species, apparatus, kinetics 86

§ 47. Use of singular uncountables nouns like: iron, copper, heatand nouns ti pa: advice, information, progress, knowledge 87

Case

§ 48. Case system of the English language 87

§ 49. Possessive case 88

§ 50. Noun in the function of definition 90

Russian equivalents of some English: nouns characteristic of scientific and technical literature

§ 51. Alternative 92

§ 52. Approach. . . 92

§ 53. Consideration "... 93

§ 54. End 93

§ 55. Evidence 93

§ 56. Experience 93

§ 57. Instance 94

§ 58. Procedure 94

§ 59. Technique 94

§ 60. Combination to be 4- of + noun 95

§ 61. Combination whatever + noun 95

Noun Substitutes

§ 62. Substitute for the noun one 95

§ 63. Substitutes for nouns: that, those 96

§ 64. Substitutes for nouns: the former, the latter ... 97

Adjective

§ 65. Degrees of comparison of adjectives 97

§ 66. The combination as -f- adjective f as 98

§ 67. Combination as 4* adjective (adverb) + as possible 99

§ 68. The combination not so + adjective (adverb)4- as .... 99

§ 69. The combination the f adjective... the -f- adjective 100

Russian equivalents of some English adjectives (and adverbs derived from them), characteristic of scientific and technical literature

§ 70. Careful, carefully 100

§ 71. Characteristic of 101

§ 72. Conventional, conventionally 101

§ 73. Different 101

§ 74. Extra. 102

§ 75. Fair, fairly 102

§ 77. Occasional, occasionally 103

§ 78. Particular 104

§ 79. Previous, previously 104

§ 80. Repeated, repeatedly 105

§ 81. Suitable 105

§ 82. Tentative, tentatively 106

Adverb

§ 83. Place in a sentence of adverbs of time like: hitherto, generally, previously, recently, already, long, now, then, since, never 106

§ 84. Place in a sentence of adverbs of manner of action like: mainly, largely, markedly, readily, easily, accurately, slowly gradually, closely, effectively, immediately, reversibly, exclusively, satis factorily, normally, unequivocally, unambiguously, tentatively, virtually 107

§ 85. Place in a sentence of adverbs, characterizing scientific and technical processes, type: mechanically, electrically, colorimetrically, potentiometrically, exothermally, thermodynamically, azeotropically, gravimetrically, sterochemically, fractionally, structurally, quantitatively, qualitatively 109

§ 86. Place of adverbs, related to the proposal as a whole, type: fortunately, regrettably, unfortunately, undoubtedly, surprisingly (enough), obviously, originally, subsequently, eventually, finally; mathematically, physically, politically, scientifically, industrially; qualitatively, quantitatively 110

§ 87. The role of adverbs, characterizing the author's attitude towards high point and are equivalent to verbs- character, type: admittedly, announcedly, apparently, conceivably, reported, reputedly, seemingly, supposedly 110

§ 88. The role and place in a sentence of adverbs like: however, never theless, again, also, now, thus, on the other hand, alternatively, further, furthermore, conversely, therefore, in fact Ill

Russian equivalents of some English adverbs characteristic of scientific and technical literature

§ 89. HoweverFROM

§ 90. Again 115

§ 91. Also 115

§ 92. Now 116

§ 93. Thus 116

§ 94. Alternatively 118

§ 95. Badly 118

§ 96. Unfortunately 118

§ 97. Unlikely 119

§ 98. Well 119

§ 99. Post-verb adverbs (postpositions). . 119

Pretext

§ 100. Words requiring certain prepositions 120

§ 101. Three functions of the preposition with 127

§ 102. Three meanings of the preposition over 128

§ 103. Preposition by + ing form (gerund) 129

§ 104. Preposition in + ing form (gerund) 129

§ 105. Preposition under + nouns 130

§ 106. Prepositional combination not until (till) + indication of time 130

§ 107. Prepositional combination in terms of 130

§ 108. Changing the meanings of the verb to substitute and the noun substitution depending on the prepositions by or for ... 131

Union

§ 109. Union or 131

§ 110. Union for 132

§ 111. Unionsprovided, providing 132

§ 112. Paired unionsboth... and, and... both 132

§ 113. Paired conjunctions either... or 133

§ 114. Paired conjunctions whether...or 133

§ 115. Union as + verb indicating a change of state 133

§ 116. Conjunctions when, while, if -ing or III form of the verb, noun, adjective or preposition 134

§ 117. Expression of future action after conjunctions: if, unless, provided (that), providing(that), until, till, once, as soon as,as long as, when, after, before 135

§ 118. Coordinating and adversative conjunctions and, or, but. . 136

Numeral

§ 119. Cardinal numbers 138

§ 120. Designation of monetary amounts in England and the USA 140

§ 121. Ordinal numbers 141

§ 122. Designation of chronological dates 142

§ 123. Fractional numbers 143

§ 124. Designation of interest 145

Verb

§ 125. Place of the negative particle “not” in an English sentence 145

§ 126. Place of negation “by” in an English sentence.... 145

§ 127. Negation expressed by a pronoun or adverb. . . 146

§ 128. Double negative in one sentence 146

§ 129. The combination more than in a negative sentence. . . 147

§ 130. Combinationfor no other reason than 148

§ 131. Combination rather than 148

§ 132. Combination of the verb to fail with the infinitive 148

Pledge

§ 133. Distinction between active and passive voice 149

§ 134. Passive voice instead of active voice when translating from Russian into English 151

§ 135. Distinction between passive and reflexive after logs when translating from Russian into English 151

§ 136. Use of the prepositions by and with in the passive voice 153

§ 137. Use of an object in the ing form (gerund) after the preposition by 155

§ 138. The use of the preposition with after verbs of the same root with nouns indicating a process, such as: to oxi dise, to treat 156

§ 139. Use of prepositions with and by in identical contexts 156

§ 140. Using the combination by means of instead of the prepositions by and with 158

§ 141. Pretextbyas part of verb combinations like: to be followed by, to be accompanied by, to be provided by, to be substituted by, to be affected by 158

