Complex conjunctions in English. Classification by lexical meaning

Conjunctions are words that we use to connect two or more sentences, or two words (members of sentences) together in one specific sentence.

The conjunction itself is not a member of the sentence. The most common conjunctions in English are the following: and, or, but, nor, for.

Examples:

She eats at canteen and works in the trade pavilion (She eats in the canteen and works in the trade pavilion). In this example, the conjunction “and” connects the sentence “she eats at canteen” with the sentence “works in the trade pavilion.”

In English, depending on the function in a sentence, there are two basic types of conjunctions:

Essay;

Subordinate.

Coordinating Conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions are used to connect two sentences that play an equally important role in our statement and describe actions that have an equal degree of significance. In other words, coordinating conjunctions join two simple sentences into a complex one, thereby forming a compound sentence.
Table of coordinating conjunctions in English:

Example:

We went to the beach but the sea was cold (We went to the beach, but the sea was cold).

In the example above, we used the coordinating conjunction “but” to connect two different sentences “We went to the beach” and “the sea was cold.”

Subordinating conjunctions

Conjunctions in English, represented by subordinating conjunctions, are used to connect two sentences when one of them depends on the other. In other words, this type of conjunction is used in the formation of complex sentences, where one of the sentences is the main one, and the other is a dependent (subordinate) one. Most conjunctions in English are subordinating conjunctions.
Table of the most common subordinating conjunctions in English:

It is worth noting that subordinate or dependent clauses “depend” on the main or independent clause. They cannot exist separately, because in this case they will lose their meaning.

For example, the sentence " Although I work hard I'm still sick"(Even though I work hard, I am still sick). Separately taken subordinate clause " Although I work hard" (even though I work hard) doesn't make any sense. But the main (independent) clause can be used on its own: “ I'm still sick"(I'm still sick).

Example:

This is the film that I told you about yesterday (This is the film that I told you about yesterday)

In this example, the subordinating conjunction “that” (which) is the introductory clause in the subordinate clause “I told you about yesterday,” which depends on the first, main clause “This is the film.”

Location of conjunctions in a sentence

Coordinating conjunctions are usually found between clauses or two separate clauses that they connect.

Subordinating conjunctions usually come at the beginning of a subordinate clause.

Use of conjunctions Use of conjunctions

Note: Before studying this material, it is recommended that you read the material " ".

Tables use of conjunctions in English
1. Coordinate conjunctions/coordinators
A. Copulative conjunctions

b. Adversative conjunctions

V. Disjunctive conjunctions

2. Subordinate conjunctions

3. Conjunctive words. A conjunctive word differs from a conjunction in that it can be a conjunction and at the same time a member of a sentence in a subordinate clause. Conjunctive words can be adverbs and relative pronouns.

In English grammar, conjunctions occupy special place. Thanks to them, you can combine short sentences and monosyllabic phrases into longer and more meaningful ones. Correct use of conjunctions will help you improve not only your oral but also your written speech. We will talk about what kind of conjunctions there are and what function they perform in the English language in our article.

What is a conjunction in English?

A conjunction is a functional part of speech that logically connects words, phrases and parts of a sentence. Conjunctions in English are different in that they do not change and do not depend on any grammatical characteristics of the words being connected.
Conjunctions can be classified by structure or function in a sentence.

English conjunctions by structure:

English conjunctions by their function in a sentence

It is believed that English conjunctions are divided into two large groups: coordinating and subordinating. Some researchers of English grammar distinguish another group - correlative conjunctions (or correlative). Typical representatives of this group are our friends such as “neither... not”, “not only... but also” and so on. But we will talk about them when we remember the writing group.

Coordinating Conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions in English (or Coordinating Conjunctions) connect individual words, phrases or equal clauses as part of a complex sentence. They indicate the semantic equality of units that are connected thanks to them.

Of course, such conjunctions are divided into their own subgroups, depending on what function they perform in the sentence.

Subordinating conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions in English (or Subordinating conjunctions) connect the subordinate clause with the main one. This is how complex sentences are obtained. There are quite a lot of such words in the English language. They are divided into subgroups, depending on what type of subordinate clause introduces the given word.

