In the last days of March 1814, Allied troops triumphantly entered Paris. This meant the complete defeat of Napoleonic France and the final end of many years of European wars. Napoleon himself soon abdicated power and was exiled to Elba, and the victorious allies sat down at the negotiating table to remake the map of European countries.

For this purpose, the Congress of Vienna was convened, which took place in Austria in 1814-1815. It was attended by representatives of Russia, England, Austria, Prussia, France and Portugal.

The main issues considered were the following: the redistribution of Europe in favor of the victorious countries, the restoration of monarchical power in Europe and the prevention of any possibility of Napoleon returning to power.

In France, representatives of the Bourbon dynasty were restored to their rights, and the throne was taken by Louis XVIII, the closest heir of the executed man. In addition, the winners wanted the restoration of the previous system - the feudal noble-absolutist one. Of course, after all the political achievements of the French Revolution, this goal was utopian, but nevertheless, for many years, Europe entered a regime of conservatism and reaction.

The main problem was the redistribution of lands, especially Poland and Saxony. Russian Emperor Alexander I wanted to annex Polish lands to the territory of Russia, and give Saxony to the power of Prussia. But representatives of Austria, England and France did their best to prevent such a decision. They even signed a secret agreement against the territorial aspirations of Prussia and Russia, so at the first stage such a redistribution did not take place.

In general, the Congress of Vienna showed that the main superiority of forces was observed in Russia, Prussia, England and Austria. By bargaining and quarreling among themselves, representatives of these countries carried out the main redistribution of Europe.

In the spring of 1815, Napoleon managed to escape from Elba, landed in France and began a new military campaign. However, his soldiers were soon completely defeated at Waterloo, and the Congress of Vienna in 1815 began to work at an accelerated pace. Now its participants tried to make final decisions on the territorial structure of Europe as quickly as possible.

At the beginning of July 1815, the General Act of Congress was signed, according to which France was deprived of all previously conquered lands. What was now called the Kingdom of Poland went to Russia. The Rhineland, Posen, Westphalia and most of Saxony were ceded to Prussia. Austria annexed Lombardy, Galicia and Venice to its territory, and in the principalities (German Confederation) this country became the most influential. Of course, this affected the interests of the Prussian state.

In Italy, the Sardinian kingdom was restored, annexing Savoy and Nice, while establishing the rights of the Savoy dynasty. Tuscany, Modena and Parma came under the rule of Austrian representatives. Rome again came under the rule of the Pope, to whom all previous rights were returned. The Bourbons took the throne in Naples. The Kingdom of the Netherlands was formed from Holland and Belgium.

The small German states that Napoleon abolished were, for the most part, never restored. Their total number has decreased by almost ten times. However, the fragmentation of Germany, which now had 38 states, remained as before.

The colonial lands that it took from Spain, France and Holland went to England. and Ceylon, Guiana, and the Ionian Islands were now finally assigned to the British kingdom.

A confederation of nineteen Swiss cantons was formed, which declared “perpetual neutrality.” Norway was transferred to the power of Sweden, removing it from Denmark.

But at the same time, all European states, without exception, feared the excessive strengthening of Russia, since it was this country that played the role of victor over Napoleonic troops.

The Vienna Conference ended there, but in the fall of 1815, Alexander I decided to strengthen the new European order and establish the leading role of Russia and England. On his initiative, an agreement was signed to create which included Austria, Prussia and the Russian Empire. According to the agreements, these states promised to help each other in the event of revolutions or popular uprisings.

The Congress of Vienna and its decisions had a decisive influence on the entire European system. Only after 1917, when the First World War ends, will European territory be redrawn again.

The main result was that the Congress of Vienna created a new system of international relations in Europe, based on the dominance of the four “great powers” ​​(Russia, England, Austria, Prussia), which were joined by France in 1818 after the withdrawal of the Allied troops. At first, after the Congress of Vienna, the decisive role in this system was played by Russia, which had no equal in the international arena after the Napoleonic wars. England and Austria also had a significant influence on European politics. Prussia was just beginning to strengthen, and France was significantly weakened by the terms of the peace treaty, according to which the independence of France was recognized, but only “to the extent that it is compatible with the security of the allies and the general tranquility of Europe”27. In reality, this meant the possibility of interference in the internal affairs of France by other great powers. Thus, allied troops were stationed in France until 1818.

However, the “Vienna System” turned out to be fragile. The common enemy disappeared, but acute disagreements between different countries remained. None of the powers was completely satisfied with the results of the Congress of Vienna: old contradictions were replaced by new ones.