§ 142. Use of passive and active voices in one sentence 159

Continuous Tenses

§ 143. Continuous Tense (Active). Grammarization of vocabulary ... 159

§ 144. Continuous Tense (Passive) 161

Perfect Tenses

§ 145. Perfect Tenses 161

§ 146. Present Perfect 161

§ 147. Present Perfectwith adverbs like: recently, just, already,never, long, to date 162

§ 148. Present Perfectwithout adverbsrecently, just, already, never, long, to date 162

§ 149. Present Perfectin the abstract(Abstract)and brief conclusions (Summary) of Article 163

§ 150. Present Perfect at the beginning of the introductory part of article 164

§ 151. Present Perfect to indicate what has already been done by the authors of the article 165

§ 152. ApplicationPresent Indefinite instead ofPresent perfect. . 165

§ 153. Past Perfect 166

§ 154. Future Perfect 167

§ 155. Present Perfect Continuous 168

§ 156. Present Perfectas equivalentPresent Perfect Continuous 168 Sequence of Tenses

§ 157. Sequence of tenses 169

§ 158. Deviation from the rule of sequence of times when indicating a generally known truth 170

§ 159. Deviation from the rule of sequence of times without indicating a generally known truth 171

§ 160. Use in the context of the rule of sequence of tenses and deviations from it 172

§ 161. When to apply the rule of sequence of tenses 173

Verbsto be., to have, to do

§ 162. Combination: to be + infinitive (compound predicate) 174

§ 163. Combination: to be + infinitive (modal meaning). 175

§ 164. Combination: to be + circumstance 176

§ 165. Combination: to have with infinitive 176

§ 166. The verb to do as an amplifier or action limiter... 177

§ 167. The verb to do in sentences with reverse word order 179 § 168. The verb to do as a substitute for the previous semantic verb 180

Non-finite verb forms

§ 169. Gerund 182

§ 170. Gerund after prepositionson, upon, after, before, prior to, in 183

§ 171. Gerund after the prepositions by and by means of 184

§ 172. : besides, instead of, in preference to, apart (aside) from, except,save, in addition to, together with, beyond 184

§ 173. Gerund after prepositions and prepositional combinations like: for, on account of, because of, due to, through, owing to, thanks to; with the object to (of), with a view to, with the aim of, for thepurpose (sake) of

§ 174. Gerund after a prepositionwithout 186

§ 175. Gerund after a prepositionin spite of 186

§ 176. Gerund after prepositionsin case of, in the event of, sub ject to 187

§ 177. Gerund after prepositions against, for and prepositional combinations like: on the point (verge) of, far from 187

§ 178. Gerund after certain verbs and phrases 188

§ 179. Gerund in definition function 188

§ 180. : to begin, to start, to stop, to finish, to give up, to leave off, to keep, to keep on, to go on, to put off, to postpone, to delay, to be busy 190 § 181.Gerund after verbs and verb combinations like: to like, to dislike, to prefer, to hate, to afford, to mind, to enjoy, to be worth while, to be no good, to be useless, to be (of) no use. 190 § 182. Gerund after verbs like: to mention, to remember, to suggest, to warrant, to justify, to need, to avoid, to recommend,to require 191

§ 183. Gerund as a subject 191

§ 184. Gerund as a function of the semantic part of a compound predicate 192

§ 185. Gerundial revolution 192

§ 186. Gerund afterdue to, (to be) due to, tolead to, to result in I93

§ 187. Gerundial phrases with missing being 195

§ 188. Equivalents of gerund and gerundial phrase 196

§ 189. Gerund and verbal noun 196

§ 190. Communion I97

§ 191. Participle in the function of definition 197

§ 192. Translation of Russian nouns by participle as a function of definition 19 8

§ 193. Participle in the function of circumstance......... 199

§ 194. Translation of the Russian combination: thereby + gerund participle in the function of circumstance 200

§ 195. Translation of a Russian adverbial sentence by participle in the function of circumstance 200

§ 196. Translation of a Russian composed sentence by participle as a function of circumstance 201

§ 197. Absolute participial phrase 203

§ 198. Participial phrase introduced by the preposition with 206

§ 199. Participial phrase introduced by the preposition with with the missing being 206

§ 200. Participial phrase introduced by the preposition with in the definition function 208

§ 201. Infinitive 209

§ 202. Modal connotation of the infinitive as a function of circumstance 210

§ 203. Translation of the Russian participle by infinitive as a function of the circumstances of the investigation 211

§ 204. Translation of a Russian composed sentence with an infinitive as a function of adverbial circumstances 212

§ 205. Infinitive in the function of definition 212

§ 206. Perfect infinitive with modal verbs.... 213

§ 207. Characteristic verbs 215

§ 208. List of verbs-characteristics 217

§ 209. Addition with infinitive 219

§ 210. Addition with ing form (participle) 220

§ 211. Subject with infinitive 220

§ 212. Verbs- characteristicsto turn out, to happen, to seem, to appear 223

§ 213. Verb-characteristic to prove 223

§ 214. Equivalents of verbs-characteristics to be sure, to becertain, to be likely, to be unlikely, to be apt 224

§ 215. Object and subject with as fing form (participle) 225

§ 216. Characteristic verbs in infinitive phrases with an addition introduced by the preposition by 227

§ 217. Characteristic verbs in negative form. . . . 229

§ 218. Phrases with a characteristic verb in which there is no to be (being) 230

§ 219. Characteristic verbs in subordinate clauses 233

§ 220. Characteristic verbs in impersonal form 234

§ 221. Adverbs are equivalents of characteristic verbs. . . 236

§ 222. Nouns - equivalents of verbs-characteristics 237

§ 223. Turnover for 4- noun (pronoun) 4- infinitive 238

§ 224. Verbsto cause, to make, to force, to lead, to get 4- noun ( pronoun) f infinitive 239

§ 225. Verbsto allow, to enable, to permit followed by an infinitive 240

Subjunctive mood . . . , . . ,

§ 226. Three cases of using the subjunctive mood in English 242

§ 227. The use of the subjunctive mood after verbs expressing demand, insistence, wish, and after without personal sentences that have a similar meaning 242

