1) Pronunciation of voiced and voiceless consonants
In the speech stream consonants modern Russian literary language, paired by voiced-voiceless, change in quality depending on its position in the word.
There are two cases of such changes:
a) at the end of words before a pause
b) at the end of words, not before a pause, but also inside a word. Changes in consonants, paired in voicedness-voicelessness and paired in softness-hardness, are explained by the effect of regressive assimilation.
1. Stunning voiced consonants at the end of a word. All voiced consonants at the end of a word are pronounced as paired voiceless consonants (except for sonorant r, l, m, n); two final voiced ones turn into the corresponding unvoiced ones: club, temper, horn, lie, elm, clang, izb, sober - [klup], [nraf], [rock], [losh], [v"as], [l"ask ], [sp], [tr "esf].
The deafening of final voiced consonants does not depend on the quality of the initial sound of the next word and occurs in the flow of speech before all consonants and vowels.
2. Deafening and voicing of consonants paired in terms of voicedness and voicelessness within a word. Voiced consonants inside a word are deafened in front of deaf people, and deaf consonants in front of voiced ones (except in) are voiced: tube, low, request, behind, to the wife - [trupk", [n"isk], [prozb", [hell "and], [Ms. e"e].
2) Pronunciation of hard and soft consonants
At the end of a word and before some consonants, as well as before the vowel sounds [a], [o], [u], the hardness and softness of the consonants are clearly distinguished. The softness of consonants in the indicated positions is indicated in written speech: at the end of a word and before some consonants - the letter ь (cf. ryab - ripple, treasure - luggage, blow - hit, daw - pebble, housekeeper - save, etc.) , and before the vowels [a], [o], [y] - the letters i, e, yu (cf. mother - knead, knock - bale, nose - carried). The use of the letter ь after hissing [zh], [sh], [h], [sch] does not affect the pronunciation of these consonants, since it has a morphological meaning and indicates the form of the words (cf. knife - multiply, our - give, bream - thing, weaver - jump, call - cut, etc.).
1. Softness of consonants indicated in writing(ь and letters i, e, e, yu): brother - take, jackdaw - pebble, shaft - sluggish, nose - carried, knock - bale - [brother - brother "], [daw - gal "kъ], [shaft - in "al", [nose - n"os], [knock - t"uk].
The final labials, in accordance with the spelling, are pronounced softly: flail - chain, blood - blood, slave - ripple - [tsep - tsep"], [krof - krof"], [rap - r "ap"].
Soft labials before ya, ё, yu are pronounced without additional articulation of softness: five, knead, chalk, vel, engraving, puree - [p"ät"], [m"ät"], [m"ol], [v"ol ], [grav "ur", [n "ype].
The softness [m] in the words seven, eight is preserved in complex numerals: seven - seventy - seven hundred, eight - eighty - eight hundred - [s"em" - s"em"ds"t - s"i e m"sot], [ vos"m" - vos"m"d"bs"yt - vos"i e m"sot).
2. Softness of consonants not indicated in writing. In the position before consonants, the hardness and softness of consonants often have a non-independent, assimilative character, i.e. depends on the hardness and softness of the subsequent consonant. The softness of consonants in this case is not indicated in writing.
The softening of hard consonants before soft ones depends on various conditions: what consonants they are, what soft consonants they are in front of, in what part of the word there is a combination of consonants, what style of speech this or that word belongs to:
a) inside a word, before the sound [j], the consonants are softened in some cases: fish, leaves, judge, guest - [fish" ъ], [lûst" ъ], [court"ja", [gos"t" ъ];
b) dental consonants [z], [s], [d], [t] before soft dental and labial consonants are pronounced softly: milk mushroom, sadness - [grus "t"], [grus "t"], wall, song - , [p"ê"s"nъ]. In a number of words, the softening is variable: ripe, star, hard, door - [s"p"ely] and [sp"ely], [z"v"i e zda] and [zv "and e zda", [t"v"orda] and [tv"orda], [d"v"i e no] and [dv"i ern];
c) the consonant [n] before soft [d], [t], [n] (less often before [z], [s]), as well as before [h], [sch] is pronounced softly: kantik, bandit, horseman, pensioner, claim, chick - [kan"t"ik], [bΛn"d"it], [ko "ik", [p"nns"iΛner], [pr"i e ten"z"i b", [ pt"ên"ch"ik];
d) the consonant of the prefix s- and the preposition consonant with it, as well as the final consonants of the prefixes consonant with it and the prepositions consonant with them before soft dental and separative ь are pronounced softly: loafer, idle, product, out of business, remove - [b "and e z"d"kl'k], [b"i e z"-del], [iz"d"l"i ь], [iz"-d"el", [iz"jat]. In other cases, the softness is variable: removed, from him - [s"n"al] and [sn"al", [s"-n"i e vo] and [s-n"i e vo];
e) labials do not soften in front of the posterior palatals: bets, breaking, tenacious - [stafk"i], [breaking"i], [tsepk"i];
f) final consonants [t], [d], [b] in prefixes before soft labials and separative ъ are not softened: ate, drink - [Λtjel], [Λtp "it"];
g) the consonant [p] before soft dental and labial ones, as well as before [h], [sch] is pronounced firmly: artel, cornet, feed, samovar, welder - [Λrt"kl"], [kΛrn"et], [kΛrm "ût", [samlvarch"ûk], [svar "ik].