England, which received a significant part of the French colonies, intensified its expansion around the world, which inevitably led it to conflicts with other powers. The interests of Austria, which had achieved dominance in Germany, came into conflict with the interests of Prussia. And all states were afraid that the Russian emperor would become the sole ruler of Europe. To prevent a possible conflict, the great powers needed a common goal that would unite them. And such a goal was the fight against revolutions and the liberation movement in Europe. The initiator of such a unification was Alexander I. On September 14, 1815, he sent a declaration to the King of Prussia and the Emperor of Austria, in which he called on them “in all cases and in every place”28 to defend absolute monarchical power and fight against revolutions and popular movements. This was beneficial to all the monarchs, who gladly supported the initiative of the Russian emperor and created the so-called Holy Alliance. Officially, it included the rulers of Russia, Austria and Prussia, who pledged, in the event of a threat to any of them, to “give each other assistance, reinforcement and assistance”29. In fact, England also participated in the activities of the Holy Alliance. The creation of the Holy Alliance did not completely remove the contradictions between its members. They appeared as the political situation in Europe became more complicated.

Russia's policy in Europe at this time was ambivalent, which is associated with the personality and political views of Emperor Alexander I.

On the one hand, Russia was an active participant in the Holy Alliance and supported its measures to suppress liberation movements. On the other hand, there were elements of liberalism in the international policy of Alexander I. Thus, Alexander I introduced a constitution in the Kingdom of Poland, which became part of Russia after the Congress of Vienna. The policy of Alexander I was also uncertain in relation to the national liberation movement that flared up in Greece, which sought to overthrow Turkish oppression and become an independent state. From the point of view of the principles of the Holy Alliance, Russia should have supported the Turkish government. But the difficulty was that the Greeks were Orthodox and the Turks were Muslims, and the Greek struggle for independence enjoyed great popularity and support in Russian society. In addition, it was politically beneficial for Russia to support the Greeks, since the liberation of Orthodox Greece could strengthen Russian influence on the Balkan Peninsula. In 1820-1821 In the Austrian cities of Troppau (now the city of Opava in the Czech Republic) and Laibach (now Ljubljana), a congress of the Holy Alliance took place. It took place in the context of the rise of the revolutionary movement in Europe. In 1820, uprisings took place in Spain and Italy. The Greek struggle for independence continued. Even in Russia, just during the congress, unrest among soldiers broke out in the Semyonovsky Guards Regiment. All this temporarily rallied the great powers, and they unanimously condemned the rebel Greeks. Alexander I, contrary to the interests of Russia, supported this opinion, but a few years later he changed his position: the Greeks were provided with diplomatic support, which contributed to their liberation from the Turks. But the contradictions between the great powers were again not eliminated, and subsequently they only worsened. The Holy Alliance turned out to be a fragile formation. The political order in Europe, based on the monarchical principles of the Holy Alliance, did not last long.

The organization and holding of the Vienna Congress became a significant event both for European states and for the entire world practice in general. Let's consider some issues of its implementation in more detail.

Objectives: The Congress of Vienna was originally declared to be convened to determine the fate of the French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte, and to develop and implement measures to prevent similar situations in the future. However, the adviser to the Austrian Chancellor Metternich, Friedrich Genz, who was the General Secretary of the Congress of Vienna, wrote in February 1815: “Loud phrases about “restructuring the social order, updating the political system of Europe,” “Permanent peace based on a fair distribution of forces,” etc. d. etc. were pronounced to calm the crowd and to impart to this solemn assembly some appearance of dignity and grandeur, but the real purpose of the Congress was to divide the inheritance of the vanquished among the victors.” And, indeed, all participants in the Congress sought to grab as much as possible for themselves at any cost, regardless of their contribution to the defeat of Napoleon.

Time of the Congress of Vienna: from September 1814 to June 1815.

Composition and number of participants: there were 216 delegates from the European winning countries at the Congress. The Russian delegation was headed by Emperor Alexander I, Great Britain - Keslreagh, and a little later - Wellington, Austria - Francis I, Prussia - Hardenberg, France - Charles-Maurice Talleyrand. The leading role in resolving the most important issues at the Congress was played by Alexander I and the Austrian Chancellor Metternich. In addition, despite the fact that Talleyrand represented defeated France, he managed to successfully defend its interests on a number of issues.

Plans of the participants of the Vienna Congress: All delegations came to the Congress in Vienna with certain plans.