§ 228. The use of the subjunctive mood with words indicating a certain degree of unreality....". 244 § 229. The forms would, might, could in the subjunctive mood as equivalents of Russian adverbs and introductory words “possibly”, “probably” 245

§ 230. Conditional sentences 245

§ 231. Difference between II and III types of conditional sentences. . 246 § 232. Inversion in conditional sentences 247

Russian equivalents of some English verbs and verb combinations characteristic of scientific and technical literature

§ 233. Thataffect. , 248

§ 234. Thatassume 249

§ 235. Thatattempt 249

§ 236. Thatbe available 250

§ 237. Thatbe bound 250

§ 238. Thatclaim 250

§ 239. Thatdevelop "251

§ 240. Thatestimate 251

§ 241. Thatfollow 252

§ 242. Thathold 252

§ 243. Thatinvolve, involve 253

§ 244. To need 255

§ 245. To offer 255

§ 246. To refer to 256

§ 247. To suggest. . 256

§ 248. To take 257

§ 249. To treat 257

§ 250. To undergo 258

§ 251. To be useful 259

Some syntax issues when translating Russian scientific and technical literature into English

§ 252. Word order in a sentence when translating from Russian into English "260

§ 253. Translation of a Russian circumstance into the subject of an English sentence 261

§ 254. Use of verbsto give rise to, to lead to, to result in, to deal with, to give, to form, to produce, to yield, to bring about when translating a Russian circumstance into the subject of an English sentence 262

§ 255. Use of the infinitive and gerund as a subject 262

§ 256. Introduction of the formal subject there 263

§ 257. Use of the passive voice when translating into English 265

§ 258. Presentation of material from scientific and technical articles from a third party 266

§ 259. Use of the active voice instead of the passive voice when translating from Russian into English 268

§ 260. Use of wordsone, he, the author, the writer, the in vestigator 271

§ 261. Deviation from fixed word order (inversion) .... 272

§ 262. Using the frame construction it is (was, were,will be)...that (which, who, whom) for logic gain . 273

§ 263. Examples for logical strengthening of the subject 274

§ 264. Examples for logical strengthening of circumstances and additions 274

§ 265. Examples of logical amplification in passive structures 276

§ 266. Logical strengthening of the complement in phrases with non-finite forms of the verb 276

§ 267. Place in a sentence of indefinite personal pronouns all and each 276

Translation of a technical article from Russian into English

§ 268. General remarks 278

§ 269. First part 278

§ 270. Second part 280

§ 271. Third part 281

§ 272. Fourth part 283

§ 273. Fifth part 287

Literature 289

About how to read books in formats pdf, djvu- see section " Programs; archivers; formats pdf, djvu etc. "

Biography

Certain features of Pumpyansky are captured in the image of Teptelkin in the novel by K. K. Vaginov “The Goat Song” and in the novel by the philosopher A. F. Losev “The Woman Thinker” in the character of Pupochka.

Proceedings

• Dostoevsky as a tragic poet.
• Brief report on the debate about Dostoevsky.
• Experience in constructing relativistic reality based on The Inspector General.
• The meaning of Pushkin's poetry.
• Dostoevsky and antiquity.
• Gogol, 1922-1925.
• On exhaustive division, one of the principles of Pushkin’s style. (Text: On exhaustive division, one of the principles of Pushkin’s style.)
• To the history of Russian classicism, -.
• About Blok's "Stranger"
• Towards a critique of Rank and psychoanalysis.
• About the poetry of V. Ivanov: the motive of guarantees.
• Russian history 1905-1917. in the poetry of A. Blok, .
• About the “Bronze Horseman”, about St. Petersburg, about its symbol.
• Poetry of F. I. Tyutchev, . (Text: Poetry of F. I. Tyutchev.)
• Turgenev's novels and the novel "On the Eve". Historical and literary essay.
• "Fathers and Sons". Historical and literary essay.
• Turgenev-Novelist, .
• Group of "mysterious stories", .
• Turgenev and Flaubert.
• “Smoke” Historical and literary essay, .
• How to read a work of fiction? .
• Essays on the literature of the 18th century. (Text: Essays on the literature of the 18th century.)
• Trediakovsky and the German School of Reason.
• “The Bronze Horseman” and the poetic tradition of the 18th century. (Text: “The Bronze Horseman” and the poetic tradition of the 18th century.)
• Cantemir. Trediakovsky. // G. A. Gukovsky. Russian literature of the 18th century, 1939 (reprint 2004)
• Lomonosov and the German school of reason, late 30s. (Text: Lomonosov and the German School of Reason.)
• Turgenev and the West.
• Sentimentalism. // History of Russian literature of the USSR Academy of Sciences. M.-L. 1947. T. 4. (Text: Sentimentalism.)
• Cantemir. // History of Russian literature of the USSR Academy of Sciences. M.-L. 1941. T. 3. (Text: Kantemir.)
• Trediakovsky. // History of Russian literature of the USSR Academy of Sciences. M.-L. 1941. T. 3. (Text: Trediakovsky.)
• Classic tradition. Collection of works on the history of Russian literature. Languages ​​of Russian culture. M. 2000.

