Stylistics of nominal parts of speech. Stylistics of parts of speech

With a stylistic approach to parts of speech, the study of their use in various styles and functional-semantic types of speech, the determination of the stylistic activity of certain lexical and grammatical categories of nouns, adjectives, numerals, pronouns, verbs, adverbs comes to the fore. Another important aspect of the study is the expressive function of parts of speech and various morphological means of language. Stylistics is designed to show the visual and expressive capabilities of grammar and their creative development by writers and publicists. Traditionally, the field of view of grammatical stylistics is the assessment of variant forms of parts of speech, observation of their use in texts of a different nature. At the same time, practical stylistics stands guard over the culture of speech, relying on instructive examples of auto-editing by outstanding writers, eliminating morphological and stylistic errors when stylistically editing manuscripts by the editor. Stylistics of the noun The place of the noun in different styles of speech The noun rightfully occupies the most important place in the morphological resources of the Russian language. This is due to its semantic properties, quantitative dominance over other parts of speech and potential visual and expressive capabilities. Nouns contain objective meanings, without which the expression of thoughts is impossible, therefore the use of nouns is a prerequisite for any speech activity. However, their usage in comparison with other parts of speech varies depending on the content of the text, its style, functional and semantic type of speech, features of the syllable, the writer’s intention, etc. There is a particularly great need for frequent reference to nouns in book styles - official business, scientific, journalistic: they are constantly needed when naming institutions, persons, objects of human activity, their actions, often denoted here by verbal nouns. It is the character of book styles that is created thanks to the widespread replacement of the verbal predicate with a verbal-nominal combination, repetition of the same names, which is due to the desire for accuracy and refusal to use pronouns. All this gives grounds to assert that the noun is intended to dominate in book functional styles, and only in certain genres of journalism does it give way to the verb, which brings an eventful character to speech. It is important to emphasize that the ratio of verbs and nouns by functional styles is very indicative. The nominal nature of speech is most characteristic of the official business style; scientific comes in second place; in journalistic writing, verbs can compete with nouns (under certain conditions); in artistic speech, the frequency of use of nouns is noticeably reduced (here it is two times less than in the official business style). In formal business style, texts are prescriptive; Of the functional-semantic types of speech, statement (message) and description predominate, while narration and reasoning are not widespread. This determines the widespread use of nouns. The content of the texts, as a rule, requires the naming of many details: Cars (including those with industrial trailers), motorcycles, scooters, sidecars, motorcycle sleds, snowmobiles (snowmobiles), mopeds are accepted for insurance... In this case, verbal constructions turn out to be inappropriate and actions are indicated by verbal ones nouns: The vehicle is considered insured in case of death (damage) as a result of an accident, fire, explosion, lightning strike, falling through the ice, as well as in case of theft... theft, etc. (cf.: ...if the vehicle dies, explodes, falls through the ice and under.). Widely used in official business speech, rubrication allows you to give a whole series of noun phrases with one verb. In the scientific style, with its characteristic nominal type of speech, nouns perform the most important informative function, naming objects of living and inanimate nature, which are objects of scientific research, processes occurring in nature and caused by human production activities, the results of this activity, etc. At the same time, many nouns in the language of science are used as terms: The concepts of a random event, probability, and random variable are mathematical abstractions. Each parameter estimate from a sample is itself a random variable that has a certain distribution (monograph). It is also important that nouns in official business and scientific styles are used only in their literal meaning: their metaphorical rethinking is impossible. In the journalistic style, the competition between nominal and verbal types of speech largely reflects its characteristic feature - a combination of standard and expression. Thus, if information in newspaper materials is presented in a standardized form, then nominal constructions become a natural and natural expression of it. However, the nominal nature of speech is inferior to the verbal one if the journalist chooses genres close to fiction and gives preference to the conversational form of presentation. Often in a journalistic style, the refusal to use verb forms and replacing them with verbal nouns gives rise to a clerical tone of speech. Stylistic editing in such cases consists of replacing verbal nouns with verbs and eliminating clericalism:

In artistic speech, which is generally characterized by a significant reduction in the number of nouns replaced by verbs, the preference for certain parts of speech is usually associated with the creative attitude of the writer and the solution of specific stylistic problems. Of decisive importance in this case is the writer’s appeal to a specific functional-semantic type of speech - description, narration, reasoning.

Stylistic use of nouns in literary speech

In artistic speech, nouns perform not only an informative, but also an aesthetic function. Their use may be determined by extralinguistic factors, since the theme of the work draws the author to nouns of certain lexical and grammatical categories. Material, collective, abstract, concrete nouns, used in any of the functional styles, are also used in artistic speech. At the same time, stylistically neutral nouns are involved in the system of expressive means of language and acquire an appropriate expressive coloring. For example, a proper name acquires a new symbolic meaning in the title of the story by N.S. Leskov, who used the technique of antonomasia - “Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk District”, etc.

It is important to emphasize that the use of nouns in an aesthetic function may not be associated with their metaphorical rethinking. In autological speech (i.e., in speech free from tropes), nouns can also play an important stylistic role, acting as a vivid source of expression.

Abstract nouns

Of particular stylistic interest is the use of abstract nouns by writers to enhance the effectiveness of speech.

The psychology of creativity distinguishes between two types of thinking: visual and theoretical. The first is characterized by the emergence in the human mind of ideas that reflect reality in individual concepts, which are expressed in specific names of objects of real reality; the second is to create abstract concepts enshrined in nouns of abstract meaning that are not reflected in specific images. Abstract thinking is characteristic primarily of scientists; it is manifested in the abstraction of various linguistic means in scientific presentation, in particular in the preference for abstract nouns over concrete ones, as well as in the fact that specific words in scientific texts are usually used in an abstract meaning. However, in the scientific style there is no expressive halo around nouns, since they perform only an informative function.

The fundamental difference in the stylistic use of abstract nouns in artistic speech is the activation of their expressive capabilities. Under the pen of artists, abstract nouns can become a strong source of speech expression, although their aesthetic function is sometimes underestimated, which distorts the idea of the stylistic resources of morphological means.

Russian writers have always attached great importance to the development of abstract vocabulary in artistic speech. Abstract nouns were involved in the system of expressive means by poets - to reflect the spiritual world of the lyrical hero, to designate sublime moral and aesthetic categories. For example, A.S. Pushkina: But I was not created for bliss...; And the heart beats in ecstasy, and for it the deity, and inspiration, and life, and tears, and love were resurrected again.

Poets of the second half of the 19th century. expanded the repertoire of abstract nouns, giving the style an excitedly pathetic sound. So, N.A. Nekrasov often uses the following words: freedom, faith, sacredness, sorrow, poverty, despair, struggle, violence. To enhance the expression of abstract nouns that receive political overtones in context, the poet used a special graphic technique - he wrote them with a capital letter: She led me through the dark abysses of Violence and Evil, Labor and Hunger... [about the muse].

Among the classics of Russian prose, abstract nouns were a means of depicting the rich spiritual life of heroes. Many words of this lexico-grammatical category were introduced into literary speech by M.Yu. Lermontov, who skillfully clarified their meaning with expressive epithets: Cold anger took possession of me; immeasurable despair, furious courage, deep contempt, sweet delusions, inexplicable pleasure.

In the heritage of every great Russian writer, one can indicate abstract nouns characteristic of his style, having deep philosophical and aesthetic meaning, often introduced by the same artist: in Goncharov - