Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878 course and results. In artistic culture

The Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878 was a war between the Russian Empire and its allied Balkan states on the one hand, and the Ottoman Empire on the other. It was caused by the rise of national consciousness in the Balkans. The brutality with which the April Uprising in Bulgaria was suppressed aroused sympathy for the plight of Christians in the Ottoman Empire in Europe and especially in Russia. Attempts to improve the situation of Christians by peaceful means were thwarted by the stubborn reluctance of the Turks to make concessions to Europe, and in April 1877 Russia declared war on Turkey.

A detachment of Don Cossacks in front of the emperor's residence in Ploesti, June 1877.

During the ensuing hostilities, the Russian army managed, using the passivity of the Turks, to successfully cross the Danube, capture the Shipka Pass and, after a five-month siege, force the best Turkish army of Osman Pasha to capitulate in Plevna. The subsequent raid through the Balkans, during which the Russian army defeated the last Turkish units blocking the road to Constantinople, led to the Ottoman Empire's withdrawal from the war.

At the Berlin Congress held in the summer of 1878, the Berlin Treaty was signed, which recorded the return to Russia of the southern part of Bessarabia and the annexation of Kars, Ardahan and Batum. The statehood of Bulgaria (conquered by the Ottoman Empire in 1396) was restored as the vassal Principality of Bulgaria; The territories of Serbia, Montenegro and Romania increased, and Turkish Bosnia and Herzegovina was occupied by Austria-Hungary.

Emperor Alexander II

Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich, Commander-in-Chief of the Danube Army, in front of the main headquarters in Ploesti, June 1877.

A sanitary convoy for transporting the wounded of the Russian army.

Mobile sanitary detachment of Her Imperial Majesty.

Field hospital in the village of Pordim, November 1877.

His Majesty the Emperor Alexander II, Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich and Carol I, Prince of Romania, with headquarters officers in Gornaya Studen, October 1877.

Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich, Prince Alexander of Battenberg and Colonel Skarialin in the village of Pordim, September 1877.

Count Ignatiev among employees in Gornaya Studen, September 1877.

Transition of Russian troops on the way to Plevna. In the background is the place where Osman Pasha delivered his main attack on December 10, 1877.

View of the tents housing wounded Russian soldiers.

Doctors and nurses of the field hospital of the Russian Red Cross, November 1877.

Medical personnel of one of the sanitary units, 1877.

A hospital train carrying wounded Russian soldiers at one of the stations.

Russian battery in position near Corabia. Romanian coast, June 1877.

Pontoon bridge between Zimnitsa and Svishtov from the Bulgarian side, August 1877.

Bulgarian holiday in Byala, September 1877.

Prince V. Cherkassky, head of the civil administration in the lands liberated by the Russians, with his comrades-in-arms in a field camp near the village of Gorna Studena, October 1877.

Caucasian Cossacks from the imperial convoy in front of the residence in the village of Pordim, November 1877.

Grand Duke, heir to the throne Alexander Alexandrovich with his headquarters near the city of Ruse, October 1877.

General Strukov in front of the house of the residents of Gornaya Studena, October 1877.

Prince V. Cherkassky at his headquarters in Gornaya Studen, October 1877.

Lieutenants Shestakov and Dubasov, who blew up the Selfi monitor in the Machinsky branch of the Danube River, June 14-15, 1877. The first holders of the St. George Cross in the Russian-Turkish War, June 1877.

Bulgarian governor from the retinue of Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich, October 1877.

Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich with his adjutant in front of a tent in Pordim, 1877.

Guards Grenadier Artillery Brigade.

His Majesty the Emperor Alexander II, Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich and Carol I, Prince of Romania, in Gornaya Studen. The photograph was taken just before the storming of Plevna on September 11, 1877.

General I.V. Gurko, Gorna Studena, September 1877.

A group of generals and adjutants in front of the residence of Alexander II in Pordim, October-November 1877.

The forefront of the Caucasians.

