Rhetorical ideals: from antiquity to the present day. Main features and national characteristics

It is this version of rhetorical positions that has received the widest distribution at different historical stages and the deepest theoretical justification. With slight differences in the views of individual authors, this trend unites the largest theorists and speakers, thinkers of the 4th-1st centuries. BC e. - Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Cicero. This theoretical direction also absorbed the traditions of Homeric Greece.

In essence, the ancient Greek oral tradition and the heroic epic already laid the foundation for a maturing rhetorical ideal: in Homer’s poems the orators Menelaus and Odysseus are presented, the texts of their speeches are given, the power of their influence on people at decisive moments of the struggle is shown, as well as the most important thing - the choice of tragic and heroic moments in the lives of the heroes, the vividness of the description of events, the most complex construction of plots and the choice of linguistic means. Let us remind the reader that the Iliad and the Odyssey lived in people's memory for a long time and were transmitted orally.

The origins of this rhetorical movement, called ancient, are associated with the name of Homer (VI century BC), who was blind, but saw the distance of times better than the sighted.

VIV-III centuries. BC e. The theoretical positions of this Board, the rhetorical ideal, were formed, they had and still have a strong influence on the fate of ethics, literature, culture as a whole. These positions were supported by both pragmatic Rome and the middle-class

centuries, and the Renaissance, and even our contradictory tragic era.

Let's look at these positions.

In classical rhetoric, Aristotle developed a strict theory of speech mentality, speech ethics of an entire people, large social groups and the value orientations operating in them. The speaker focuses on a strong personality. These communication norms guide not only the speaker, but also both sides of language contact, creating an atmosphere of mutual respect. Both parties are interested in a fruitful contact; the listener develops a certain expectation, anticipation, as well as a fear of misunderstanding, disagreement, and disharmony of communication.

These nuances are very subtle, sometimes difficult to detect, but they are the most valuable in communication. It should be noted here that at this level of communication the role of the subtlest shades of choice of words and turns of speech, intonation, and timbre of voice is very high. This is the highest spiritual level of communication in any situation - from oratory to intimate communication with loved ones.

High interest in this dominant contact, the establishment of an invisible connection, the birth of the first threads of mutual understanding would be noticeable in different eras, reflected in literature and the performances of brilliant actors.

The first feature of the ancient ideal is the attitude towards truth, speakers who belonged to this type of ethical practice confirmed the firmness of their convictions, their __ not 0TST fall from their hard-won understanding

It is known that the great Socrates could save his life, And he preferred death to flight by drinking a cup of hemlock. Demosthenes, known for his philippics, made a similar speech against the Macedonian king Philip II, when he still gained power over Athens. The search for truth and loyalty to it is a

to the spiritual strength of a person, his moral fortitude. In Russian rhetoric, M. V. Lomonosov placed the defense of scientific truth above all else.

But even in classical rhetoric the need for flexible solutions to the “truth-lie” dilemma was recognized, for example: maintaining a military secret, hiding some terrible secret out of compassion, “white lies.”

The sad experience of history indicates that for entire nations there is a voluntary or forced need for lies, officially presented as the truth (totalitarian regimes).

The psychological nature of such a universal, mass lie has not yet received a strict scientific assessment, and its moral assessment is sharply negative. But it can definitely be said that this phenomenon, so frequent in the history of power, has nothing to do with rhetoric in general, much less with the ancient rhetorical ideal. Classical rhetoric, represented by its creators and ideologists, has always opposed lies.

The characteristics discussed above can be classified into the categories of ethos and pathos. Now let us turn to the understanding of logos.

In this area, the tradition did not oppose sophistic norms - neither in the recognition and use of logical laws and rules, nor in the great attention to dialogue, to discursive Speech, nor in the skill of choosing various means of language. Nevertheless, we note the most important.

With great attention to the logic of the text, advantage was still given to the structure of linguistic forms, the accuracy of the choice of words, the use of expressive means of language, and the culture of speech.

Culture of dialogue, mastery of argument (without any tricks)

reached the highest level in the literary heritage of the aton: this refers to his dialogues (he used the dialogue “G Jean R”) “Phaedrus”, “Apology of Socrates”, “Fox”, “Sophist”,

1C £UDarstvo”, etc.

p § l The quality of rhetoricians and orators of the direction under consideration is ^aligned with literature as an art and with poetics as a lite

p at ^ ^ axis with literature as an art, with poetry as a literary discipline; The best example of this is Cicero.

Linguistic disciplines, already at their best in the 4th-3rd centuries, were widely used. BC e. significant development: stylistics* grammar, prosody, rudiments of speech theory. A "

The culture of speech and expression of thought were brought to the highest perfection. European connoisseurs of linguistic mastery (Boileau, Schiller, Pushkin and many others) were delighted with the sound of ancient Greek and Latin. Until now, Latin from the times of Cicero and Seneca (Lucius Annaeus Seneca, 4 BC - 65 AD, author of “Moral Letters to Lucilius”) is considered a model of linguistic culture. There are known estimates in which

It was impossible to further improve Latin after the 1st century.