3) Pronunciation of consonant combinations
1. The combinations ezh - zzh, ssh - zsh at the junction of morphemes, as well as a preposition and the following word are pronounced as a double solid consonant: squeezed, without fat, sewed, without a splint, carried, climbed - [al], [b "and e yr], [ yl], [b"i eyns], [n"o s], [owns].
2. Combinations zzh, as well as zhzh inside the root are pronounced as a long soft consonant [ "]: I ride, squeal, later, reins, yeast - [ej "y", [v" and "y", [by "b", [ in "and", [dro "and] (pronunciation LJ as is acceptable).
3. Combinations сч, зч at the junction of a root and a suffix are pronounced as a long soft or [sh"ch"]: scribe ["ik", [-sh"ch"ik], customer [- "ik", [-sh"ch "hic]. At the junction of a prefix and a root or a preposition with the following word in place of сч, зч it is pronounced [ш"ч"]: without a number [b"ш"ч"isla], comb [рΛшчоскъ].
4. Combinations tch, dch at the junction of morphemes are pronounced as double soft [ "]: pilot [l "o "ik], young fellow [milo "ik], report [Λ "ot].
5. The combination ts at the junction of verb endings with the postfix -sya is pronounced as a double hard: proud and proud [гΛрд" и ъ];
ts, ds (in combinations tsk, dsk, tstv, dstv) at the junction of the root and the suffix are pronounced as [ts]: brotherly [bratski], factory [zavΛtskoi], kinship [rΛtstvo].
6. Combinations tts, dts at the junction of morphemes, less often in roots, are pronounced as double: brother [bra ъ], pick up [пъ еы п"it"], twenty [two ът"].
7. The combination chn, as a rule, is pronounced as [chn], and in the following words as [shn]: boring, of course, on purpose, scrambled eggs, trifling, laundry, birdhouse and in female patronymics like Nikitichna.
8. The combination of th, as a rule, is pronounced not as [cht], but as [pcs]: what, so, so that, something (-or, -anything), nothing.
9. Combinations gk, gch are usually pronounced as [khk], [khch]: soft [m "ahk"i ], lighter [l "ehch"b].
4) Unpronounceable consonants
When pronouncing words, some morphemes (usually roots) in certain combinations with other morphemes lose one or another sound. As a result, the spellings of words contain letters devoid of sound meaning, the so-called unpronounceable consonants. Unpronounceable consonants include:
1) t - in combinations stn (cf.: inert and bone), stl (happy), ntsk - ndsk (cf.: gigantic - intriguing, Dutch - hooligan), stsk (cf.: Marxist and Tunisian);
2) d - in combinations zdn (cf.: holiday and ugly), rdts (cf.: heart and door);
3) in - in combinations vstv (cf.: to feel and participate), lvstv (to remain silent);
4) l - in combination lnts (cf.: sun and window).
5) Pronunciation of consonant sounds indicated by two identical letters
In Russian words, combinations of two identical consonants are usually found between vowels at the junction of the morphological parts of the word: prefix and root, root and suffix. In foreign words, double consonants can be long in the roots of words. Since the longitude of sounds is not characteristic of the phonemic system of the Russian language, foreign words, as they are mastered by the Russian language, lose the longitude of consonants and are pronounced with a single sound (cf. to[n]el, te[r]asa, a[p]arat, a[p]etit, co[r]ector, co[m]ertia, etc.).
A double consonant is usually pronounced in a position after a stressed vowel (cf.: in A[nn]a, m A[ss]a, gr at[pp]a, program A[mm]a, etc.). At the end of a word, double consonants, as a rule, are not pronounced (cf. krista[l], meta[l], gri[p], gram[m], etc.).
6) Pronunciation of individual sounds
1. The sound [g] before vowels, voiced and sonorant consonants is pronounced as a voiced plosive consonant: mountain, where, hail; before voiceless consonants and at the end of a word - like [k]: burned, burned [Λzh "oks"ъ], [Λzhok]. The pronunciation of the fricative sound ([ã ]) is possible in limited cases, and with fluctuations: in the forms of the words God, Lord; in interjections aha, wow, ege, gop, goplya.