During the Russian-Turkish War of 1878, two types of weapons were used: bladed weapons and firearms - rifles. According to technical characteristics, rifles were divided into two groups: single-shot for a unitary cartridge and multi-shot (magazine). Single-shot rifles were in service with the warring parties, multi-shot rifles were used only by irregular formations and volunteers (bashi-bazouks). BERDAN RIFLE No. 2 mod. 1870. It was this gun with a caliber of 10.67 mm that became the famous “Berdanka”, which remained in service with the army for twenty years until 1891, when it was replaced by the no less famous “three-line” caliber 7.62 mm (Berdan Rifle), developed by Colonel American service Hiram Berdan, together with Russian officers Colonel Gorlov and Captain Gunius sent to America, was adopted in Russia for arming rifle battalions; and the 1869 model is for arming all units of the Russian troops in general.

Rifles and carbine of the Berdan-2 system, model 1870: 1 - infantry rifle, 2 - dragoon rifle, 3 - Cossack rifle, 4 - carbine.

bayonet for Berdan rifle No. 2

The best rifle in Europe

Berdan-2 arr. 1870

M1868 Russian Berdan I: The Turkish army used Austrian rifles of the Wenzel (Wenzl) system mod. 1867 and Verdl model 1877.

Austrian rifle of the Wenzel (Wenzl) system mod. 1867

Austrian Werdl rifle of 1877

The Turkish army was also equipped with Snyder rifles and Martini rifles.

Breech-loading rifle of the Snyder system model 1865 with a folding bolt, England
Breech-loading
rifle
Martini-Henry system model 1871 with a swinging shutter (fragment). England

Source: http://firearmstalk.ru/forum/showthread.php?t=107 Bashi-bazouks and Turkish regular cavalry used American rifles and carbines of the Henry and Winchester systems with an under-barrel tubular magazine. The American Winchester rifle was one of the first weapon systems chambered for a metal cartridge . It was designed, however, not by Winchester at all, but by the American gunsmith and engineer B. T. Henry for a special metal side-fire cartridge of 44 caliber (11.2 mm). In 1860, he assigned the patent and all rights to this gun to the New Haven Armament Company, owned by O. F. Winchester. Henry himself became the director of the Winchester factory, and these weapons began to be named after the owner of the company; from 1867 and the factory became known as the Winchester Repairing Arm Company. In 1866, the magazine began to be filled with cartridges through the charging hole in the receiver, and not from the front of the magazine, as was originally the case with Henry. The Winchester magazine proved itself to be excellent during the American Civil War (1861-1865), and later as a hunting rifle. http://corsair.teamforum.ru/viewtopic.php?f=280&t=1638

hard drives

During the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878, combat blade weapons were widely used - scimitars, broadswords and sabers. In the literature, scimitars and sabers are sometimes called scimitars, and sometimes this name is assigned exclusively to Janissary daggers. This is wrong. Only a weapon with a slight double bend can be called a scimitar. The length of the blade could be different. The Janissaries had really short scimitars, but cavalry examples could have blades up to 90 cm long. The weight of the scimitars, regardless of their size, was at least 0.8 kg. With less weight, the weapon became difficult to chop.

scimitar

Scimitar. Balkans, early 19th century.

Scimitar in sheath. Türkiye. 19th century


The scimitar could be used to stab, chop and cut. Moreover, chopping blows were applied with the upper part of the blade, and cutting blows with the lower part - with the concave part. That is, they cut with a scimitar, like a saber or a katana, so he did not have a guard. But there was a difference. The scimitar did not need to be leaned on with both hands, like a Japanese sword; it did not have to be moved slowly, like a saber. It was enough for a foot soldier to sharply pull the scimitar back. The rider had to simply hold him. The rest, as they say, was a matter of technique. The concave blade “bite” into the enemy itself. And to prevent the scimitar from being torn out of the hand, its handle was equipped with ears that tightly covered the fighter’s hand from behind. The heaviest samples had a rest for the second hand under the usual handle.
About the penetrating power of scimitars, it is enough to say that even the 50-centimeter daggers of the Janissaries pierced knightly armor. dagger), a cutting and piercing bladed weapon with a straight and long blade.

Broadsword_Osman Pasha

It can have double-sided (early samples), one-sided and one-and-a-half sharpening. The length of the blade is up to 85 cm. By the beginning of the 19th century, the Russian army had several types of broadswords in service: guards cuirassier broadswords, army cuirassier broadswords, dragoon broadswords, with the exception of dragoons in the Caucasus, which were armed with sabers. Horse artillery also had special horse artillery broadswords.