10. Old Russian traditions

Modern science has a small but sufficient number of sources for the study of the ancient Russian rhetorical ideal, mainly monuments of the 11th-12th centuries. and the beginning of the 13th century. In understanding its originality, researchers rely on both folklore materials and works of fiction, first of all, on “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”, and finally, on the chronicle.

These examples allow us to speak about the stability of traditions, reflections of which are still felt today, despite the three-century loss of independence of Rus' and the irreparable delay in cultural development.

Rus' X-XII centuries. had direct ties with Byzantium - the heir of Greek ancient culture - until its conquest by the Ottoman Empire in the middle of the 15th century. She maintained strong ties with European countries that adopted the culture of the Roman Empire. Connections were strengthened by family unions: for example, one of the daughters of Yaroslav the Wise (he knew eight languages, was nicknamed Os- mommyslom, which means “eight thoughts”) was married to the king of Norway, the other, Anna, was the queen of France (turned out to be the first educated queen).

The study of ancient Russian eloquence and its traditions in the 19th century was carried out by A.S. Shishkov, A.V. Meshchersky, S.N. Glinka. N. F. Koshansky, K. P. Zelenetsky, F. I. Buslaev and others. In the 20th century. " mainly L.K. Graudina, G.L. Miskevich, V.I. Annu* 11 "kin, A.K. Mikhalskaya.

It should be admitted, however, that the history of rhetoric has been studied little,” this was noted by the largest thinker in Russia of the 20th century, an expert on rhetoric, Alexei Fedorovich Losev.

Specific works of ancient Russian eloquence are discussed in Chapter 4 - “Rhetoric in Russia.” Let us now characterize its features.

The speaker, as a rule, is a well-known person, invested with trust - a church leader, a prince, a governor. Often he is, as it were, a shadow, remains nameless. The speaker’s emotions control his convictions. Competence and knowledge are valued above all, like language - bright, flowery, “decorated”, without any originality.

2 The speaker always expresses a firm position - these are predominantly state interests, concern for the church and people. In speeches

STB always contains a teaching or a call, moral statements, a positive example predominates; criticism is introduced in the form of regret or even crying.

3 The speaker defends the truth, his understanding of justice; Disputes and polemics are rare.

4. Great attention is paid to the ethics of communication: there is high respect for the person making the speech. According to the people, a speaker should carry his word high, and should not address his speech to anyone, but only to an authoritative audience. The very handling of speech expresses the speaker’s respect for the listeners. Judging by the texts that have come down to us, the speaker respects the opinion of the addressee. In turn, the people express respect not only for the personality of the speaker, but also for the word itself, wise and beautiful.

The speaker strives for mutual understanding, thinks in the spirit of conciliarity as the complete unity of all listeners and the people as a whole.

The speaker carefully prepares for his speech: the very fact of preserving speeches and copying them multiple times testifies to their value. One can, of course, assume that performances of low culture, not of high quality, have not reached us. But if so, then we can assume that among educated people - the keepers of manuscripts - the level of requirements was high.

The composition of speeches, messages, teachings is distinguished by precision and clarity. Here Metropolitan Hilarion gives a speech at the Council of Yaroslav the Wise (“The Word of Law and Grace”), he reveals the Grand Duke Vladimir and the Russian land, which is known and heard in all corners of the earth. “Rise, O honorable head, from your grave!<...>Look at your grandchildren and great-grandchildren!

Look at the city, consecrated with icons of saints!<...>

3 Rejoice and be glad and praise God!” The pathos of the Metropolitan's speech

that - in a call for the unity of Rus', the strengthening of princely power

> Establishing the independence of both the state and the Church.

For eche is generously decorated with appeals, exclamations, anti-

sch"Pa R allelisms and other figures. It is rich in allegorical

with TV Mi > allegorical. The thought is clear, nothing superfluous, highly sensitive

h e Measures. According to the speaker, unity will happen not only

p Ovo 3 STRONG The state, but also through language, through the Christian mi-

3 Rhene. This is how the beautiful Russian land was glorified.

7. In the speeches of ancient orators, one is captivated by kindness, meekness and zeal, gratitude, admiration for the beauty of the world, the faith in the nature of a wise and beautiful word, the power and beauty of eloquence, and a high respect for ancient wisdom, teaching, and education.

The genre diversity of these speeches by Leniy is also highly appreciated: oratorical speeches, addresses of the prince to the soldiers, lives of saints, teachings, letters, historical narratives.

The oratory works of Ancient Rus' are very closely connected with folklore and literature. They seem to grow from one source. “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” was created for oral use. fullness. Like other works of the heroic epic, it is replete with appeals, as if a conversation with the listeners. Many other works are the same - the spiritual verse “Bo. rice and Gleb", "The Tale of Evpatiy Kolovrat", "Zadonshchina". Even in the XIII-XV centuries. literary works still preserved the oral tradition: “The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land”, “The Life of Sergius of Radonezh”.

Rhetoric is of great importance in society. Having mastered the art of speaking beautifully, a person can achieve great heights in interacting with other people. This science appeared in ancient times, but at each stage of its development it had distinctive features and gave the world outstanding speakers. And each period and culture had its own rhetorical ideals.