Literature

• Nikolaev N. I. Nevelskaya school of philosophy (M. Bakhtin, M. Kagan, L. Pumpyansky) c. 1918-1925: Based on materials from the Pumpyansky archive // ​​M. Bakhtin and the philosophical culture of the 20th century. Problems of Bakhtinology. Vol. 1. Part 2. St. Petersburg 1991.
• Nikolaev N. I. Lectures and speeches by M. M. Bakhtin 1924-1925. in the notes of L. V. Pumpyansky // M. M. Bakhtin as a philosopher. M. 1992.
• Nikolaev N.I. On the theoretical heritage of L.V. Pumpyansky // Context. 1982: Literary and theoretical studies. - M., 1983.
• Belous V. G. “At the crossroads”: L. V. Pumpyansky and Volfila // Questions of Philosophy. 1994.No. 12.
• Nikolaev N. I., “Original thinker” [about L. V. Pumpyansky] // Philosophical Sciences. 1995. No. 1.
• Makhlin V.L. The Third Renaissance // Problems of Bakhtinology. Bakhtinology. Research. Translations. St. Petersburg 1995. pp. 132-154.
• Yudina M.V. Fragment of life // Nevelsky collection. Vol. 1. 1996. pp. 111-119.
• Yudina M.V. Autobiography // Nevelsky collection. Vol. 2. 1997. P.7-27.
• Yudina M.V. Nevelsky diary 1916-1918. (Fragment) // Nevelsk collection. Vol. 4. St. Petersburg 1999. pp. 8-18.
• Yudina M.V. Rays of Divine Love. University book. M. 1999.
• Makhlin V.L. “Systematic concept” (notes on the history of the Nevelsk school) // Nevelsk collection. Vol. 1. 1996. pp. 75-88.
• Nikolaev N.I., “Dostoevsky and antiquity” as a theme of Pumpyansky and Bakhtin (1922-1963) // Questions of literature. 1996. No. 3.
• Nikolaev N.I.M.M. Bakhtin in Nevel in the summer of 1919 // Nevelsk collection: Articles and memories. SPb. 1996. Issue 1: To the centenary of M. M. Bakhtin.
• Nikolaev N. I., L. V. Pumpyansky. Nevel reports of 1919. Preparation of text and notes // Literary review. 1997. No. 2.
• Nikolaev N.I., Publishing Bakhtin’s heritage as a philological problem // Dialogue. Carnival. Chronotope. 1998. No. 3.
• Nikolaev N. I. Encyclopedia of hypotheses // Pumpyansky L. V. Classical tradition: Collection of works on the history of Russian literature. - M.: Languages ​​of Russian culture. 2000.
• Nikolaev N. I. Isserlin E. M. Memoirs // Russian historical lexicology and lexicography: Interuniversity. St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg State University Publishing House. 2000.
• Nikolaev N. I. Vyach. Ivanov and Bakhtin’s circle // Vyacheslav Ivanov-Petersburg-world culture: Materials of the international scientific conference September 9-11, 2002 Tomsk; Moscow: Aquarius Publishers. 2003.
• Nikolaev N.I.M.M. Bakhtin, Nevelskaya school of philosophy and cultural history of the 1920s // Bakhtin collection. Vol. 5. M. 2004.
• Nikolaev N. I. Nevel school of philosophy and Marxism (Report by L. V. Pumpyansky and speech by M. M. Bakhtin) // “Literary studies as literature”: Collection of articles in honor of S. G. Bocharov. M. 2004.
• Belous V. G. Wolfila in two volumes. SPb. 2005. T. 2. pp. 703-719.
• Nikolaev N.I. The Idea of ​​the Third Renaissance and Vyach. Ivanov Tower period // Vyacheslav Ivanov Tower and the culture of the Silver Age. SPb. 2006.
• Belous V. G. L. V. Pumpyansky. // Wolfila or the crisis of culture in the mirror of public identity. SPb. 2007. pp. 360-385.
• Tahoe-godi E.A. The artistic world of A. F. Losev's prose. Great Encyclopedia M. 2007.
• Larocca J. Essay by L. V. Pumpyansky “On the history of Russian classicism” (Reflections on G. Derzhavin’s ode “For Happiness”) // Russian Philology. 2010. 21.
• Larocca J. L. V. Pumpyansky - Turgenevist. Correspondence with the magazine “Literary Critic” // I. S. Turgenev. New research and materials. Vol. II. 2011. pp. 391-397.
• Larocca J. Questions of biography and scientific creativity. L. V. Pumpyansky (from observations about the Leningrad period of the 1920-1940s) // Chronotope and surroundings: Anniversary collection in honor of Nikolai Pankov. Ufa. 2011. pp. 145-152.

Links

• Pumpyansky, Lev Vasilievich in the library of Maxim Moshkov

Categories:

• Philologists of Russia
• Literary scholars of Russia
• Tyutchevists
• Born in 1891
• Born on February 5
• Died in 1940
• Deaths on July 6
• Bakhtin circle
• Graduates of the First St. Petersburg Gymnasium
• Teachers of the Tenishevsky School
• Teachers of St. Petersburg State University
• Pushkinists
• Literary scholars of the USSR
• Teachers of the St. Petersburg Conservatory
• Turgenevists

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Department of Russian Literature. Scientific articles

Pumpyansky L. V.1 Turgenev the novelist // Pumpyansky L.V. Classical tradition: Collection of works on the history of Russian literature. M., 2000, 427–447.

Turgenev's tales and short stories represent a remarkable episode in the history of our and all-European short story art, which has not yet received sufficient scientific assessment. Scientific interest in issues related to the origin, composition and meaning of Turgenev’s short stories has been noticed only in the last decade, but the main work in this area is still ahead.

The main feature of Turgenev's short story is its powerful “orchestration”, landscape and “philosophical”. This is its main difference from “Belkin’s Tales”, from “Taman”, from the stories of Gogol and early Dostoevsky, and this is also the reason for its enormous influence on Western European (especially German and English) literature.

Turgenev’s turn to a new type of “orchestrated” story occurred with full clarity in the second half of the 50s (“Trip to Polesie” 1857), but certain features of the new short story art were noticeable much earlier, at least from “The Diary of an Extra Man” 1850 and “Three Meetings” of 1851. We will now see that this entire complex process of Turgenev’s transition to a new, non-Pushkin and non-Lermontov short story is connected with a similar process that took place in European (in particular, German) literature and resulted directly from the catastrophe of the revolution 1848. The reaction of the 50s in Germany, Bismarck's "realpolitik", the philosophy of Schopenhauer, the formation of a new German bourgeois literature - these are the circumstances that must be kept in mind in order to understand the final basis of the peculiarities

1 Lev Vasilievich Pumpyansky(1891 – 1940), Russian literary scholar, critic, musicologist, professor of the Faculty of Philology of Leningrad State University.

Turgenev's short story, as well as the reasons for its extreme dissimilarity with the entire previous history of this genre in Russia.