2. In place of the letters zh, sh, ts, hard sounds [zh], [sh], [ts] are pronounced in all positions: parachute, brochure - [parshut], [broshur]; end, end, calico - [end], [end], [s"and ъм]. But in the word jury, the preferred pronunciation is [zh"ÿor"i].
3. In place of the letters ch, sch, soft consonants are always pronounced (ch), (uTj or (shch]: hour, choh, chur - [ch "as], [ch"oh], [ch"ur]; grove, Shchors , twitter, pike - [ro "b", ["ors", ["eb"b", ["uk".
4. In place of the letter and after zh, sh and c, the sound [s] is pronounced: lived, sewed, cycle - [zhyl], [shyl], [tsikl].
5. In place of the letter s in the affixes -sya - -s a soft sound [s] is pronounced: I’m afraid, I was afraid, I was afraid - [bΛjus"], [bΛjals"ъ], [bΛjals"].
6. In place of all consonant letters (except zh, sh, c) before [e], the corresponding soft consonants are pronounced (sel, sang, chalk, del, tel, etc.) [s"el", [p"el] , [m"el], [d"el], [t"el], etc. (for the pronunciation of these combinations in foreign words, see § 83).
7) Pronunciation of individual grammatical forms
1. Unstressed ending of the nominative singular case. Part masculine adjectives -y, -y are pronounced according to the spelling: [good], [proud], [prezhn"i], [lower"i].
The pronunciation of the ending -й after [k], [g], [x] is preferable in the soft version: [n"isk"i], [poor"i], [tih"i].
2. In place of the letter g at the end of the genitive case singular. Part of the masculine and neuter adjectives -ого and -его, a fairly distinct sound [в] is pronounced with a corresponding reduction of vowels: acute, this, the one whom - [ostръвъ], [етъвъ], [tΛvo], [кΛvo]. The sound [v] is pronounced in place of the letter g in the words: today, today, total.
3. The unstressed endings of the adjectives -aya, -oe coincide when pronounced: kind, kind [dobr' - dob'].
4. The ending (unstressed) of adjectives -yu - -yuyu is pronounced in accordance with the spelling: warm, summer - [t"oplu u", [l"et"n"u".
5. Endings -е, -и in the nominative plural case. parts of adjectives, pronouns, participles are pronounced as [ыи], [и]: dobrye, blue - [dobryi], [sin"i].
6. In place of the unstressed ending of the 3rd person plural. Part of verbs of the 2nd conjugation -at - -yat is pronounced [ът]: breathe, walk - [breathe], [move "ът].
7. Forms of the verbs na -nod, -givat, -hivat are pronounced with soft [k], [g], [x]: [jump"iv'l], [shudder"iv'l], [rΛzmah"iv'l].
When pronouncing consonant sounds, obstacles are created in the oral cavity, which the stream of exhaled air encounters. According to the method of formation, consonants are divided into plosives (or stops) and fricatives (or fricatives), depending on the nature of the obstacle formed by the articulatory organs: lips, teeth, tongue. If a stream of exhaled air sharply breaks the obstacle created by the speech organs, plosive sounds are formed: p-b, t - d, k - g. If a stream of exhaled air passes through the gap created by the articulatory organs, fricative sounds are formed : s - z, w - g, f - v, x.
Consonants are divided -
according to the place of formation: depending on the position of the tongue in relation to the hard and soft palate - into anterior, midlingual, posterior lingual - and depending on the participation of the lips - into labial (labialized) and labial-dental.
Depending on the degree of participation of the voice, consonants are voiceless, voiced and sonorant. Voiceless consonants are those consonants in the pronunciation of which the voice does not participate: p, t, k, x, s, f, sh, h, c. These consonants are formed by noise alone. Voiced are consonants whose pronunciation involves both noise and voice; vocal cords are closed and vibrate: b, d, d, h, c, g. Most voiceless and voiced consonants are paired: p - b, t - d, etc. Sonorant consonants are those in which the vocal cords are closed, vibrate, and the voice dominates the noise: m, n, l, r. They do not have paired voiceless sounds.
In the Russian language there are two component sounds - the so-called affricates: ts (merged together yew) and ch (merged together soft t and soft them). Both of them are deaf.
Most consonants can be both hard and soft: fight - squirrel (b - b"), gate - dried (v - v"), etc. The consonants f, sh, c are always hard; the consonant h is always soft.
When pronouncing consonants, the soft palate with a small tongue rises and closes the passage into the nasal cavity. Only two sounds - sonorant m and n - are an exception: when pronounced, the soft palate lowers and a stream of exhaled air passes through the nose.