What is it

What does the concept of rhetorical ideal include? This is a system of general requirements for speech, its standard, which are a reflection of the culture of the people. Also, the rhetorical ideal is an important criterion for evaluating works of art. It has important properties:

historical variability - ideas about the ideal change over time;
cultural specificity - oratory has national characteristics;
social characteristics - reflects the development of society in a certain historical era.

The first concepts about the standard of beautiful speech appeared in Ancient Greece, in whose era there were many outstanding speakers who made a great contribution to the development of this science.

Reasons for the emergence of rhetoric

The first mention of rhetoric appears around the 5th century BC. e. The emergence of oratory is associated with the emergence of democracy in Athens. What other factors influenced the development of the ability to speak beautifully?

Rhetoric in Ancient Greece was considered the highest level in education. Therefore, in Hellas there were even special schools where they taught oratory.
The ancient Greeks paid great attention to moral education. Therefore, the one who spoke publicly had to be kind and have other valiant qualities. The speaker’s speeches also pursued moral goals.
They often gave eulogies - these are laudatory or solemn speeches.

Classical rhetoric in ancient times included information about various sciences: philosophy, logic, literature, grammar, psychology and others. It reflected the culture and life of the ancient Greeks. In the ancient period, oratory had the following properties:

the phrases were constructed symmetrically (the sentences had the same endings);
used metaphors and comparisons;
rhythmic division of phrases and sentences, use of rhyme.

The rhetorical ideal of antiquity made it possible to unite Greek and Latin cultures, creating a single cultural space.

School of Sophists

Sophists in Ancient Greece were paid teachers of rhetoric who were representatives of the school of the same name. Followers of this teaching could hide basic information behind details because it was beneficial for them. The main features of the rhetorical ideal of the Sophists were as follows:

the speech was manipulative in nature and was presented in the form of a monologue;
skillful manipulation of details could bring victory in verbal competitions;
the goal of oratory was not to establish the truth, but to achieve victory;
the external speech design is more important than its internal content;
the sophists believed that there is no definite truth, but that there are different opinions, and it is important to prove the correctness of their reasoning.

The main goal of sophistic rhetoric was to achieve victory, material wealth and skillfully manipulate the feelings of the crowd. The Sophists were very popular among the inhabitants of Ancient Greece. The reasoning of representatives of this school is called sophistry; they are logical, but at the same time they may not correspond to the truth. Therefore, many consider sophistry to be a negative phenomenon. Ardent opponents of the rhetorical ideal of the Sophists were Socrates and Plato.

Ideas about Socrates and Plato

These learned men were among the greatest philosophers of the ancient era, having a strong influence on the development of philosophy, oratory and culture in Ancient Greece. Socrates was Plato's teacher, so their ideas about rhetoric are similar. The peculiarity of his teachings was that after him not a single written document remained; he expressed all his thoughts in conversations with his students.

Socrates' rhetorical ideal:

The ability to briefly formulate a problem or question, listen to opponents’ versions and give laconic answers during a conversation.
Encouraging the interlocutor to enter into dialogue, rather than manipulating his opinion.
The main goal of the conversation is not to achieve someone’s victory in an argument, but to achieve a common goal in the conversation by all participants.
During the conversation, all participants should strive to establish the truth.

The ideas about Socrates and Plato differed from the ideas of the Sophists. For them, beautiful speech was not a way to achieve material wealth or other benefits, but an opportunity to determine the truth in a conversation by combining all the efforts of the participants in the conversation.

Aristotle's ideas about rhetoric

Aristotle's contribution to the development of science was enormous. It was he who created the first textbook on oratory - "Rhetoric", which has survived to this day. This work consists of three parts. Aristotle formulated the basic laws of rhetoric:

Speech provides the state and its goals.
Every type of oratory represents the unity of ethos, pathos and logos.
Every type of oratory has its own relationship to reality and time.

It was he who compiled special rules for constructing speech, which are also known as the rhetorical canon. He paid special attention to the external design of speech, opposing the mixing of different styles. Aristotle's ideas about the rhetorical ideal were similar to those of Socrates and Plato. Speech should be maximally focused on encouraging a person to enter into a dialogue, achieving maximum informativeness of the conversation.

Oratory in Ancient Rome

The ancient Romans successfully adopted the culture of the Hellenes. Including the art of speaking beautifully. Despite the fact that eloquence also had its own national characteristics, this skill was largely formed under the influence of Greek culture. Initially, rhetoric was taught at the school of Greek rhetoricians, but then two decrees were issued that prohibited the activities of Greek orators.

But they were replaced by Latin rhetoricians, who taught rhetoric along with the Greek ones. They successfully processed the features of Greek oratory, adapting them for the Romans. Their lessons were more accessible, so the government banned the activities of such teachers. But young people went to Greece to study the art of eloquence.

The speakers of Ancient Rome paid more attention than the Greeks to the stylistic design of speech. Sometimes even to the detriment of the logic and semantic structure of the text. Eloquence influenced all types of literature, especially the development of such a genre as the novel, which is the pinnacle of the development of ancient culture.