The success of Schopenhauer's philosophy in the 50s testified to the enormous decline in the level of philosophical culture of the German bourgeoisie. For all the brilliance of his literary talent and for all the diversity of his purely intellectual talent, Schopenhauer is still a vulgar thinker, if only because he never clearly raised the question of the methodology of philosophical thinking. He justified the most important provisions of his system by referring to immediate evidence, to the data of direct feeling into an object, which seemed to him the highest and most reliable way of cognition. So, for example, Schopenhauer speaks (“The World as Will and Idea,” Vol. I, Ch. 15) about “direct, visual perception of the essence of the world,” in comparison with which (ibid., Ch. 7) “science in the proper sense words... will never give a completely satisfactory explanation, because it does not intersect with the ultimate essence of the world.” Even the main, central dogma of Schopenhauer’s explanation of the world: “the essence of things is will” - he achieved it on the naive path of analogy, transferring the result of self-perception to the world; Schopenhauer (ibid., ch. 21) invites his reader to “think about it” and make sure that the force acting in a magnet, driving a stem towards the sun, forming chemical compounds, etc., is nothing other than what is in the inner experience of every given to him in the form of his own will. Only “reflection” (Anwendung der Reflexion) can convince of this, Schopenhauer naively adds. Consequently, the basis of his entire system is unlimited trust in inner experience, about the illusions and deceptions of which he obviously knows nothing. The philosophical guarantee is only the strength and brightness of the experienced concept - and this precisely characterizes the non-philosophical, primitive (with all the cultural and literary richness) and, in the deepest sense of the word, reactionary (for it returns philosophy to the methods of mythology) type of thinking about the world.

The origin of Schopenhauer’s system in the 1810s is historically understandable as one of the numerous responses then to the task posed by romanticism of finding a philosophical “key” to the world - but the pan-European fame of Schopenhauer 40 years after his system took shape in a completely finished form is a completely different matter. , in the 50s; completely different - the triumph of his philosophy in Bismarck's Prussia, France of the Second Empire and the Russia of Turgenev, Tolstoy and Fet. Otherwise how can the deep decline of the philosophical thought of the ruling classes explain the fact that his teaching, strictly speaking, deeply unphilosophical, went around all of Europe as the last and final word of philosophical wisdom, as the solution to the philosophical problem of millennia! The bourgeoisie found its sage and for his sake betrayed the traditions of its own classical philosophy, the legacy of which was no longer within its power. Dialectics, the philosophy of the rising class, was replaced by a stabilized “panorama” of the world, i.e., in essence, a mythological impression, which in this case meant the refusal of the German bourgeoisie from serious philosophical culture and its return to a primitive type of thinking about the world - by the way, Schopenhauer’s “will” is strikingly similar to the “power” (mana) hidden in objects according to religious teachings, for example, the wild tribes of Central Australia. In such cases, one can speak, if one likes, of the “wilding” of philosophical thought, not in the colloquial metaphorical sense, but in the literal sense of the word.

While advanced philosophical thought from Hegel through Feuerbach went to Marx, the German bourgeoisie moved from right-wing Hegelianism, which was its normal position in the 30s, partly to physiological (non-dialectical) materialism, partly to the philosophical fairy tales of Schopenhauer’s mythology about the primordial Will, about consciousness that suddenly illuminated its highest levels, about world suffering, about the redemption of the world through the selfless contemplation of an artist and the self-denial of an ascetic. It was a gross regression.

Turgenev, together with German bourgeois culture, completed this entire regressive philosophical path. Unfortunately, scientific elucidation of this

the question is still impossible, because, firstly, we do not yet have a monograph on the development of Turgenev’s philosophical views that meets modern requirements, so only in the most general terms can it be defined as the path from moderate Hegelianism to impressionistic Schopenhauerism (more on which below), and secondly, the question of the enormous influence exerted by Schopenhauer’s system on the formation of various Russian ideologies has not yet been scientifically examined; It is enough to name, in addition to Turgenev, the names of L. Tolstoy, A. A. Fet, to which should be added F. Sologub (the picture of the world underlying his lyrics and prose represents a version of voluntaristic mythology) and, in part, A. Chekhov; in general, Schopenhauer’s streak of influence passed throughout Russian culture, occupying about half a century (from the 1850s to the 1910s: Sologub’s story “Animal Life” was written shortly before the war!), and all Russian ideologies that developed in the orbit of this influence, in in different shades and in different senses of the word, were equally reactionary and together formed the philosophical right flank of Russian culture. It is remarkable what a true class instinct prompted the Russian commoners (and all progressive youth) to have an indifferent or hostile attitude towards Turgenev’s stories. And vice versa: as soon as the neoreactionary ideology of the 90s began to take shape (a few years later it took shape as Russian symbolism), its first step was the revaluation of these stories put forward by Merezhkovsky: Turgenev’s novels were declared his mortal, already outdated legacy, and “Dream”, “Dog” ", "The Hours" and others - his main contribution to Russian literature, free from the political passions of the era, because life in these stories is taken in its fundamental, “eternal” outlines! This distribution of Turgenev's legacy between the leftist public and reactionary movements of all types is very symptomatic; we will now see that the philosophical orientation of Turgenev's stories really represents the reactionary antipode of dialectical thinking; However, a serious presentation of the issue, we note again, is impossible until there is in our historical science a monographic survey of the influence that Schopenhauer had on the general history of reactionary ideologies in Russia - only in such a general history would Turgenev’s Schopenhauerism find its relative place.