Hardness and softness, sonority and dullness often serve to distinguish words by meaning:
small - crumpled house - volume
dust - dust woman - dad
whined - Neil year - cat
there was - a toothache - soup
Turks - Turks bar. -- steam
heat --fry heat --ball
Many foreign names, surnames and geographical names containing a consonant followed by e are pronounced with a hard consonant sound, and instead of e the sound is e:
Spelled Pronounced
Voltaire Volt[er]r
Marcel Mars[e]l
Othello Ot[e]llo
Merime M[e]rim[e]
Let us list the basic rules for pronunciating consonants in words.
1st rule. Voiced consonants at the end of words are deafened - they turn into their paired dull sounds.
Spelled Pronounced
club club[n]
chills chilly[n]
unicorn unicorn[k]
translation translation[t]
blood cro[f]
breakwater breakwater[s]
garage garage[w]
individual oso[n"]~
span five[t"]
herring sel[t"]
blood cro[f"]
frost frost[s"]
The sound g at the end of a word is usually replaced by the sound k. And only in the word god g is replaced by the sound x. In pronunciation, this word should not be confused with the word bok.
The 2nd rule is about the assimilation (assimilation) of consonants in terms of voiceness and deafness. If in a word or at the junction of words there are two consonants next to each other, of which the first is voiced and the second is voiceless, or vice versa, then the first is likened to the second:
Spelled Pronounced
tyre[tk]a block
bed bed[tk]a
spoon lo[shk]a
transportation of transportation
sponge gu[pk]a
rich
Tuesday [ft]ornik
Consonants that come before sonorants do not obey this rule: slag, hat, paint, circle, urgent, glory, phrase, tailcoat, etc. In addition, the sound v. does not completely obey this rule. He himself, being in first place, is likened to the deaf person next to him, that is, he is deafened: It is written
Pronounced
every [fs]any
bucket ko[fsh]
repeated po[ft]orny
But, occupying second place in the combination of consonants, the sound in does not resemble the previous sound: from above, dump, throw, skvalyga.
The sound g under the influence of the law of assimilation in two words - soft and light - and in derivatives from them is deafened, but passes not into the stop sound k, but into the fricative x.
Spelled Pronounced
soft meat[x"k]y
softly [hk] oh
light le[x"k]y
easy le[hk]o
light le[x"k]ie
easier le[x"h]e
Examples for the assimilation of consonants at the junction of words: I’m sitting under an awning - po[tt]ent, under a palm tree - po[tp]alma; I’m going to the city-* [gg]city, I came from Crimea - and[sk]rima, I returned from Siberia - and[s"s"]Siberia.
The 3rd rule is about double consonants. In the Russian language there are words with double consonants (kassa, ton). Plosive double consonants require a longer release; fricative double consonants last longer.
There are words whose meaning changes depending on whether they are written with one or two consonants, and therefore pronounced:
submitted subject
submit submit
return screw
top up
Many double consonants are formed under the influence of the law of assimilation (according to voicedness and deafness).
Spelled Pronounced
push o [dd] push
pull up along [t"t"] yank
move away o[dd]alit
Double consonants at the junction of words require special attention. Many double consonants at the junction of words are formed under the influence of the law of assimilation.
Spelled Pronounced
shoot, shoot a [ff]azan at a pheasant
towards the city
I'm going to the garage [yy] araju
the rye is noisy ro[shh]umit
However, there are a number of words in which double consonants are written, but only one sound is pronounced.
Spelled Pronounced
assistant a[c]istent
kryvennik grive[n]ik
proofreading design
In full adjectives and participles, double ns are always pronounced: a crown number, a long day, a strange man, a battlefield, a tower crane, a sincere feeling, a wounded soldier, a won case, tattered clothes, a disassembled machine, a painted roof, a shod horse.
Pay attention to the double consonants m and n at the junction of words pronounced together (both consonants are clearly pronounced).
Spelled Pronounced
he's at the top o[nn]at the top
he is a reliable person oh he is a reliable person
he insists [nn]remains
- The 4th rule is about softening hard consonants facing soft consonants (assimilation by softness). Some hard consonants are softened before soft consonants, that is, the second sound subjugates the first. This occurs in the following cases:
- 1. In words with double consonants, where a hard sound comes before a soft one; in this case, the first consonant is softened and a long soft sound is formed.