Cicero's contribution to the development of rhetoric

One of the most famous representatives of classical Latin oratory was Cicero. He was the author of many famous works devoted to eloquence and the development of literature, for example: “On the Orator”, “The Orator”. In them he tries to formulate his ideas about the development of the art of eloquence.

win over listeners;
correctly state the essence of the matter;
raise a controversial issue;
assert your position;
find the right arguments against the enemy;
present your speech beautifully and weaken the enemy’s position.

Cicero believed that public speaking should be presented in a uniform style; negligence in the construction of sentences and choice of words was not allowed. believed that rhetoric and philosophy are one, because people understand the world through speech, and eloquence is associated with the teaching of other disciplines.

Development of eloquence in Ancient Rus'

Rhetoric developed unevenly in Ancient Rus'. In the 11th and 12th centuries, eloquence occupied one of the important places in society. Not only church but also secular oratory skills developed. Old Russian eloquence was of a practical nature, therefore the works created during that period were called teachings and conversations.

The first ancient Russian teaching is the “Teaching to the Brethren,” written by Novgorod Bishop Luka Zhidyata. It describes a list of rules of behavior that a Christian must adhere to. But, of course, one of the greatest works of the 12th century is the collection “Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh”. This work consists of three parts, connected by one political idea - the unification of Russian lands.

Vladimir Monomakh formed ethical rules. They were given quotations from the Holy Scriptures. But the ruler most of all wanted the Russian lands to be united.

Also, one of the outstanding literary works of Ancient Rus' can be called “Zadonshchina,” which described the struggle of the Russian people with the Tatar-Mongol tribes.

The Russian rhetorical ideal was distinguished from others by a high degree of respect for wise speeches and eloquence. The speeches were instructive in nature, they contained a call to perform good deeds. For a Russian person, the ability to speak is a great blessing. Speakers were expected to be modest and humble during their speeches.

Contribution of M.V. Lomonosov in the development of Russian rhetoric

M. V. Lomonosov created the first textbook on rhetoric in Russian in 1743, and in 1748 an expanded second edition was published. The famous scientist called his work “The Brief Art of Eloquence.” It was this work that influenced the further development of oratory in Russia.

M.V. Lomonosov attached great importance to the “targeting” of speech. He believed that in order for a performance to be successful, it was necessary to take into account the age, gender and education of the audience. Only by taking into account all these nuances could the speaker be sure that his speech would achieve its goal. M.V. Lomonosov believed that in the art of eloquence it is necessary to constantly practice in order to improve your skill.

Rhetoric in Russia in the 19th and 20th centuries

In the second half of the 19th century, interest in it began to gradually fade away. This was due to the fact that intelligent society changed its aesthetic views; its representatives were no longer interested in lofty speeches.

In the post-revolutionary period in Russia, rhetoric was excluded from the public education system. The political regime in the country demanded a standardized language, devoid of individuality. Therefore, the authorities closed all educational institutions and faculties that emphasized the teaching of rhetoric.

What is neo-rhetoric

The modern rhetorical ideal is studied by neo-rhetoric. It appeared in the middle of the 20th century. Its rapid development is associated with the emergence of new linguistic disciplines. The modern rhetorical ideal is determined by the following factors:

"Europeanization" and "Americanization" of society.
Dissemination of Western techniques dedicated to marketing and advertising.
Development of business rhetoric.
The influence of the media on rhetoric.

Each culture has its own national rhetorical ideal. But the development of oratory occurs under the influence of the most developed culture of eloquence (for example, the development of Latin oratory based on Greek). Rhetoric has a great influence on the development of society and social interaction between people.

The rhetorical ideal is an idea historically established in national culture of what a good speech should be. The rhetorical ideal has crystallized over centuries; it is socially determined and not without historical variability.

The signs of a rhetorical ideal are: a certain scheme for analyzing any statement, the appearance of the speaker, the speaker’s position on the “truth-false” dilemma, ethics and aesthetics of speech.

Antique rhetorical ideal (received the widest distribution): the purpose of rhetoric is to serve the good and happiness of people; Rhetoric is not only a practice of communication, but also a science; a model of the ideal speaker is being developed: a respectful attitude towards listeners. The ancient Greek oral tradition and the heroic epic already laid the foundation for the maturing rhetorical ideal. For example, in Homer's poems the speakers are presented - Menelaus, Odysseus, the texts of their speeches are given, the power of influence on people in moments of struggle, the choice of tragic and heroic moments in the lives of heroes, the vividness of the description of events are shown.

This rhetorical direction is called ancient, it is associated with the name of Homer. Socrates, Plato, Aristotle saw the goals of rhetoric and oratory in serving the good and happiness of people. The power of persuasion, as the main advantage of eloquence, is to understand what people’s happiness is and how to achieve it.

The ethics of the ancient ideal required addressing the listener with respect. Speech is a two-way process, the result depends on both sides.

The next feature of the ancient ideal is its attitude to truth. The largest speakers who belonged to this type of ethical position confirmed in practice the firmness of their convictions and their position - not to deviate from their understanding of the truth. With great attention to the logic of the text, preference was still given to the structure of linguistic forms, the contiguity of the choice of words, the use of expressive means of language, and the culture of speech.