English Conjunction Table

It was all a little boring, but necessary theory of English grammar. At the end, we want to give a table of English conjunctions that are used most often.

and - and
also - also
as - how, in quality, since, when
as…. as - also...as
because - because
both…. and - how…. so and
but - but, except
either… or - or…. or
neither... nor - neither... nor
however - however
if - if
in order - in order to
in case - in case
moreover - moreover
nevertheless - nevertheless
or - or
otherwise - otherwise
once - once (already)
so... that - so that
so... as - so that
that - something that
therefore - therefore
than - than
although - although
thus - in this way
unless - if.., not
while - while
whether...
yet - however
like - like
lest - so as not to, no matter how not
unlike - not like
with - with
according to - according to something
in spite of - despite…
meanwhile - meanwhile
as if, as though - as if
as long as - until…. .
as soon as - as soon as
on condition - provided that

Shutikova Anna

Conjunctions are used to connect words or sentences.English alliancesThey differ from each other in what elements they connect, what nature of the relationship they establish, and also depending on their form.

Conjunctions belong to the auxiliary parts of speech and do not change externally. It is impossible to add numbers or persons to such words. Their meaning in a sentence is determined by how the fragments of the phrase relate to each other and what relationship they enter into.

Unions in a sentence

The function of conjunctions is to connect different elements with each other. These elements can be either individual words or entire sentences.

The most common conjunction is and. Using his example, we will show which elements a connection can be established between.

Individual words of any part of speech can be combined:

I bought apples and bananas - I bought apples and bananas.

This movie is so interesting and thrilling - This movie is so interesting and exciting.

Or phrases:

I saw the doctor from the local hospital and his beautiful wife - I saw the doctor from the local hospital and his beautiful wife.

English Conjunctionscan combine whole sentences:

Alice is asleep upstairs and Bobby is playing in the garden - Alice is sleeping upstairs, and Bobby is playing in the garden.

Alice is asleep upstairs. And Bobby is playing in the garden - Alice is sleeping upstairs. And Bobby is playing in the garden.

Types of conjunctions in English

The pure connection of elements is not the only role of conjunctions in English. In addition to connection, they can also contribute different meanings. According to the nature of communication in the English language, the following are distinguished:

• Coordinating conjunctions
• Subordinating conjunctions

According to their form, unions are divided into:

• Simple conjunctions
• Compound conjunctions
• Composite conjunctions

Coordinating Conjunctions

The peculiarity of coordinating conjunctions is that two related elements have equivalent status. If such a conjunction unites homogeneous members of a sentence, then they depend on the same word. If a conjunction connects sentences, then they are equivalent in meaning and do not depend on each other.

To essay English conjunctions include: and - and, and
or - or
nor - also not
but - but
either… or - or… or
neither... nor - neither... nor

Various parts of speech and fragments of various lengths can be used as connected elements:

It was cold but sunny - It was cold but sunny.

I called her but she didn’t answer - I called her, but she didn’t answer.

Neither my husband nor my father have liked this movie - Neither my husband nor my father liked this movie.

The type of coordinating conjunctions is distinguished based on the function in the sentence and the nature of the connection of the elements. According to their meaning, they can be divided into three main groups: coordinative, disjunctive and adversative. Coordinating conjunctions (for example, and - and) connect fragments into a single whole. Separating ones emphasize the singular nature of each element. These include, for example, the unionor in English, which means "or". Adverses - such as but - contrast elements with each other.

Coordinating:

and - and
both… and - and… and
nor - also not

I love both my work and my hobby - I love both my work and my hobby.

Dividers:

or - or either ... or - or ... or

We can go there on Friday or on Saturday - We can go there on Friday or Saturday.

Nasty:

but - but
yet - however
nevertheless - nevertheless

This is a wonderful yet sad story - This is a wonderful, but sad story.

Subordinating conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions not only connect different elements, but also indicate their disparity: one element is in a dependent position on another. In this case, the use of the dependent without indicating the main one turns out to be incomplete.

Most often, subordinating conjunctions connect parts of a statement and form a complex sentence. SuchEnglish conjunctionsoccupy a position at the beginning of the dependent part of the phrase. If they establish a connection between phrases in a simple sentence, then one of them turns out to be the main one, and the other - dependent:

My wife is older than I am - My wife is older than I am.

The meaning of the subordinating conjunction indicates the nature of the connection between the parts of the sentence. Based on differences in meaning, several groups of subordinating conjunctions can be distinguished.

Temporary value:

after - after
before - before
when - when
while - while
since - since
till / until - for now
as soon as - as soon as
as long as - for now

Can you play with children while I’m making dinner? -Can you play with the children while I prepare dinner?

My secretary will inform me as soon as we’ve received the letter - My secretary will inform me as soon as we receive the answer.

Purpose and cause-and-effect relationship:

because - because as - since
since - since
that - to
so that - in order to
in order to - in order to
though / although - although, despite
lest - so as not to

We had a big quarrel with our neighbors just because he had told a stupid joke - We had a big fight with our neighbors, simply because he made a stupid joke.