Naval officer's broadsword model 1855/1914. Russia. 19th century
Blade length - 83.3 cm;
Blade width - 3 cm;
Total length - 98 cm.
The blades of Russian broadswords from the first decade of the 19th century were only single-edged. In the first third of the 19th century, various types of broadswords were unified: the dragoon model of 1806, the cuirassier model of 1810, and the cuirassier model of 1826, which replaced it. Broadswords were in service with cuirassiers until they were reorganized into dragoons in 1882, after which broadswords remained only in some military units as ceremonial weapons. The naval broadsword is a type of cavalry broadsword, it is distinguished by a somewhat curved, but more often straight blade and the presence at the combat end on both sides sides of obliquely set ribs, which are a continuation of the butt and reach the tip.

Cuirassier officer's broadswords, model 1826. Made in 1855 and 1856. Chrysostom

The naval broadsword has been used since the 16th century as a boarding weapon. In Russia, naval broadswords were introduced into the navy under Peter I. Russian naval broadswords of the 19th century differ from cavalry ones in their smaller size, the shape of the blades and hilts. A large number of naval broadswords were made in Zlatoust in 1852-1856 and later.
http://www.megabook.ru

Russian cavalry saber model 1827, kladenets

"Infantry sabers and cutlasses. Zlatoust arms factory, mid-19th century
The Russian Navy made its contribution to the defeat of the Turkish troops. Vice Admiral of the Russian Fleet Stepan Osipovich Makarov (1848-1904) played a huge role in the development of naval underwater weapons in the Russian Navy. His merits in this matter include, first of all, the idea of ​​​​creating mine boats (the prototype of destroyers) and arming them with pole mines, and later with torpedoes; modernization of pole mines using stern attachment; creation of towed lionfish mines. In combat tactics, Stepan Osipovich was the first to use mines as an offensive weapon off the enemy’s coast during the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878, and carried out the first combat attack on an enemy ship with Whitehead torpedoes. Makarov provided invaluable assistance to his flagship miner K.F. Schultz in creating the world's first trawl. During the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878. boats with pole mines, improved by S. O. Makarov, were widely used in the Russian fleet. They sunk the Turkish monitor Selfi. At the same time, S. O. Makarov developed and successfully used a lionfish mine towed by a boat. The Turkish battleship Assari was blown up by such a mine. torpedo boats and destroyers were created.
The idea of ​​​​creating torpedo boats belongs to the talented Russian admiral S. O. Makarov, who was the first to use torpedoes in a combat situation from boats specially equipped for torpedo firing. Russia, the first to appreciate the value of this new weapon, built several destroyers with a displacement of 12 tons, torpedoes and the successful use of mines by the Russian fleet in the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878. made a strong impression on the naval circles of other states that had a large number of large ships, apparently defenseless against this new weapon, since it seemed that strong artillery and thick armor were nothing in front of a small ship bringing death to a large ship. (MILITARY LITERATURE --[ Equipment and weapons ] -- Shershov A)

If we talk briefly about the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878, about the reasons that provoked its outbreak, then, first of all, it is worth mentioning the brutal oppression of the Christian population of the Balkan territories occupied by the Ottoman Empire and that were part of it. This happened with the connivance and implementation of a “Turkophile” policy by France and England, which “turned a blind eye” to the killings of civilians and, in particular, to the savage atrocities of the Bashi-Bazouks.

Background

The relationship between the two empires, Russian and Ottoman, since their founding has undergone a number of significant disagreements, which led to frequent brutal wars. In addition to territorial disputes, in particular over the territory of the Crimean Peninsula, the prerequisites for the emergence of conflicts were religious disagreements based on the fact that Russia was the successor of Byzantium, captured and plundered by Muslim Turks, who turned Christian shrines into Muslim ones. Raids on Russian settlements and the capture of residents into slavery often led to military clashes. In short, the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878. was provoked precisely by the cruelty and intolerance of the Turks towards the Orthodox population.

The position of European states, in particular Britain, which did not want the strengthening of Russia, also contributed to the development of Russian-Turkish disagreements, which led to the Ottoman Empire pursuing a policy of tightening and oppressing enslaved Christians, mainly Orthodox: Greeks, Bulgarians, Serbs and other Balkan Slavs.