Old Russian traditions (based on ancient Russian monuments): the speaker is a well-known person, endowed with the trust of the people, expresses a firm position, defends the truth; there is a high level of respect for the person giving the speech.

Modern science has a sufficient number of sources for studying the ancient Russian rhetorical ideal, mainly monuments of the 11th-12th centuries. and the beginning of the 13th century. Researchers rely on both folklore materials and works of fiction, primarily on “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” and the chronicle.

The study of ancient Russian eloquence, its tradition in the 19th century. were engaged in A.S. Shishkov, A.V. Meshchersky, S.N. Glinka, N.F. Koshansky, H.P. Zelenetsky, F.I. Buslaev and others. In the 20th century. - OK. Graudina, G.L. Miskevich, V.I. Annushkin, A.K. Michalska. Characteristics of the Old Russian rhetorical ideal: The speaker is a well-known person, invested with the trust of the people: a church leader, a prince, a governor. The speaker's emotions control both faith and belief.

The speaker always expresses a firm position - these are mainly state interests, concern for the church and people. Speeches almost always contain a lesson or appeal, moral guidelines, and a positive example predominates.

The speaker defends the truth, his understanding of justice; Disputes and polemics are rare.

Much attention is paid to the ethics of communication: there is high respect for the person giving the speech. The speaker must hold his word high and speak only to an authoritative audience. The people express respect not only for the personality of the speaker, but also for the word itself, wise and beautiful.

The speaker carefully prepares for his speech. Their value is evidenced by the very fact of preserving speeches and their repeated copying.

The composition of speeches, messages, teachings is distinguished by clarity and clarity.

In the speeches of ancient orators, one is captivated by kindness, meekness and humility, gratitude, admiration for the beauty of the world, faith in the divine nature of wise and beautiful words, in the power and effectiveness of eloquence, and there is a high respect for book wisdom, teaching, and education.

In modern rhetoric identify the features that characterize the rhetorical ideal:
Modern rhetoric uses the following scheme for analyzing any statements: who speaks? who is he talking to? under what circumstances; what does he say? For what? How does he express his thoughts? what is the result?

The appearance of the speaker is always important: what is most important in him - emotions or logic, correctness of speech or originality? Does the speaker have beliefs, and if so, what are they?
What is important is the position of the speaker or an entire social or ethnic group according to the “truth” – “false” scheme. Truth and lies are the most complex categories; in characterizing the rhetorical ideal, this is the most important criterion.

In understanding and assessing the rhetorical ideal, the ethics of speech are taken into account - for one community it is innate, deep, for another it is external, ostentatious, only to achieve the goal of the speaker.

FROM THE HISTORY OF RHETORIC

THE CONCEPT OF RHETORICAL IDEAL

The basis for studying the history of rhetoric and determining the stages of its development is the concept of the rhetorical ideal.

Rhetorical ideal- this is “a system of the most general requirements for speech and speech behavior, historically developed in a particular culture and reflecting the system of its values - aesthetic and ethical (moral)” (A.K. Mikhalskaya).

The rhetorical ideal can also “be defined as an “image” or “sample” of good speech that exists in the mind of a rhetorician,” noted N.N. Kokhtev.

The rhetorical ideal, existing within one culture and historical era, is common to the bearers of this culture.

It is a conscious or unconscious comparison with the rhetorical ideal that determines the recipient’s assessment of the content of a literary text, i.e. the rhetorical ideal becomes a necessary criterion for this assessment. The rhetorical ideal has three important properties:

Historical variability;

Cultural specificity;

Social characteristics.

The latter are understood as compliance with the value system adopted by society at a certain stage of its development.

2. THE EMERGENCE OF RHETORIC. ANCIENT RHETORIC

Many ancient works set forth a fable about the divine origin of rhetoric: Jupiter called Mercury to himself and ordered Rhetoric to be given to people. According to this myth, rhetoric is the beginning of human civilization.

The birth of rhetoric as a discipline (around the 5th century BC) is associated with the period of democracy in Athens. There are several main reasons for its appearance:

The social system in Ancient Greece was slave democracy. The supreme body in the state was considered the People's Assembly, which the politician addressed directly during a public speech. To attract the attention of the masses /demos/, the speaker had to be educated, and his speech had to be logical, bright, and convincing. In such a situation, the form of speech and the art of the speaker played, perhaps, no less a role than the content of the speech. “The power that Iron has in war, the word has in political life,” argued Demetrius of Faler, calling political eloquence and democracy the main sources of rhetoric;

The nature of Greek literature favored the emergence

oratory. The love for beautiful words, expressive speech, replete with various epithets, metaphors, comparisons, is noticeable already in the earliest works of Greek literature - in the Iliad and Odyssey. In the speeches pronounced by Homer's heroes, admiration for the word and its magical power is expressed. Thus, a word in ancient rhetoric is always “winged” and can strike like a “feathered arrow”;

Rhetoric in the ancient world was considered the highest level of education. In Greece, special schools of oratory were created, where experienced orators taught eloquence to young ones. Classes were conducted individually, should the teacher? was to correct speeches, teach how to write and pronounce them, work on the manner of performance, analyze exemplary performances; correct pronunciation errors;