All of Turgenev’s stories without exception are “philosophical”; they all presuppose a general teaching about life, and some (especially the stories

60s) are written as an illustrative example of such teaching. The “method” of this philosophizing is especially interesting: from a single observation, from a perceived connection, a rise is made to a general judgment about life, with the skipping of all intermediary steps, so that a huge run of thought connects a fragmentary “episode” and a general “teaching”. Thanks to the influence of Schopenhauer, the entire atmosphere of the then German culture was poisoned by the ease of this takeoff, capable of instantly “philosophizing” any fragmentary observation of life, just as, say, Ellis in “Ghosts” can instantly be transported a thousand miles away! Thanks to this trait, Schopenhauer became a philosopher for the “public”; it was the public that was captivated by the seeming profundity of this lightning-fast run of thought. For Schopenhauer, the sight of a flower opening “like a watching eye” at the top of a stem is enough to attribute passive knowledge to the plant world; from the timidity of the lovers’ glances, from the desire of the lovers to hide their relationship, he concludes (“The World as Will and Idea,” Vol. 2, Ch. 44) that love is ashamed of itself, because it is a betrayal of the cause of liberation from the suffering of the world Will. There are dozens of such examples. Let us give at least one example to prove how deeply Turgenev had internalized this type of thinking: “I raised my head and saw one of those big flies at the very end of a thin branch... For a long time, more than an hour, I did not take my eyes off it... Looking at her, it suddenly seemed to me that I understood the life of nature, understood its undoubted and obvious, although for many still mysterious, meaning...” (at the end of “A Trip to Polesie” 1857). Thus, there is no internal barrier, no “methodological space” between a completely individual observation and the most responsible generalization. The culture-lowering effect of this method is obvious. It is with him that the extremely rapid popularization of the new fashionable system, the dissemination and composition of its statements and the popular, non-philosophical type of construction of these statements are associated. Hence the possibility of a quick influence on literature, especially fiction.

In the history of Turgenev’s narrative art, the introduction of philosophical orchestration (from the late 50s, clearly decorated in a Schopenhauerian way) forms a turn to a type of short story that had never yet emerged in Russian literature and is connected, as we try to show, with the changes that took place after 1848 in bourgeois culture Germany. Of course, there has always been a maxim or a brief incidental generalizing reflection in the Russian (and French) short story (say, a discussion about social revolutions in the 13th chapter of “The Captain’s Daughter”), but never before has there been that continuous “philosophical” accompaniment, against the background of which , present or imagined, the action itself unfolds: so in a large seaside city, in the depths of all the changing sounds, a single, common, unifying all other noises, the dull murmur of the sea, never ceases. We call this feature of Turgenev’s art philosophical orchestration (without, of course, insisting on the term) and by it we mean the unity of philosophical mood that so sharply distinguishes Turgenev’s story from Pushkin’s story.

A clear example is already “Faust” of 1855; the narrated incident flows into the general mystical and philosophical conclusion “about the secret game of fate, which we, the blind, call blind chance” (see entry dated March 12 at the end of the ninth letter), but, invisibly, this conclusion accompanies the entire story: already in the second the letter speaks of “the secret forces on which life is built, and which occasionally, but suddenly, make their way to the surface.” It is this continuity of the philosophical coloring of the story that distinguishes Turgenev's short story. Let us also note the rapidity of the generalized rise, which we have just spoken of as a feature characteristic of Schopenhauer’s philosophizing, and, thanks to his influence, of all decadent bourgeois thought of the 50s. In the short stories of the 60s, this feature appears even more clearly; at every step they come across reflections on death, on old age, on the infirmities of man, on fate - some of them, for example, Sanin’s reflection in the prologue to “Spring Waters” (1871) on the insignificance of life, grow to the extent of an independent “poem in prose." It is interesting with what persistence Turgenev repeats his favorite idea (both in composition and in its orchestrating role) in a number of stories: the picture of life that youth builds is arbitrary; only old age sees life as it is, in all its emptiness and horror. For example, in

at the end of Faust: “youth is allowed to think so; but it’s a shame to indulge in deception when the stern face of truth has finally looked into your eyes,” - finally! therefore, until the threshold of death, until old age, a person’s life is separated from the truth, in other words, it represents a chain of cognitive illusions! The same at the beginning of “Asi” (1857): “youth eats gilded gingerbread, and thinks that this is their daily bread: but the time will come, and you’ll ask for some bread.” This idea of ​​old age as the age of knowledge, a philosophical age par excellence, is inseparable, as we know, from Schopenhauer’s views on human life. “The longer someone lives,” he says, “Parergi and Paralipomena,” § 156), the more deeply he understands that life has the character of a great mystification.” Elsewhere he sympathetically quotes old English verses: “Old age and experience, hand in hand, lead a man to death, and only on the threshold of it does he realize that all his life he has been deceived.”

In this kind of judgment, not only the semantic composition (understanding of life as a grandiose hoax) is flawed, but the method itself (and this, philosophically, is much more important): the construction of a universal assessment based on an impression, even a series of impressions. That in everyday life this is done all the time is absolutely certain, but philosophy (or, as in Turgenev, philosophically orchestrated literature), descending to the level of such a technique, itself turns into an everyday phenomenon, into a phenomenon of intellectual everyday life, which has nothing in common with the real world. philosophical thought.

But the main dispute with Turgenev will occur among the modern dialectician reader on the issue of history.

Schopenhauer does not know history at all and denies its reality. There is no historical dimension; whoever considers history to be a real process, who takes it seriously, as a reality, has, therefore, not understood Kant’s teaching about the ideality of time, and therefore, according to Schopenhauer, is alien to philosophy in general. He does not find enough mockery of the title of Hegel’s course “Philosophy of History”: what an unnatural combination of concepts! philosopher

can only be one who understands that there is no history, because its necessary prerequisite: time!

Hence a number of empirical and, so to speak, literary conclusions: the change of historical eras is only a change of costumes; the essence of life has always been the same, the same emptiness, the same endless suffering - but we would rather continue Schopenhauer’s thought with the words of Turgenev: “the same gullibility and the same cruelty, the same need for blood, gold and dirt... the same senseless suffering in the name of... well, at least in the name of the same nonsense, ridiculed by Aristophanes two thousand years ago...” In the same 14th chapter of the philosophical fragment “Enough” (1864), which represents the central “manifesto” of Turgenev’s Schopenhauerism, there is Another very characteristic passage, even stylistically representing an imitation of Schopenhauer: “if Shakespeare were born again, he would have nothing to give up his Hamlet, his Lear. His penetrating gaze would not have discovered anything new in human life: the same motley and essentially uncomplicated picture would have unfolded before him in its alarming monotony.” This phrase seems to be a translation from a German thinker. But such cases are rare, because Schopenhauer based his brilliant, inimitably precise language mainly on the models of French moralists of the 17th and 18th centuries. (and also in Goethe’s prose), Turgenev, the creator of a new type of Russian rhythmic prose, strove to create an emotional, vaguely exciting, musical structure of speech.