• 1. Alexander I, whose troops were in the center of Europe, was not going to give up what he had conquered. He wanted to create the Duchy of Warsaw under his own auspices, giving it its own constitution. In exchange for this, in order not to offend his ally Frederick William III, Alexander hoped to transfer Saxony to Prussia.
• 2. Austria planned to regain the lands conquered from it by Napoleon, and to prevent a significant strengthening of Russia and Prussia.
• 3. Prussia really wanted to annex Saxony and retain Polish lands.
• 4. England hoped to maintain the status quo in Europe, prevent the strengthening of Russia and receive guarantees of the existence of the old, pre-Napoleonic regime in France.
• 5. France, not counting on any territorial acquisitions, did not want the predominance of some European countries over others.

During the negotiations during the Congress of Vienna, a number of important scandalous events occurred:

• · Firstly, England, France and Prussia entered into a secret agreement on January 3, 1815, which contained the obligation of the three powers to jointly prevent Saxony from joining Prussia on any terms. In addition, they agreed not to allow any redistribution of existing borders, that is, annexation of territories to a particular country or separation from them.
• · Secondly, almost immediately after its conclusion, the above-mentioned secret agreement received scandalous publicity, which naturally influenced the work of the Vienna Congress. This happened in Paris during the historical period known as the "100 days". Having landed in France with a small group of soldiers and officers loyal to him, Napoleon entered Paris on March 19, 1815. One of three copies of the secret treaty was discovered in the office of the escaped Louis XVIII. At the direction of Napoleon, it was urgently transported to Alexander I, who handed it over to Metternich. Thus, all other delegations became aware of the “secret” conspiracy of some participants in the Vienna Congress.
• · Thirdly, the very fact of the short-term restoration of Napoleon's empire was unexpected and unforeseen.
• · Fourthly, an important event was the final defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo and the return of the royal Bourbon dynasty to Paris.

Results of the Congress of Vienna: In terms of its significance, the Congress of Vienna was a unique historical event. Its results can be summarized as follows:

1. A few days before Waterloo, namely on June 9, 1815, representatives of Russia, Austria, Spain, France, Great Britain, Portugal, Prussia and Sweden signed the Final General Act of the Congress of Vienna. According to its provisions, the inclusion of the territory of the Austrian Netherlands (modern Belgium) into the new Kingdom of the Netherlands was authorized, but all other Austrian possessions returned to Habsburg control, including Lombardy, the Venetian region, Tuscany, Parma and the Tyrol. Prussia received part of Saxony, a significant territory of Westphalia and the Rhineland. Denmark, a former ally of France, lost Norway to Sweden. In Italy, the power of the Pope over the Vatican and the Papal States was restored, and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies was returned to the Bourbons. The German Confederation was also formed. Part of the Duchy of Warsaw created by Napoleon became part of the Russian Empire under the name the Kingdom of Poland, and the Russian emperor also became the Polish king.

In addition, the General Act contained special articles that related to relations between European countries. For example, rules were established for the collection of duties and navigation on the border and international rivers Mozyl, Meuse, Rhine and Scheldt; the principles of free navigation were determined; the annex to the General Act spoke of the prohibition of trade in blacks; In all countries, censorship was tightened and police regimes were strengthened.

2. After the Congress of Vienna, the so-called “Vienna system of international relations” emerged.

It was at the Congress of Vienna that three classes of diplomatic agents were established, which are still in use today; a unified procedure for the reception of diplomats was determined, and four types of consular offices were formulated. Within the framework of this system, the concept of great powers was formulated for the first time (then primarily Russia, Austria, Great Britain), and multichannel diplomacy finally took shape.

• 3. The decision was made to create the Holy Alliance.
• 4. The formation of the Holy Union is the main result of the Congress of Vienna in 1815

Alexander I came up with the idea of ​​​​creating the Holy Union of European States, as he understood that the decisions of the Congress should be formalized organizationally.

The founding document of the Holy Alliance was the Act of the Holy Alliance, developed by Alexander I himself and signed in Paris on September 26, 1815 by the Russian and Austrian emperors and the Prussian king.

The purpose of creating the Holy Alliance was: on the one hand, to play the role of a deterrent against national liberation and revolutionary movements, and on the other, to unite, if necessary, all its participants in defense of the inviolability of borders and existing orders. This was reflected in the Act of the Holy Alliance, which declared that as a result of the great changes in European countries over the past three years, the members of the Holy Alliance decided that “in any case and in every place they will give each other benefits, reinforcements and assistance for the preservation of faith, peace and truth."