Spelled Pronounced
in mass in ma[s"s"]e
in the bath in va[n"n"]e
2. The consonants z, s are softened if they come before soft ones in, d, t, l, m, n."
Spelled Pronounced
sound": windless windless
develop develop
dilute di[z"v"]eat
sv": knowledgeable [s"v"] traveling witness [s"v] witness
mother-in-law [s"v"]mother-in-law
z": here [z" is
clusters of thunder[z"d"]i
slacker be[z"d"] spruce
st": sadness gru[s"t"]
honor honor[s"t"]
banner [s"t"]yag
3. Double consonants z and s are softened at the junction of words if the second of them is soft.
Spelled Pronounced
came from the North [s"s"]north
horse with rider [s"s"]eater
lock with a secret [with"secret"
4. Consonants s and t in combination stv before soft v are softened.
Spelled Pronounced
artificial artificial [s"t"v"] artificial
5. The consonant n is softened before soft t and d.
Spelled Pronounced
candidate ka[n"d"]idat
blond blo[n"d"]in
6. The consonant n is softened before the soft s.
Spelled Pronounced
pension pension
vacancy vacancy [n "s"] iya
7. The consonant n softens before thickets, which are always soft in Russian.
Spelled Pronounced
refined refined [n"h"] yonny
strum bre[n"h"]at
5th rule of pronunciation of consonants. The sounds sh, zh, ts are always hard. After them the vowels i, e are written, but they should be pronounced ы, e.
Spelled Pronounced
screen screen
tire w[s]on
In names of French origin --- such as Jules, Giraud, Julien -- and in the word jury, the sound z sounds soft, as is customary in the French language.
6th rule. The combinations ssh and zsh are pronounced as double hard sh, if s, z are in a preposition or prefix, and sh, z are in the root. This rule also applies to the pronunciation of combinations ssh, zsh at the junction of words.
Spelled Pronounced
silent be[shh] smart
incident accident
faded fade[shh]y
7th rule. The combinations szh and zzh are pronounced as double hard zh if s, z are in the prefix, and sh, zh are in the root. This rule also applies to the junction of words.
Spelled Pronounced
lifeless lifeless
ruthless
heartburn and burns
8th rule. Combinations zzh and zhzh inside the root are pronounced as a long double soft sound zh; in transcription it is designated: [zh "zh"].
Spelled Pronounced
leave leave[zh"zh"]at (leave away)
leave [zh"zh"]at
later later (later)
At the same time, we must remember that single consonants sh and z are usually pronounced firmly, even before soft consonants.
9th rule. The consonant h is always pronounced softly. The sound conveyed in writing by the letter u is a long sh: [sh"sh"]. The sound h consists of two sounds: an explosive soft t" and a fricative soft sh, which are pronounced quickly replacing each other. The vowels a, o, u after h and sh are pronounced as i, e, yu.
Spelled Pronounced
bowl [ch"a]sha (chyasha)
Charka ch "a rka (charka)
Exception. In three words in the combination schn, the sound sh "sh" (letter sh) turns into a soft single sh: assistant, assistant and all-night vigil (church service). These words are pronounced like this: pomo[sh"]nik, pomo[sh"]nitsa, all-[sh"]naya.
10th rule. The combination сч is pronounced as a long soft sh: sh "sh" (i.e., the same as the sound conveyed in writing by the letter sh).
Spelled Pronounced
happiness [sh"sh"a] stiye (happiness)
count [w"sh"o]t (schet)
count to develop
calculation ra[w"sh"o]t (grows)
Note. Like a double soft sh [sh"sh"], the combinations zdch, zhch are also pronounced in the words obezdchik, defector, defector: obe[sh"sh"]ik, perebe[sh"sh"]ik, perebe [sh"sh"] itsa (objector, perebeschik, perebeshchitsa).
11th rule. The combination ssch is also pronounced as a long soft sh: sh"sh".
Spelled Pronounced
became generous, became generous (was generous)
12th rule. Combinations ssch and zsch at the junction of words (preposition and -following word) are pronounced as a long soft sh: sh"sh".
Spelled Pronounced
from the crack and [sh"sh"]eli (seek)
from bristles and [sh"sh"]netina (bristle)
13th rule. The combination zch (at the junction of the root and the prefix) is pronounced as a long soft sh: sh "sh".
Spelled Pronounced
clerk clerk[sh"sh"]ik (clerk)
cab driver vo[sh"sh"]ik (cab driver)
14th rule. The combination of сч and зч in words with a clearly distinguishable prefix and at the junction of words (preposition and the following word) is pronounced as sh" and ch": sh"ch".
Spelled Pronounced
fiend and [sh"h"]adie (isfiend)
cross out and[sh"h"]erase (cross out)
dismember ra[sh"ch"] sculpt (dismember)
15th rule. The combination tch is pronounced like ch "sh".
Spelled Pronounced
in vain [h"sh"]vainly (vainly)
carefully [ch" carefully (carefully)
puny [h"sh"] soulful (frail-hearted
16th rule. The combinations tch and dch are pronounced as a double long ch: ch"ch" (we remember that the sound ch is always soft).