He often tries to make up for the lack of historical pathos, historicism in general (the main drawback of all Turgenev’s stories) with purely voluntaristic pathos, that is, delight in the intensity of volitional life. We do not know in all of Russian literature a more Schopenhauerian page than the 21st chapter of “Ghosts,” which tells about the flight of a village of cranes: “It was wonderful to see at such a height, at such a distance from all living things, such an ardent, strong life, such an unwavering will. ..”, etc. To characterize Turgenev’s constant biological coloring of this voluntaristic pathos, we recall the well-known prose poem “Sparrow”.

Let us note that Schopenhauer’s system is characterized not so much by the notorious pessimism as by this concept of the unchangeable foundations of life, so clearly expressed in Turgenev’s “Enough,” and the resulting

the idea of ​​history as dramatization. Here is the center of Turgenev's philosophical position. It is to this center that the modern reader should first direct his criticism. Only this criticism should not simply be the advancement of one’s own, opposite, impression (“the decadent” impression of Turgenev should be opposed, for example, by the “heroic” counter-impression), but a radical destruction of the impressionistic method of thought itself, i.e., the method according to which the thinker constructs a general judgment about things based on the impression they make. This way of thinking is the antipode of the philosophical. It will especially lead to false conclusions if we are talking about history and development in general: after all, the law of development will never fit into the impression and will not be included, therefore, it will not be seen by the impressionist at all, and consequently, his judgment about history does not concern history at all, for history is, first of all, a pattern. In other words, we invite the reader to contrast Turgenev-Schopenhauer with Hegel-Marx, the anti-historicism of the reactionary era, with the dialectism of our ascending era.

Let us also note that it is not without interest that Turgenev adopted from his teacher even such a detail of his intellectual makeup as an increased respect for poetry (especially Shakespeare), understood as one of the ways of demonstrating the universal wisdom of peoples. Shakespeare as the oracle of philosophical pessimism is Schopenhauer's Shakespeare (see, for example, Parergi and Chronicles, §156a)! The Frankfurt philosopher was known to be a master at quoting. Turgenev skillfully and appropriately quotes in the 13th chapter of “Enough” the “formidable words of the poet”: “our life is one wandering shadow...”, etc., from “Macbeth” (V, 5). This detail would be enough to understand how intimately Turgenev entered the circle and habits of thought of Schopenhauer. But we, as we have seen, have a number of more serious reasons to see in the philosophy of Turgenev’s stories of the 50s and 60s an echo of the reactionary anti-historicism that then dominated German culture. No wonder Russian reactionaries always preferred these stories to all his social novels!

The philosophical orchestration of Turgenev the short story writer sometimes turns into a general elegiac, into a lyrical one, but more often there is no need for this transition, because the story represents (a classic example: “Spring Waters” 1871) one expanded indivisible elegy. We come to the second, no less important, difference between Turgenev’s short story and the older, Pushkin’s. The unattained, unfulfilled, defeated, destroyed - these are the usual themes of the solemn, irresistibly beautiful Turgenev minor, the usual musical structure of his short stories. This feature was also not present in his early stories; she appears for the first time in the “Diary of an Extra Man” of 1850 (for example, at the end of the entry dated March 21: “oh my garden, oh overgrown paths near a shallow pond... parting with life, I stretch out my hands to you alone..." etc.), and since in this same story, as we will see below, a new type of orchestrating landscape appears for the first time, then in general it should be looked at as Turgenev’s first attempt to go beyond the limits of what the existing Russian short stories provided at that time. After several hesitations, Turgenev from the mid-50s finally came to the type of story-elegy (“Yakov Pasynkov” 1855, “Asya” 1857, “First Love” I860, “Spring Waters” 1871). He entered the history of pan-European short stories mainly as a master of this particular type of story. One has only to mentally compare any of the stories just named with Russian short stories of the 30s and 40s or with the masters of the French short story to understand how enormous the change has been. Not because the major scale always dominated in Merimee or Pushkin! “The Queen of Spades” ends quite tragically, and “Taman” also talks about what has not been achieved, about what has flashed forever - but now we are not talking about the “regrettability” of the events of the story, but about its minor lyrical accompaniment, or, as we propose to say ( for lack of a better term), about elegiac orchestration - it is precisely its presence that separates Turgenev’s new story so sharply from the short stories of the 40s (including the early stories of Turgenev himself, before “The Diary of an Extra Man”). We must now take a closer look at this new tone.

What stands out more persistently than others is the constant purely Turgenev theme of the ruins of a failed life. “Life has been lived, and in vain, absurdly, vulgarly lived... And then - everywhere, everywhere there is one terrible memory, one ghost...” (Veretyev’s words, at the end of “The Calm” 1854). "And I myself - what

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Description: A characteristic feature of the current stage in the development of the economy, science, education and culture is the expansion of international relations and cooperation. Nowadays, knowledge of foreign languages ​​not only provides access to the most important information contained in the world's scientific and technical literature, but also becomes absolutely necessary during business meetings. Is it necessary to talk about how important it is to create an effective system for learning foreign languages? Anyone who truly takes up learning a foreign language strives to do it in a short time, without memorizing unnecessary words and abstract grammatical rules.

A great contribution to the development of methods for mastering the English language was made by the works and teaching aids of A. L. Pumpyansky. The success of A.L. Pumpyansky’s works is not accidental. He managed to find exceptionally many successful forms of teaching, instilling in the student confidence that he would learn not only to read, but also to speak English. It is no coincidence that the work offered to the reader by A. L. Pumpyansky “Reading and Translating English Scientific and Technical Literature” is being published in its 3rd edition. A. L. Pumpyansky continuously improves his methods of teaching English, modifies and improves his manuals. The great creative work carried out by A.L. Pumpyansky is undoubtedly stimulated by the natural gratitude that numerous correspondence and full-time students feel for his works. In the new edition of the book, A. L. Pumpyansky again made a large number of amendments and additions.