In Ancient Greece, much attention was paid to the education of morality in students, and this education was carried out by a public speaker. The speaker had to be “kind” and have “spiritual virtues.” The education of an orator (a speaking person) went in parallel with the education of morality;

Greek legal proceedings played a significant role in the development of rhetoric as a discipline. In Ancient Greece, the trial took place in public. There were no prosecutors, and anyone could act as a prosecutor. The accused defended himself. He had to convince the judges and all listeners (and there were from several hundred to several thousand of them) of his innocence or present

Mitigating circumstances, otherwise he faced severe punishment: exile and sometimes death. Therefore, skillful speech was highly valued in the Greek polis (city-state);

In addition to political and judicial, laudatory eloquence (panegyric) also appeared in Ancient Greece. Typically, speakers gave laudatory speeches at festive occasions and forums. Often such speeches were the beginning of the path to political OLYMPUS.

Classical rhetoric of the 5th and 15th centuries; BC combined not only information on philosophy, logic, grammar, literature, state law, jurisprudence, history, mathematics, and psychology. It reflected the life and culture of the ancient world. The oratory of that time included many innovations: symmetrically constructed phrases, sentences with the same endings, metaphors and comparisons; rhythmic division of speech and even rhyme. In the ancient world, the gift of oratory and its ability to influence the minds and hearts of people were highly valued. Rhetoric served as a kind of means that held together a single cultural space of the Greco-Latin world.

Sophist teachers.Sophist they call a person who knows how to hide the main thing behind the details, to prove with the help of various tricks (the truth of what corresponds to his goals, and not the truth. The popularity of sophist teachers was unusually great. They traveled all over Greece, speaking to listeners and helping those who wanted to master eloquence. To attract students, the sophists actively used manipulative techniques of exaggeration, for example, according to Isocrates, they promised to bring their students closer to the gods of Olympus. Sophistry(the judgments of these rhetoricians) were logically constructed correctly, but in essence did not correspond to the truth. With the help of the art of proving what is necessary, and not what is true, the sophists gained notoriety as “masters of verbal balancing act” (A.F. Losev). Let us give examples of sophisms.

1.Medicine is useful and a blessing.

1. The more good, the better.

2. Therefore, the more medicine, the better.

Sophistry is based on the fact that the word “good” in the case of medicine can be understood in two ways - as a remedy against disease and medicine as a product.

The main features of sophistry are:

Manipulation;

The focus of the dispute is to defeat the enemy;

Relativity - there is no truth, but there are different opinions, and it is only important to prove the correctness of your opinion.

It should be noted, however, that the role of the sophists in the history of rhetoric cannot be assessed as purely negative. It is impossible not to mention one very important circumstance, namely that they were, in fact, the first representatives of the intelligentsia not only in their country, but also in the history of mankind.

The most famous representative of sophistry was Gorgias from Leontia. “He was the first to introduce into the type of education that prepares orators (special training) the ability to speak in the art, and he was the first to use tropes, metaphors, allegories, perverse combinations of words, the use of words in an improper sense, inversions, secondary doublings, repetitions” ( Isocrates).

The use of sophistry and verbal competitions was introduced Protagoras. Among his works are: “The Art of Arguing”, “On Struggle”, “On Science”, “Debate”. He was the first to explore methods of proof, the causes of logical errors, which only strengthened the position of the sophists.

But already in ancient times the words sophist, sophistry, sophistry acquired a negative evaluative value.

By the time of Socrates and Plato, the sophists discredited rhetoric by deliberately distorting the truth and defending murderers and swindlers for a fee. Therefore, Socrates and Plato enter into a fight with them.

Socrates. At the origins of European philosophical and rhetorical culture stood a man whose life and work had a colossal influence on the development of rhetoric. This was the greatest philosopher of antiquity, the teacher of the famous Plato - Socrates, who lived in Athens in 470-399. BC Without leaving behind a single text written by himself, Socrates asserted a new approach to knowledge and generalization of reality in conversations with his students. Plato testifies to how Socrates’ word affected those around him: “When I listen to him, my heart beats much stronger than that of the raging Corybantes, and tears flow from my eyes from his speeches; the same thing, as I see, happens to many others,” says young Alcibiades. -...This Marsyas often brought me into such a state that it seemed to me that I could no longer live the way I was living... I am now experiencing the same thing as a person bitten by a viper... I was bitten harder than anyone else, and at the very sensitive place - in the heart, call it what you want, bitten and wounded by philosophical speeches, which bite into young and gifted souls stronger than a snake, and can force them to do and say anything they want” (Plato. Dialogue “Symposium”).

The art of eloquence is “a certain ability to captivate souls with words,” says Socrates in Plato’s dialogue “Phaedrus.” According to the philosopher, it is this art that indicates the only true path to influencing people. “Even he who knows the truth will not find a means of skillfully persuading besides me,” - this is how eloquence declares about himself in this dialogue. In Plato's Socratic dialogues, a new rhetorical ideal is realized and affirmed - to briefly ask a question, listen to the answer and, while talking, briefly answer the questions.