However, according to many historians, the content of this act was extremely vague and flexible and the most varied practical conclusions could be drawn from it, but its general spirit did not contradict, but rather favored, the reactionary mood of the then governments. Not to mention the confusion of ideas belonging to completely different categories, in it religion and morality completely displace law and politics from the areas that undoubtedly belong to these latter. Built on the legitimate basis of the divine origin of monarchical power, it establishes a patriarchal relationship between sovereigns and peoples, and the former are charged with the obligation to rule in the spirit of “love, truth and peace,” and the latter must only obey: the document does not at all talk about the rights of the people in relation to power mentions.

The purpose of the Union was mutual assistance in suppressing revolutionary anti-monarchist protests in Europe - echoes of the anti-Christian French Revolution - and strengthening the foundations of Christian statehood. Alexander I also intended, through such a Union, to eliminate the possibility of military clashes between monarchical Christian states. The monarchs who entered into an alliance vowed to maintain the inviolability of borders in Europe and to subordinate the entire order of mutual relations to “the lofty truths inspired by the eternal law of God the Savior,” “to be guided by no other rules than the commandments of the holy faith,” and “to regard ourselves as members of a single people.” Christian." The Act of the Holy Union was symbolically signed on the Orthodox holiday of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross. The high spiritual meaning of the Holy Alliance is reflected in the unusual wording of the union treaty, which is not similar either in form or in content to international treatises: “In the name of the Most Holy and Indivisible Trinity! Their Majesties, the Emperor of Austria, the King of Prussia and the Emperor of All Russia, as a result of the great events that have marked the last three years in Europe, and especially as a result of the benefits that God's Providence has been pleased to pour out on the states, whose government has placed its hope and respect in the One God, having felt inner conviction of how necessary it is for the present powers to subordinate the image of mutual relations to the higher truths inspired by the eternal law of God the Savior, they solemnly declare that the subject of this act is to reveal to the face of the universe their unshakable determination, both in the management of the states entrusted to them, and in political relations to all other governments, to be guided by no other rules than the commandments of this holy faith, the commandments of love, truth and peace, which were not limited to their application solely to private life, must, on the contrary, directly govern the will of the kings and guide all their actions , as a single means of affirming human decisions and rewarding their imperfections. On this basis, Their Majesties have agreed in the following articles...”

In the first years after the creation of the Holy Alliance, despite the existing differences in the views of its participants, European states acted in concert on many foreign policy issues, especially in the fight against free thought and the democratization of the masses. At the same time, they closely watched each other and hatched their own plans.

In general, during the existence of the Holy Alliance, several of its congresses took place:

• 1. Aachen Congress (September 20 - November 20, 1818).
• 2. Congresses in Troppau and Laibach (1820-1821).
• 3. Congress in Verona (October 20 - November 14, 1822).

The Congress of Vienna, convened in Europe by representatives of the leading European states, was of great importance. After the Congress of Vienna, the so-called “Vienna System of International Relations” emerged and a decision was made to create the Holy Alliance.

The Congress of Vienna and its significance for the development of international relations.

Congress of Vienna 1814-1815 - a pan-European conference, during which a system of treaties was developed aimed at restoring the feudal-absolutist monarchies destroyed by the French Revolution of 1789 and the Napoleonic Wars, and new borders of European states were determined. The congress, held in Vienna from September 1814 to June 1815, chaired by the Austrian diplomat Count Metternich, was attended by representatives of all European countries (except the Ottoman Empire). The negotiations took place in conditions of secret and obvious rivalry, intrigue and behind-the-scenes conspiracies.

On March 30, 1814, the Allies entered Paris. A few days later, Napoleon abdicated the throne and went into exile on the island of Elba. The Bourbon dynasty, overthrown by the revolution, returned to the French throne in the person of Louis XVIII, brother of the executed King Louis XVI. The period of almost continuous bloody European wars is over.

Restoration, if possible, of the old absolutist-noble regime: in some places - serfdom, in others - semi-serfdom; such was the social fundamental basis of the policy of the powers that united after the end of the war. In this regard, the achievements of the powers that defeated France in 1814 could not be called durable. The complete restoration of the pre-revolutionary regime both in the economy and in politics after the crushing blows inflicted by the French Revolution and Napoleon turned out to be not only difficult, but also hopeless.