Spelled Pronounced
pilot le[ch"h"]ik (lyochchik)
nachyochchik nache[ch"ch"]ik (nachyochchik)
miner proho[h"h"]ik (prokhochchik)
- 17th rule. The combination th is pronounced in accordance with the spelling: respectable, polite, reading, etc. The word that and its derivatives are pronounced with sht: that--[shto], to-- [shtdby], something [shtbt], that -something--[shtbnibut"], something--[kbeshto], nothing--[nishtd], for nothing--[nizhshtd]. The pronoun something (in the sense of “something”) is pronounced in accordance with the spelling .
- 18th rule. The combination chn, as a rule, is pronounced in accordance with the spelling: exact, marriage, tailcoat, vicious, trouser, flow, etc. But in some words the combination chn is pronounced as shn
- 19th rule. The combinations ds and ts in adjectives are pronounced [ts].
Spelled Pronounced
soviet sov[t]ky
city city
human being
20th rule. The combinations dts and tts are pronounced as two ts: tsts.
Spelled Pronounced
father o[cc]a
well done young man
brother bra[ts]a
21st rule. The combination of deks at the end of words sounds like tsk.
Spelled Pronounced
Petrozavodsk Petrozavo[tsk]
Kislovodsk Kislovo[tsk]
Zheleznovodsk Zheleznovo[tsk]
- The 22nd rule is about combinations with unpronounceable consonants.
- 1. In the combination stn, the consonant t is not pronounced.
Spelled Pronounced
local. me[sn]y
private private
regional regional
2. In the combination zdn in a number of words d is not pronounced.
Spelled Pronounced
Idle holiday
Late [know]o
rider rider
district district [known] y
3. In the combination stl, t is dropped in some words.
Spelled Pronounced
envious envious
sympathetic learning
conscientious conscientious
4. In the stack combination, the sound t is usually not pronounced; in place of one hundred it is pronounced ss.
Spelled Pronounced
Marxist brand [ss] cue
propaganda propaganda[ss] cue
5. -In the combinations ndc, ntc, the consonants d and c are not pronounced.
Spelled Pronounced
Dutch Dutch[nc]s
Irish Irish[nc]s
6. In the words hello, sun, heart, the consonants in, l, d are dropped.
Spelled Pronounced
hello hello
the sun is so [nt]e
7. In combinations ndsk in some words d drops out.
Spelled Pronounced
Dutch Dutch[ns]ky
Finnish finland[ns]ky
Flemish flam[ns]ky
23rd rule. In singular masculine and neuter adjectives that in the genitive case end in -ogo, -ego, the consonant g is pronounced vg
Spelled Pronounced
old star[ovo] (starova)
The consonant in instead of g is also pronounced in the words: this (sevo), today (sevodnya), today's (sevodnyashny), total (itovo), nothing (nichevo), what (chevo).
24th rule. The adjectives na -kiy, -giy, -hiy (nominal case, singular) in modern literary language can be pronounced in two ways - both with hard endings (and pronounced as o or a in an unstressed syllable) and with soft endings: lonely and lonely, short and short, piebald and piebald, strict and stern, hard of hearing and hard of hearing. In stage pronunciation, for the most part, the hard ending is traditionally preserved: ugly, long-legged, quiet. This norm also applies to the surnames: Tchaikovsky, Mayakovsky, Gorky.
consonant sound softening assimilation
Conclusion
Familiarity with the rules of modern literary pronunciation is only the first step in working on speech culture. To speak correctly, you need to spend a lot of time and work, you need constant special training.
You must learn to observe not only your own speech, but also the speech of others, and be attentive to the teacher’s speech, which is an example for students.
It is necessary to systematically listen to records or tape-recorded performances of actors and readers, whose speech also serves as an example of correct pronunciation. It is useful to listen to speeches by linguists on radio and television on issues of oral speech.
But just listening to someone else’s speech is not enough. You need to actively train yourself, master and consolidate in practice the rules of literary pronunciation. In the initial work, it is especially useful to use a tape recorder: record your speech, listen, compare it with good samples and then repeat the recording, correcting any deviations noticed. Listening to yourself from the outside makes it easier to notice mistakes and achievements. It is not without reason that this technique is widely used in the study of foreign languages.
Combination ti pronounced before a vowel like [qi]: natio [nation] people, Latium [lacium] Latium, before a consonant like [ti]: Latinus [latinus] Latin. After s, t, X, and also at the junction of the base and the formative ending, a combination ti reads like [ti]: bestia [bestia] animal, Attius [attius] Attius, mixtio [mixtio] mixing. If vowel i in combination ti long, it is also read as [ti]: tot ī us [totius] the whole(gen. pad. units).
Combination su before the vowel with which it forms one syllable (usually before vowels a, e), pronounced like [sv]: sua-vis [swavis] sweet, but: su-us [suus] mine.
Combination ngu before a vowel is pronounced [ngv]: lingua [lingua].
Consonant combinations
In borrowings from the Greek language there are combinations of consonants with the letter h:
Note:
Combination ch used in two words of Latin origin: pulcher Beautiful,Gracchus Gracchus.