He said it in a loud voice so that anyone could hear - He said it loudly so that everyone could hear.

Explanatory English alliances:

that - what
where - where / where
when - when
if - whether
whether - whether

My mother told me that he was a liar - My mother told me that he is a liar.

He asked whether we had traveled this summer - He asked if we traveled this summer.

Conditional:

if - if
unless - if not
provided / providing - provided that

If you have any doubts don’t accept the proposal - If you have any doubts, do not accept the proposal.

Provided that we would get government support, the project has a chance to be successful - If we receive government support, the project has a chance to become successful.

Mode of action and comparison:

as if - as if
than - than

He talks about it as if it is the end of the world - He talks about it as if it is the end of the world

The same union can have different meanings and belong to several groups at once. For example, the conjunction if can introduce an indirect question or be used in conditional sentences where it expresses a cause-and-effect relationship.

I’m not sure if he has already come - I’m not sure if he has already come.

If Mary doesn’t leave home in five minutes, she will miss the train - If Mary doesn’t leave home in the next five minutes, she will miss the train.

Conjunctive words in relative clauses

Among English conjunctionsa group of allied words can be distinguished. Their difference is that they replace the corresponding part of speech in a sentence and act as full-valued members of the sentence.

Relative pronouns serve as conjunctive words:

who - who, which
whose - whose
when - when
where - where
which - which
that - which

Such phrases can be reformulated by replacing relative pronouns with sentence members from the main part of the statement.

I came in at that moment when Mary and John were arguing - I entered at the moment when Mary and John were arguing (I came in and Mary and John were arguing at that moment).

That is the town where I spent all my childhood - This is the city where I spent all my childhood (I spent all my childhood in that town).

This is the painter whose works I adore - This is the artist whose works I adore (I adore the works of this painter).

Conjunctive words that refer to an object or subject from the main part of the phrase vary depending on their animation and position in the sentence:

who - who: replaces the animate subject of the main clause

whom - whom: replaces an animate noun in the indirect case

which - which: replaces an inanimate noun

that - which: can replace an inanimate or animate noun under certain conditions

The man who lives next door is always very polite - The man who lives next door is always very polite (who replaces the animate noun person from the first part of the sentence and stands in the subject position of the dependent part: This polite man lives next door).

She "s the woman to whom I would give everything - She is the woman to whom I would give everything (whom acts as an animate object in a dependent clause: I would give everything to this woman).

The conjunctive word which for inanimate nouns can appear in both the object and subject positions:

I saw a movie which is much more exciting - I saw a movie, much more exciting (which replaces the subject of the sentence: That movie is much more exciting).

We have visited the house which we want to buy - We looked at the house we want to buy (which replaces the object of the sentence: We want to buy this house).

The word that is the most universal: it can act as both an animate and inanimate participant in the situation:

We have visited the house that we want to buy - We looked at the house that we want to buy.

The man that lives next door is always very polite - The man who lives next door is always very polite.

However, using that to refer to a person is not always possible. The word that is used only to specify who we are talking about. If the relative clause does not indicate a person, but introduces additional information about him, English union that cannot be used.

My brother Charles, who is fond of reading, gave me this book - My brother Charles, who loves to read, gave me this book (who is used as a description of an already specified person, so replacement with that is impossible).

The difference between conjunctions and other parts of speech

Some words can act both as conjunctions and as other members of a sentence.

For example, the same words can serve as conjunctions and interrogative pronouns:

We’ve been in a little town where there is no theater - We were in a small town where there is no theater (where is a conjunction word).

Where can I find it? - Where can I find this? (where is a question word).

A typical situation is when conjunctions have the same form as prepositions or adverbs. For example, the words after and before can be used in three functions: conjunction, preposition or adverb:

I’ve seen her before - I saw her before (before – adverb).

I was there before you - I was here before you (before – preposition).

I had seen her before you introduced us - I saw her before you introduced us (before - union).

As an adverb, words depend directly on the verb. Prepositions are always added to the next word in a sentence. When a word is used as a conjunction, it links together fragments of a statement, and its main meaning is to indicate the relationship between elements.

Simple and complex conjunctions

English alliancescan be divided not only by meaning and function in a sentence, but also by external form. Formally, they are divided into simple, complex and compound. The first group includes simple conjunctions consisting of one word. The second is monosyllabic, which have a complex internal structure: they contain suffixes and prefixes and can be formed from other parts of speech. Compounds are polysyllabic conjunctions that look like phrases or like a broken sequence of words.