The rhetorical ideal of Socrates (Plato) defined as:

1. dialogical (not manipulating the addressee, but awakening his thoughts - this is the goal of verbal communication and the speaker’s activity);

2. harmonizing: the main goal of a conversation, argument, monologue is not victory or a struggle at all, but the unification of the efforts of the participants in communication for a common goal;

3. semantic - the purpose of a conversation between people, the purpose of speech is the search and discovery of meaning, truth, which is contained in the subject of speech (discussion) and can be discovered. (Yu.V. Rozhdestvensky).

Aristotle(384-322 BC) - ancient Greek philosopher, wrote the textbook “Rhetoric”, which has survived to this day. Aristotle's work consists of three parts.

Aristotle defined rhetoric “as the ability to find possible ways of persuasion regarding any given subject” / “Rhetoric”/. Aristotle formulated the basic laws of speech and correlated them with the rules of rhetoric. These laws sound like this:

Speech provides the state and its goals. Speeches can be divided into three types (deliberative, judicial, epideictic).

Every type of oratory represents the unity of ethos, pathos and logos.

Every type of oratory has its own relationship to reality and time.

Yu.V. Rozhdestvensky calls Aristotle’s first law “the law of community life,” the second “the law of the integrity of external and internal content,” and the third “the law of semantic limitation of speech.” Aristotle correlates the basic laws of rhetoric with rules (recommendations for oratory practice: how to begin an advisory or judicial role, what possible mistakes the speaker will make, etc.). “Aristotle’s laws of speech are of fundamental importance,” notes Yu.V. Christmas. In addition to the laws of speech, Aristotle developed rules for constructing speech, the so-called “rhetorical canon”, which consists of five components: invention, arrangement, verbal expression, memorization and utterance. Aristotle considered knowledge of these five stages of the path from thought to word to be especially important for an orator. Aristotle pays great attention to the style of speech; he objects to the mixing of different styles in the speaker’s speech. Aristotle's main idea is that good style is an “appropriate” style. Aristotle was the first to draw attention to various types of speech that could not be called oratorical (according to Aristotle, these are everyday speech, educational speech, personal writing, learned treatise, poetic composition, etc.).

Aristotle's rhetorical ideal was similar to the ideal of Socrates and Plato and focused on the dialogical nature of communication, the ability of communicants to conduct a harmonizing dialogue and the maximum information content of communication.

Rhetoric of Ancient Rome. Ancient Rome, the conqueror of Greece, adopted both Hellenic culture and rhetorical traditions. In Roman society, oratory was extremely highly valued. According to Cicero, a person who mastered words was looked upon as a god. “There are two arts,” said Cicero, “that can place a person at the highest level of honor: one is the art of a commander, the other is the art of a good orator.” Having arisen on a national basis (the language of laws, debates in court, the Senate, the people's assembly), Roman eloquence developed and took shape under the influence of Greek oratory. Rhetoric was first studied in the schools of Greek rhetoricians, and in 173 and 161. BC decrees were issued to expel Greek philosophers and rhetoricians from Rome. This did not help: a generation later, Greek rhetoricians were again teaching freely in Rome, and even Latin rhetoricians appeared, teaching in Latin and quite successfully reworking Greek rhetoric in relation to the requirements of Roman reality. Their lessons are more accessible and therefore more dangerous, so the Senate leaves the Greek rhetoricians alone and turns against the Latin ones: in 92, the best Senate orator Lucius Licinius Crassus (the future hero of Cicero’s dialogue “On the Orator”), in the position of censor, issues a decree on the closure of Latin rhetorical schools as institutions that do not meet Roman morals. This managed to temporarily put an end to the teaching of Latin rhetoric, but with all the greater zeal the Romans turned to the study of Greek rhetoric. Every day more and more young people left Rome for Greece to learn the Greek culture of words and thought from the best teachers.

Finally, between 86 and 82. BC In Rome, the first anonymous textbook of rhetoric in Latin, “Rhetoric to Herennius,” which has come down to us, was distributed.

Rhetoric teachers in Ancient Rome devoted much more time than the Greeks to the form of speeches, the “flowers of eloquence,” often to the detriment of the semantic integrity and logic of speech. The Asian style of eloquence appeared. Moreover, according to Cicero, both types of Asian eloquence were represented in Roman rhetoric: the style of maxims, rhythmic witty sentences; and the style is pompous, when words strung together like beads create speech distinguished not by depth of thought, but by euphony. All poets and orators of Rome were “trained” in rhetorical schools. Rhetoric influenced the development of all types of literature, for example, the formation of the genre of the novel, which crowned the development of ancient literature.

Marcus Tulius Cicero was the largest representative of Roman classical eloquence, who achieved perfection in his person, and also embodied the interests of society in his speeches.

The main rhetorical works of Cicero are such works as “On the Orator”, “Brutus”, “Orator”; In them, Cicero preaches his ideal of an orator, a comprehensively educated person; knowledgeable in literature, history, philosophy, law. “A true speaker,” he says, “must research, re-listen, re-read, discuss, disassemble, try everything that a person encounters in life, since the speaker revolves in it, and it serves as material for him.”

The activity of the speaker, according to Cicero, is as follows:

Find something to say

Place what you found in order.