Emphasis. Syllable division. Number of syllables
Accent
The stress in the Latin language of the classical period was musical, tonic, i.e. consisted of raising the tone when pronouncing a stressed syllable if it was long. By the 5th century. n. e., after the loss of quantitative differences between vowels, the nature of the Latin stress changed: it became forceful, aspiratory, as in the Belarusian and Russian languages.
Stress rules
I. In words consisting of two or more syllables, the stress is never placed on the last syllable. In two-syllable words, the stress falls on the first syllable. In words consisting of three or more syllables, the place of stress is determined by the penultimate syllable.
II. The accent is placed on the penultimate syllable if it contains:
1) long vowel (i.e. a vowel whose length is indicated by a longitude sign): natūra [natu "ra] nature;
2) diphthong or digraph: Argonautae [argonau"te] Argonauts, Lacaena [lyatse "on] Spartan;
3) a vowel standing before two or more consonants (i.e. a vowel of a closed syllable) 1, as well as before letters x, z(i.e. vowel of an open syllable): argumentum [argume "ntum] proof, correxi [corre "xi] I corrected, oryza [ori "for] rice;
4) letter combinations ar, or, ur, al, os, at: orator [orator] speaker.
Notes:
1. If the penultimate syllable contains a short vowel that comes before a combination of stops b, p, d, t, g, c with sonorous l, r (muta cum liquidĭ da), then the stress falls on the third syllable from the end: arbĭtri [a "rbitri] judges(name pad. plural).
2. If the penultimate syllable contains a short vowel that comes before the combinations qu, ch ph, rh th, then the stress falls on the third syllable from the end: relĭquus [re"liquus] the rest, elĕphas [e "lefas] elephant.
III. The stress is placed on the third syllable from the end if the penultimate syllable is:
1) contains a short vowel (i.e. a vowel whose brevity is indicated by a brevity sign): arbĭter [a "rbiter] judge;
2) contains a vowel standing before another vowel: justitia [justi"tsia] justice;
3) is an open syllable: praesidium [prezi "dium] defense;
4) contains letter combinations ol, ul: discipula [discipula] student.
Syllable division. Open and closed syllables
The syllable division goes:
a) between two vowels: du-o two;
b) between a diphthong (digraph) and a single vowel: Gnae-us Gney;
c) before a single consonant: fi-li-a daughter;
d) between two consonants (except for combinations muta cum liquĭ da): sil-va forest;
e) before combination qu,ch, ph, rh th: an-ti-quus ancient;
f) before the combination of a stop ( p, b, d, t, g, c) with sonorant r, l (muta cum liquĭ da): ca-pra goat;
g) in the presence of groups of three or more consonants, the syllable division occurs within the group, while the combinations qu And mutacumliquida not separated: cas-tra camp junc-tus connected, mons-tro show;
h) consonant j between vowels denotes two sounds [yy], which belong to different syllables: major [may-yor] oldest;
i) when separating syllables, the prefix stands out: in-scri-bo enter.
Number of syllables
In classical Latin, syllables differed in number, i.e. could be long or short.
1. An open syllable containing a short vowel is short: ar bĭ ter judge.
2. The open syllable before a vowel is in most cases short justi ti a justice.
3. An open syllable containing a long vowel, diphthong or digraph, long: na tū ra nature Argo nau tae Argonauts,La cae na Spartan.
4. A closed syllable is always long, regardless of the number of vowels it contains: argu men tum proof.
A study of the pronunciation of the combination chn shows that in all words, with the exception of, of course, laundry, mustard plaster, birdhouse, scrambled eggs, dvoechnik, troechnik, it is pronounced /s"p/, and not /§p/; for example, bakery is pronounced as /bula£" naja/, not /bulasnaja/, maid - like /gom"ic"naja/, not /gom"isnaja/, etc.
Pronouncing a combination of chn as /s"p/ or /§p/ turns out to be associated with a specific word that includes this combination. It turns out to be quite difficult to explain the reason for choosing one or another option. Under the influence of spelling, a large number of words and a number of dialects in which chn is always pronounced as /s"p/, the pronunciation of chn as /§p/ is found less and less often in the modern language (81% of speakers pronounced /s"p/, 19% - /5p/), In words of late origin, in particular, formed after October 1917 - always /с'п/: multi-machine, welding, etc.; in a small number of cases the leading option is the option with /§п/: of course, boring, on purpose, trifling, scrambled eggs, mustard plaster, birdhouse At the same time, it is hardly possible to explain the spread of the pronunciation /s"p/ primarily by the influence of spelling; the process of development of this pronunciation is apparently based on deep morphonological factors (see p. 111).
A study of the pronunciation of the combination th shows that in the word that and its derivatives it is pronounced /St/.