Conflict, its prerequisites

The events that predetermined the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878 can be briefly described as a struggle for the independence of the Balkan peoples, mainly Slavic and Orthodox. After the end of the Crimean War, the Treaty of Paris was signed; its Article 9 directly obliged the government of the Ottoman Empire to provide Christians living on its territory with equal rights to Muslims. But things did not go further than the Sultan’s decree.

The Ottoman Empire, in its essence, could not provide equal rights to all residents, as evidenced by the events of 1860 in Lebanon and the events of 1866-1869. on the island of Crete. The Balkan Slavs also continued to be subjected to severe oppression.

By that time, in Russia there had been a change in internal political sentiment towards the Turkish issue in society, and the strengthening of the power of the Russian army. The prerequisites for preparations for the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878 can be briefly summarized in two points. The first is the successful reform in the Russian army carried out by Alexander II. The second is the policy of rapprochement and alliance with Prussia, which was emphasized by the new chancellor, the outstanding Russian politician Prince A. M. Gorchakov.

The main reasons for the start of the war

Briefly, the causes of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878 can be characterized by two points. Like the struggle of the Balkan peoples with the Turkish enslavers and the strengthening of Russia, wanting to help the Slavic brothers in their just struggle and seeking revenge for the lost war of 1853-1856.

The beginning of the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878 (briefly) was the summer rebellion in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the preconditions of which were an unjustified and exorbitant increase in taxes established by the Turkish government, which at that time was financially insolvent.

In the spring of 1876, for the same reason, an uprising occurred in Bulgaria. During its suppression, more than 30 thousand Bulgarians were killed. Irregular detachments of bashi-bazouks distinguished themselves with particular atrocities. All this became known to the European public, which created an atmosphere of sympathy for the Balkan peoples and criticism of their government, which, thanks to its tacit consent, contributed to this.

An equally large wave of protests swept across Russia. The country's public, concerned about the growing violence against the Slavic peoples of the Balkans, expressed its dissatisfaction. Thousands of volunteers expressed a desire to provide assistance to Serbia and Montenegro, which declared war on Turkey in 1876. Having been defeated by Porte's troops, Serbia asked for help from European countries, including Russia. The Turks declared a month-long truce. Let's say briefly: the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878. was predetermined.

Russia's entry into the war

In October, the truce ended, the situation for Serbia became threatening, only Russia’s lightning-fast entry into the war and the ability to finish it in one company could deter England and France from invading. These countries, under pressure from anti-Turkish public sentiment, decide to send their expeditionary forces to the Balkans. Russia, in turn, having held meetings with a number of European powers, such as Austria-Hungary, and having secured their neutrality, decides to send troops to Turkish territory.

Russia declares war on Turkey 04/12/1877 Russian troops enter the territory of Romania. The army of this country decides to take its side, but carries out the decision only in August.

Progress of the war

Let's try to describe the course of the Russian-Turkish War (1877-1878) briefly. In June, Russian troops, consisting of 185 thousand soldiers, concentrated on the left bank of the Danube, in the Zimnitsa area. The command of the Russian army was led by Grand Duke Nicholas.

The Turkish army opposing Russia numbered more than 200 thousand people, most of whom were garrisons of fortresses. It was commanded by Marshal Abdulkerim Nadir Pasha.

To advance the Russian army, it was necessary to cross the Danube, on which the Turks had a military flotilla. Light boats were delivered by rail, which, with the help of minefields, prevented its action. The troops successfully crossed and went on the offensive, moving deeper into the country. The Russian army advanced in two directions: in the Caucasus and the Balkans. The Balkans were of primary importance, since, having captured Constantinople, one could talk about Turkey’s withdrawal from the war.

The main battle took place during the crossing of the Shipka Pass. In this battle, the Russians won and continued to move towards Constantinople, where in the area of ​​​​the Plevna fortress they encountered serious resistance from the Turks who had settled in it. And only in November the situation changed in favor of the Russians. Victorious in the battles, Russia took the city of Andrianopol in January 1878.