Confirm all this in memory,

Say it.

Cicero cared about observing the rules for preparing a speech, about knowledge of special rhetorical techniques and speech techniques. Cicero believed that the task of the orator includes:

Win over your listeners

State the essence of the matter,

Set up a controversial issue

Strengthen your position

Refute your opponent's opinion

In conclusion, add shine to your positions and weaken the opponent’s arguments.

Public speech should, according to Cicero, be skillfully decorated. He opposes scholasticism, poverty of language, and the verbal negligence of individual speakers.

Cicero considered rhetoric in unity with philosophy, believing that rhetoric included in people's lives through speech and are directly related to knowledge, and also connected the teaching of rhetoric with other academic disciplines.

What made up Cicero's rhetorical successes? Firstly, from good theoretical training: with his philosophical knowledge, he could talk about old subjects in a new way, striking the ears of a crowd not accustomed to broad views and judgments; and with his rhetorical knowledge, he was able to construct a speech more calculated, flexible and convincing than his rivals, for whom, after all, the hereditary tradition of Roman practical eloquence was always stronger than the theoretical lessons of Greek rhetoric.

Secondly, from artistic taste: before Cicero, the Latin language did not know stylistic development; in the language of orators, archaic expressions of ancient priests and legislators randomly coexisted with newfangled Greek words, everyday and colloquial expressions with solemn poetic sayings. Cicero was the first to bring this chaos to the unified stylistic norms of the spoken language of educated Roman society, streamlined, developed, enriched the means of oratory, forever becoming for posterity an example of that precious quality for the Orator, which the ancients called “abundance.” ».

Thirdly, from the ability to arouse passion in listeners: for us this ability does not seem important, but for the ancient orator, who so often had to combine logic with the power of emotion, this quality was the first key to success. Cicero here was an unsurpassed master, equally capable of eliciting laughter and tears from the public: his jokes enjoyed such fame that they were published in separate collections, and he aroused pity and hatred with such skill that when he had to share a defensive speech with other speakers (as was often done in Rome), the conclusion was unanimously left to his share - the most intense and passionate part of the speech.

Cicero's speeches combine semantic richness and logic of evidence with exquisite “flowers of eloquence” (tropes and figures). From the works of Cicero, 9 treatises on rhetoric, 58 political and judicial speeches, and 80 letters have reached us. In his works (especially in the “Three Treatises on Oratory”), Cicero fully presented the classical sections of rhetoric, predetermining the path from thought to word and called the “rhetorical canon”: invention, arrangement, expression, memorization, pronunciation.

Cicero's rhetorical ideal is admiration for the orator for the people, the orator - tribune. He devoted a lot of effort to working with beginning, young speakers. In his treatises / “On the Orator”, “The Orator”/ Cicero teaches, passionately preaches, gives numerous examples - all for the education of the “ideal” orator. The system of training young orators proposed by Cicero has been relevant for thousands of years in many countries of the world, and the very name of the Roman rhetorician has long become synonymous with the art of eloquence (“Speaks like Cicero” - this is how they praise someone’s successful public speech). Let us present the components of the “ideal speaker” (according to Cicero) in the form of a diagram.

Related information.

Rhetorical ideal.

Its essence and roots. Sophistic rhetoric. Ancient rhetorical ideal (serving goodness and happiness, allowing “white lies”). Old Russian traditions (ʼʼThe Tale of Bygone Yearsʼʼ). Speech culture of Eastern civilizations (Egypt, China, India). Speech act concept.

The signs of the rhetorical ideal are: a certain scheme for analyzing any statement, the appearance of the speaker, the speaker’s position on the dilemma “truth - lie”, ethics and aesthetics of speech.

Rhetoric is directly related to language, it is the science of speech and communication between people, but it was born among philosophers, from dialectics - the science of persuasion and evidence.

Features of the rhetorical ideal sophists: the use of erism, excessive praise of some and condemnation of others, the use of techniques - sophistry, wit, resourcefulness.

Speech culture of civilizations East(style, figures of speech, mastery of sophistry are valued). Style is something new that is based on culture folded into a systematized history. In India, oratory traditions are based on the class structure of society. By the 1st millennium BC includes the formation Sanskrit(ʼʼlanguage brought to perfectionʼʼ). In Eastern civilizations, a theoretical concept of speech action has not developed. In the practical sphere, oratory, ritual, informational (pedagogical), imperative, artistic, and discussion speech developed in all cultures.

Literature:

1. Vvedenskaya L.A., Pavlova L.G. Culture and art of speech. -Rostov-on-Don. 1995

2. Ivanova S.F. Specifics of public speech.-M., 1978

3. Nozhin E.A. Mastery of oral presentation.-M., 1989

4. On oratory./Collected articles.-M., 1980

5. Fundamentals of public speaking.-M., 1980

6. Oratory: Reader.-M., 1978.

7. Sakharov V.R. Skills and abilities of the lecturer.-M., 1978.

Sources:

1. Losev A.F. Philosophy. Mythology. Culture. - M., 1991.

Further reading:

1. Averintsev S.S. Rhetoric and the origins of the European literary tradition. - M., 1996.