In the combinations stn, zdn, stl, stk, stack, tsk (imperious, holiday, happy, Marxist, Soviet) /V and /d/ are not pronounced; in the combination vstv (hello) the /f/ is not pronounced. The combination of two consonants, the second of which is soft, requires special consideration.
It is known that, according to the old Moscow pronunciation norm, it was necessary in all cases, with the second soft consonant, to pronounce the first consonant as soft (caplet /kar"1"it/, 85
hard /t"v"ordtij/); at the same time, the St. Petersburg version of the norm required the pronunciation of soft ones only in cases of a combination of two front-lingual consonants.
In modern Russian, there is a general tendency to replace the first soft consonant in combinations with a hard one. An experimental phonetic study of 298 combinations of consonants of this type showed that in almost 80% the first consonant is hard. Of all the combinations, only 7 consonant combinations have one active articulating organ - the 1st consonant is soft: /s"t"/ (steppe /st"ep"/); /z"d"/ (here /z"d"es"/); /p"s7 (corolla /v"en"fi"ik/); /n"t"/ (cog /v"in"t" ik/); /n"d"/ (India /in"d"ija/); /n"s"Z (pension /p"en"s"ija/); /n"z"/ (gasoline /b"in"z"in).
Before /j/, all labials, as a rule, are pronounced firmly: drink /pjut/, volume /abjom/, family /s"imja/, rags /t"ripjo/, and front-linguals are pronounced softly (at the junctions of the root and suffix): judge /sud"ja/, sewing /zbit"jo/, ears /kalds"ja/, runners /paloz"ja/, mosquito /kamar"jo/; crow fr/asaa")bl\ at the junctions of the prefix and root are pronounced firmly and front-lingual: departure /atjest/, exit /sjest/, entrance /padjdst/.
A study of the dependence of the softness-hardness of the first consonant combination on the part of the word where the consonant combinations are located: inside the root, at the junction of the root and the suffix, or at the junction of the prefix and the root, showed that there are no significant differences in the processes occurring inside the morpheme and at the junction morphemes; compare: tighten /s"t"inut"/ and degree /s"t"dp"in"/, make /z"d"elat"/ and here /z"d"es"/, reconnaissance /razv"etka / and the beast (p/"etCh.
In some cases, there are no significant differences even in combinations of consonants within the root and at the junction of the preposition with the following word; compare: with the shadow /s"t"en"ju/ and the steppe /s"t"ep"/, from the tree /z"d'er"iva/ and here /z"d"es"/.
Issues of assimilative voiced-voicelessness at the junctions of words also require special consideration. Here it is necessary to distinguish between the junctions of two significant words and auxiliary and significant. Thus, at the junctions of two significant words, alternation between a voiceless and a voiced word occurs only before a voiced noisy consonant (for example, big city /goradbal "soj/); if the second consonant is a sonant or M - alternation does not occur (for example, great city /goratv"1"Gk "u/, summer city /goratl"etn"ij/).
At the junctions of function and significant words, in all these cases, the sonant with which the borrowed word begins behaves like a voiced noisy consonant: a voiced consonant must be pronounced before it (for example, above the branch /nadv"etkaj/, through the 86th century Zc"irizv"ekZ , under the linden tree Zpadl"ipajZ, without a place Zb'izm"estaZ, through the summer /c"ir"izl"eta/). This can be explained in this case by the influence of spelling on pronunciation, since at the end of the prepositions above, under, near, through, without, the letters d, z, corresponding to voiced consonants are written (cf.: to the century Ікч "&мІ, from the century Zatv"eka/ ).
Attention should be paid to the wide distribution of a number of vernacular phenomena, such as, for example, the pronunciation of a fricative instead of an affricate: sprout as /rastoS"ik/, and not Zrastod'ikZ; hard labial instead of soft in the position of the absolute end of the word: seven as Zs"emZ instead Zs"em"Z; pronouncing Zs"Z instead of the combination Zs"t"Z at the end of words: six as ZCes"Z instead of Zges"t"Z, etc.
Despite the widespread occurrence of these phenomena, they cannot be considered normative. At the same time, the widespread use of this option indicates some invasion of vernacular elements into the real norm.
Thus, we can observe the process of formation of a single pronunciation norm, devoid of local features. On eliminating differences between variants of the norm L.V. Shcherba wrote: “... in the pronunciation of the future, everything that is too local, Moscow or Leningrad, Oryol or Novgorod, will be swept aside, not to mention the various distinctive features of other languages, such as the Caucasian or Central Asian “guttural” x, Ukrainian r, Tatar y, etc. .d." .
What place does conscious normative activity occupy in this alignment of territorial variants of the Russian literary language, and what place does living migration processes occupy, remains to be determined by studying various aspects of the development of the literary language.