Examples of simple conjunctions:

but - but
and - and
then - later
if - if
as - since

Complex unions are built from several elements: although - although
however - however
until - not yet
unless - if not
whereas - whereas

Compound conjunctions consist of several words, but their meaning is not shared, but belongs to the entire group. Such unions include: as if - as if
in order to - in order to
in case - if

In the group of compositesEnglish conjunctionsYou can also select paired/double. Their difference is that they not only consist of several words, but parts of one conjunction are separated in the sentence by other words.

either... or - or... or
neither... nor - neither... nor
both… and - and… and

At the weekend I will either be in Boston or in New York - On the weekend I will be either in Boston or in New York.

Neither Tom nor John heard about it - Neither Tom nor John heard about it.

Both cats and dogs are pets - Both cats and dogs are pets.

The most important thing to remember when considering this is that conjunctions in English play no less important role than in Russian.

Conjunctions refer to function words. Their goal is to connect together the members of a sentence, as well as the sentences themselves.

The classification of conjunctions in the English language is not the most complicated, they are:

1. subordinates (type 1)
2. essay (type 2).

Subordinating conjunctions

They introduce subordinate clauses and connect the main and subordinate clauses. These are unions if, whether(li) and that(What). Let's take a closer look at each case.

— Whether the fax will arrive in 2 days is not clear yet — Whether the fax will arrive in two days is still unclear. Here we are dealing with the conjunction “whether.” (Subject clause);

- The problem is that it is not easy to get a car - The problem is that finding a car is not easy. Here we are dealing with the conjunction “that”. (predicate subordinate clause);

— Ask Peter whether ( if) he can call as soon as possible - Ask Peter if he can call us as soon as possible.

Here we are dealing with a union whether (if) (Additional subordinate clause).

There are also conjunctions that introduce adverbial clauses into circulation. They, in turn, are also divided into several subspecies:

— Time;

After(after)

After the train had left we went to the bar. — After the train left, we went to the bar.

As(When)

As I was looking at the window I saw her. — When I looked out the window, I saw her.

As long as(until)

As long as they insist on the terms of the contract, we will not be able to come to an agreement. “As long as they insist on the terms of the contract, we will not be able to come to an agreement.”

As soon as(as soon as)

I will send the fax as soon as I come to you. - I'll send a fax as soon as I get to you.

Since(since)

What has Helen been doing since we last saw her? “What has Elena been doing since we last saw her?”

Until - till(Until….(not)

Please, stay here until (till) I have finished the work. - Please stay here until I finish my work.

— Reasons;

As(because)

As I have not seen the fax, I cannot discuss it with you. - Since I didn't read the fax, I can't discuss it with you.

Because(Because)

She will not call him because she is very busy. — She won’t call him because she’s busy.

— Conditions;

If(If)

We can go for a walk if you feel better. - We'll go for a walk if you feel better.

So that, in order that(in order to or that)

She gave me the textbook so that I can read it at home. — She gave me a textbook to read at home.

— Mode of action;

As(How)

She can do it as we told her. “She can do as we told her.”

As if(as if)

She did it as if she did not know thr rules. “She did it as if the rules were unfamiliar to her.”

- Comparisons.

As….as or not so….as(the same...as or not the same...as)

She speaks English as good as you. The film is not so funny as I hoped. — She speaks English as well as you. The movie is not as funny as I hoped.

Coordinating conjunctions in English

Their goal is to connect homogeneous members of a sentence with each other. Or a connection of independent clauses.

And(and, a).

The fax was signed and sent. — The fax was signed and sent. As well as(as well as)

She got our fax as well as the letter. “She received our fax, as well as the letter.”

Both….and(and….and, like….so and)

Both cats and mice like milk. — Both cats and mice love milk.

But(But)

I agree to sign the contract but I am busy at the moment. — I agree to sign the contract, but I’m busy right now.

Or(or, otherwise)

Do you want coffee or milk? — Do you want coffee or milk?

Either…..or(or...or)

She is either at home or at school. “She’s either at home or at school.”

In addition, not so often, but conjunctions are used to connect sentences “ however" (however), " besides" (Besides), " therefore"(therefore) and some others.

It should be remembered that in English conjunctions can coincide with prepositions and adverbs. It is necessary to pay attention to their role in the proposal.

I saw his hat after he had gone. — I saw his hat after he left. (union)

Usually she comes after lunch. — She usually comes after lunch. (pretext)

She can do it after. - She can do it later (adverb).

Below is a table of conjunctions with translation into Russian.