Year of manufacture: 1997

From the publisher
From the Preface to the 3rd Edition
From the author
Introduction

Part one

Analysis of lexical translation difficulties
§ 1. Mixing the graphic appearance of words
§ 2. “False friends of the translator”
§ 3. That affect
§ 4. Again
§ 5. Also
§ 6. Alternative, alternatively
§ 7. Apart
§ 8. That appear
§ 9. Approach
§ 10. To assume
§ 11. To attempt
§ 12. To be available
§ 13. Badly
§ 14. To be bound
§ 15. But
§ 16. Careful, carefully
§ 17. To cause
§ 18. Characteristic of
§ 19. To claim
§ 20. Consideration
§ 21. Conventional, conventionally
§ 22. To develop, development
§ 23. Different
§ 24. Either... or
§ 25. End
§ 26. That estimate
§ 27. Evidence
§ 28. Experience
§ 29. Extra
§ 30. That fail
§ 31. Fair, fairly
§ 32. Few, little
§ 33. Then follow
§ 34. For
§ 35. The former... the latter
§ 36. Hardly
§ 37. That hold
§ 38. Incidentally
§ 39. Instance
§ 40. That involve, involving
§ 41. It
§ 42. Its
§ 43. Then make
§ 44. Marked, markedly
§ 45. That mean
§ 46. More than, little more than
§ 47. Nearly
§ 48. Necessarily
§ 49. That need
§ 50. Now
§ 51. Number
§ 52. Occasional, occasionally
§ 53. That offer
§ 54. One(s)
§ 55. About r
§ 56. Other than
§ 57. Over
§ 58. Particular
§ 59. Previous, previously
§ 60. Procedure
§ 61. That prove
§ 62. Rather than
§ 63. For no other reason than
§ 64. That refers to
§ 65. Repeated
§ 66. That seem
§ 67. That substitute, substitution
§ 68. Such as
§ 69. That suggest
§ 70. Suitable
§ 71. That take
§ 72. Technique
§ 73. Tentative, tentatively
§ 74. In terms of
§ 75. That, those
§ 76. The
§ 77. Thus
§ 78. Together with
§ 79. That treat
§ 80. That undergo
§ 81. Unfortunately
§ 82. Unlikely
§ 83. That be useful
§ 84. Whether... or (not)
§ 85. To allow, to enable, to permit
§ 86. That form, to give, to produce, to provide, to yield
§ 87. Combination of as with verbs indicating a change of state
§ 88. The combination “as + adjective + as possible”
§ 89. The combination “as + adjective or adverb + + as possible”
§ 90. The combination “multiplier + as + adjective or adverb + as”
§ 91. The combination “(to be) of + noun”
§ 92. The combination “by + ing form (gerund)”
§ 93. The combination “in + ing form (gerund)”
§ 94. The combination “rather + adjective, adverb or III form of the verb”
§ 95. The combination “(the) + adjective or adverb in the comparative degree + the + adjective or adverb in the comparative degree”
§ 96. The combination “under + noun”
§ 97. The combination “not until (not till) + time”
§ 98. The combination “well + infinitive”
§ 99. The combination “whatever + noun”
§ 100. The combination “when (while, if) + ing or III form of the verb, noun, adjective or preposition”

Grammar

§ 101. Three functions one
§ 102. Three functions of the preposition by
§ 103. Three functions of the preposition with
§ 104. Five functions of the verb to be
§ 105. Three functions of the verb to have
§ 106. Four functions of the verb to do
§ 107. Three functions of the ending -s
§ 108. Three functions of the verb will
§ 109. Four functions of should
§ 110. Five functions would
§ 111. Four cases of deviation from fixed word order
§ 112. Four types of negation in English
§ 113. Eleven functions of the ing form
§ 114. Seven phrases with impersonal forms of the verb
§ 115. Four functions of the ending -ed
§ 116. Eight functions of the infinitive
§ 117. Two functions it is... that (who, which)
§ 118. Fixed word order
§ 119. Noun
§ 120. Article

Indefinite article

Definite article

§ 121. Five functions of a noun

Row rule

§ 122. Pronoun
§ 123. Substitute words
§ 124. Prepositions
§ 125. Verb and its functions in a sentence
§ 126. Personal forms of the verb - predicate
§ 127. Times
§ 128. Indefinite Tenses

Present Indefinite Tense

Future Indefinite Tense

§ 129. Formation of interrogative and negative forms
§ 130. Passive Voice
§ 131. Continuous Tenses

Present Continuous

Past and Future Continuous

Continuous Passive

§ 132. Perfect Tenses

Present Perfect Continuous

§ 133. Sequence of Tenses (coordination of tenses)
§ 134. Non-finite forms of the verb
§ 135. Gerund

Passive gerund

Perfect Gerund (Active)

Perfect Gerund (Passive)

§ 136. Gerundial revolution
§ 137. Participle

Participle in definition function

Ing form in the definition function

III form of verbs in the function of definition

Participle in the function of adverbial form - ing form

Passive participle as an adverbial function

Perfect participle as an adverbial function

§ 138. Absolute participial phrase - ing form
§ 139. Infinitive
§ 140. Perfect infinitive with modal verbs
§ 141. Infinitive phrases and their equivalents
§ 142. Addition with infinitive
§ 143. Addition with ing form (participle)
§ 144. Subject with infinitive
§ 145. Complement with as + ing form (participle)
§ 146. Subject with as + ing form (participle)
§ 147. Subjunctive mood
§ 148. Conditional sentences
§ 149. Logical selection

Formal there + predicate

Formal it is (was)... that (who, which, where)

§ 150. Some rules for analyzing sentences during translation
§ 151. Table of formation of tenses

§152. Conjugation table for the verb to be
§ 153. Conjugation table for the verb to have
§ 154. List of irregular verbs

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