Russia was represented at the congress by Alexander I, K.V. Nesselrode and A.K. Razumovsky (Johann von Anstett took part in the work of the special commissions);

Great Britain - R. S. Castlereagh and A. W. Wellington;

Austria - Franz I, K. Metternich,

Prussia - K. A. Hardenberg, W. Humboldt,

France - Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord

Portugal - Pedro de Sousa Holstein de Palmela

All decisions of the Congress of Vienna were collected in the Final Act of the Congress of Vienna. Congress authorized the inclusion of the territory of the Austrian Netherlands (modern Belgium) into the new Kingdom of the Netherlands, but all other Austrian possessions returned to Habsburg control, including Lombardy, the Venetian region, Tuscany, Parma and the Tyrol. Prussia received part of Saxony, a significant territory of Westphalia and the Rhineland. Denmark, a former ally of France, lost Norway to Sweden. In Italy, the power of the Pope over the Vatican and the Papal States was restored, and the Bourbons returned the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. The German Confederation was also formed. Part of the Duchy of Warsaw created by Napoleon became part of the Russian Empire under the name the Kingdom of Poland, and the Russian Emperor Alexander I became the Polish king. Austria received the southern part of Lesser Poland and most of Red Ruthenia. The western lands of Greater Poland with the city of Poznan and Polish Pomerania returned to Prussia. This division of Poland between powers is sometimes referred to in historical scholarship as the “Fourth Partition of Poland.”

International recognition of Switzerland's neutrality took place. The proclamation of the policy of neutrality had a decisive influence on the subsequent development of Switzerland. Thanks to neutrality, she managed not only to protect her territory from the devastating military conflicts of the 19th and 20th centuries, but also to stimulate economic development by maintaining mutually beneficial cooperation with the warring parties.

TELL US...Historical significance of the Congress of Vienna

1. The Congress established a new balance of power in Europe after Napaleon abdicated the throne and went to the island of Elbrus. For a long time he outlined the dominant role of the winning countries: Russia, Prussia, Austria and Great Britain.
2. Congress of Vienna 18141815 pan-European conference during which the borders of European states were determined after the Napoleonic wars. At the congress held in Vienna from September 1814 to July 1815. under the chairmanship of Metternich, representatives of all European states (except the Ottoman Empire) participated.
   Background
   On March 30, 1814, the Allies entered Paris. A few days later, Napoleon abdicated the throne and went to the island of Elba as emperor of this island. The Bourbon dynasty, overthrown by the revolution, returned to the French throne in the person of Louis XVIII, brother of the executed King Louis XVI. The period of almost continuous bloody wars is over.
   Restoring, if possible, the old absolutist-noble regime, in some places serfdom, in others semi-serfdom, this was the social fundamental basis of the policy of the powers that united after the end of the war. This utopian goal in itself made the achievements of the powers that defeated France in 1814 fragile. The complete restoration of the pre-revolutionary regime both in the economy and in politics after the crushing blows dealt to it by the French Revolution and Napoleon turned out to be not only difficult, but also hopeless.
   Participants
   Russia was represented at the congress by Alexander I, K.V. Nesselrode and A.K. Razumovsky;
   Great Britain R. S. Castlereagh and A. W. Wellington;
   Austria Franz II and K. Metternich,
   Prussia K. A. Hardenberg, W. Humboldt,
   France Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord
   Solutions
   Europe after the Congress of Vienna
   Congress authorized the inclusion of the territory of the Austrian Netherlands (modern Belgium) into the new Kingdom of the Netherlands, but all other Austrian possessions returned to Habsburg control, including Lombardy, the Venetian region, Tuscany, Parma and the Tyrol. Prussia received part of Saxony, a significant territory of Westphalia and the Rhineland. Denmark, a former ally of France, lost Norway to Sweden. In Italy, the power of the Pope over the Vatican and the Papal States was restored, and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies was returned to the Bourbons. The German Confederation was also formed. Part of the Duchy of Warsaw created by Napoleon became part of the Russian Empire under the name the Kingdom of Poland, and the Russian emperor also became the Polish king.
   Meaning
   The Congress determined the new balance of power in Europe that had developed at the end of the Napoleonic wars, designating for a long time the leading role of the victorious countries of Russia, Austria and Great Britain in international relations.
   As a result of the congress, the Vienna System of International Relations was formed.
   Links
   Die Wiener Kongressakte franz.
   Das europ#228;ische M#228;chtesystem nach 1815
   kalenderblatt.de: Wiener Kongress
   Der Wiener Kongress 1815
3. division of land between the victors under Napoleon