Conclusion of a peace treaty

Following the war, on March 16, 1878, a treaty was signed in San Stefano. It did not suit a number of leading European countries led by England. In addition, Britain held secret negotiations with Turkey, as a result of which it occupied the island of Cyprus in exchange for Turkish protection from the Russians.

As a result of behind-the-scenes intrigues, of which England was a master, the Berlin Treaty of July 1, 1878 was signed. As a result of its signing, most of the points of the San Stefano Treaty were annulled.

Results of the war

Let us briefly summarize the results of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878. As a result of the war, Russia returned the previously lost southern part of Bessarabia and the Kara region, populated mainly by Armenians. The territory of the island of Cyprus was occupied by England.

In 1885, the unified principality of Bulgaria was formed; after the Balkan wars, the Kingdom of Bulgaria became sovereign. Serbia, Romania and Montenegro gained independence.

The war between the Russian and Ottoman empires lasted from April 12, 1877 to February 18, 1878. A number of Balkan states also acted on Russia’s side. The result of the war was the liberation of the Balkan peoples from Ottoman rule, the independence of Romania, Serbia and Montenegro, as well as the acquisition of broad autonomy by Bulgaria. In addition, Russia annexed the Kara region and southern Bessarabia, and Romania annexed Silistra. Also, part of the territory of the Ottoman Empire was occupied by Great Britain and Austria-Hungary.

Prerequisites
The 19th century was marked by an intensification of the struggle for independence among the peoples of the European part of the Ottoman Empire. After a series of uprisings in 1815, autonomy was achieved for Serbia. In 1829, under the Treaty of Adrianople, Türkiye granted autonomy to Moldavia and Wallachia, and in 1830, after many years of war, recognized the independence of Greece. In 1866-1869 there was an uprising in Crete, which was suppressed by the Porte. Nevertheless, the islanders managed to achieve a number of privileges. In 1875, the Bosnian uprising began, in 1876 - the April uprising in Bulgaria, which were suppressed by the Ottoman government. The cruelty of the Turks caused outrage in Europe. Serbia and Montenegro declared war on Turkey, and numerous Russian volunteers fought on the side of the Serbs. Russia, eager to reassert its influence in the Balkans, began mobilizing its army, but to start the war it was necessary to ensure that the Western powers would not enter the conflict on Turkey's side. The Constantinople Conference of the Great Powers was convened and tried to resolve the conflict diplomatically, but the Porte rejected their proposals. During secret negotiations, it was also possible to obtain guarantees of non-interference from Austria-Hungary in exchange for the Austrian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. On April 24, 1878, Russia officially declared war on Turkey.

Strengths of the parties

In the European theater of operations, Russia had 185 thousand soldiers; together with its Balkan allies, the size of the group reached 300 thousand people. Russia had approximately 100 thousand soldiers in the Caucasus. In turn, the Turks in the European theater had a force of 186 thousand, and in the Caucasus about 90 thousand soldiers. In addition, the Turkish fleet almost completely dominated the Black Sea, and the Porte also had the Danube flotilla.

Progress of the war

In May 1877, Russian troops entered the territory of Romania; on June 27, the main forces of the Russian army crossed the Danube and began to advance deeper into enemy territory. On July 7, General Gurko’s detachment occupied Tarnovo and moved around the Shipka Pass, trying to encircle the Turkish troops located there. As a result, on July 19, the Turks occupied Shipka without a fight. On July 15, General Kridener's troops occupied Nikopol, but at the same time a large Turkish army under the command of Osman Pasha occupied the Plevna fortress, which was located on the right flank of the Russian troops. To successfully continue the campaign, it was necessary to take the fortress, but two hasty assaults on July 20 and 31 were unsuccessful. In August, Turkish troops tried to dislodge Russian units from Shipka, but encountered fierce resistance and were forced to withdraw four days later.

On September 11, the third assault on Plevna was launched, despite local successes, which also ended unsuccessfully for the Russian troops. After this, it was decided to begin a tight siege of the fortress, for which General Totleben was called from St. Petersburg. At this time, Suleiman Pasha’s army tried several times to break through the Shipka Pass, but failed each time.

In December 1877, the garrison of Plevna attempted to break through the positions of the Russian troops, but the grenadier corps withstood the attack of the Turks, after which they retreated back to the city and capitulated.

After the capture of Plevna, Russian troops, despite the harsh winter, continued to move south. On December 25, General Gurko’s detachment crossed the Churyak pass and occupied Sofia on January 4, 1878. In early January, the main forces of the Russian army crossed the Balkan ridge. On January 10, detachment M.D. Skobelev and N.I. Svyatopolk-Mirsky defeated the Turks at Sheinovo, capturing 22 thousand soldiers and officers. Suleiman Pasha's army retreated to Plovdiv, where on January 15-17 it was defeated by Gurko's detachment, losing more than 20 thousand people.

On January 20, Skobelev occupied Adrianople, and on January 30, Russian troops approached the suburbs of Istanbul.

In the Caucasian theater, the Turks managed to occupy the Black Sea coast in May after the uprising in Abkhazia, but already in August they were forced to retreat. On October 15, Russian troops defeated the army of Ahmed Mukhtar Pasha at the Battle of Aladzhi and besieged Kars, which surrendered on November 18.

Results
On March 3, 1878, the Peace of San Stefano was signed. According to it, Kars, Ardahan, Batum and Bayazet, as well as Southern Bessarabia, were ceded to Russia. Bulgaria and Bosnia and Herzegovina received broad autonomy, and Serbia, Montenegro and Romania received independence. In addition, Türkiye was obliged to pay an indemnity of 310 million rubles. The terms of peace were not satisfied by the great powers, and under their pressure Russia was forced to take part in the Berlin Congress, at which the results of the peace were revised. The territory of Bulgaria was reduced, Bayazet remained with Turkey, in addition, Great Britain received Cyprus, and Austria-Hungary received Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Nevertheless, the main result of the war - the independence of the Balkan peoples - was not revised.

In artistic culture

Painting:

Artist V.V. Vereshchagin dedicated his Balkan series of paintings to the war. In addition to him, a series of paintings dedicated to the war was created by N.D. Dmitriev-Orenburgsky.

Literature:

Garshin V.M. From the memoirs of Private Ivanov. 1885.

Akunin Boris. Turkish Gambit. 1998.

Pikul V. Bayazet. 1960.

Vasiliev B. They were and were not. 1981.

Cinema:

Heroes of Shipka, 1960

Yulia Vrevskaya, 1978 (dir. Nikola Korabov)

Bayazet, 2003 (dir. Andrey Chernykh, Nikolay Istanbul)

Turkish Gambit, 2005 (Dir. Janik Faziev)

Institute of Noble Maidens, 2010-2013 (dir. Yuri Popovich, Sergei Danelyan)

The results of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878 were very positive for Russia, which managed to regain not only part of the territories lost during the Crimean War, but also its position in international politics.

The results of the war for the Russian Empire and beyond

The Russo-Turkish War officially ended with the signing of the Treaty of San Stefano on February 19, 1878.

As a result of military operations, Russia not only received part of Bessarabia in the south, which it lost due to the Crimean War, but it also received the strategically important Batumi region (in which the Mikhailovsky Fortress was soon built) and the Carri region, the main population of which were Armenians and Georgians.

Rice. 1. Mikhailovskaya Fortress.

Bulgaria became an autonomous Slavic principality. Romania, Serbia and Montenegro became independent.

Seven years after the conclusion of the Treaty of San Stefano, in 1885, Romania united with Bulgaria, they became a single principality.

Rice. 2. Map of the distribution of territories under the Treaty of San Stefano.

One of the important foreign policy consequences of the Russian-Turkish war was that the Russian Empire and Great Britain emerged from a state of confrontation. This was greatly facilitated by the fact that she received the right to send troops to Cyprus.

TOP 5 articleswho are reading along with this

A comparative table of the results of the Russian-Turkish war will give a more clear idea of ​​what were the conditions of the Treaty of San Stefano, as well as the corresponding conditions of the Berlin Treaty (signed on July 1, 1878). The need for its adoption arose due to the fact that the European powers expressed their dissatisfaction with the original conditions.

Rice. 3. Map of the distribution of territories according to the Berlin Treaty.

The English historian A. Taylor noted that after 30 years of wars, it was the Berlin Treaty that established peace for 34 years. He called this document a kind of watershed between two historical periods. Evaluation of the report

Average rating: 4.6. Total ratings received: 111.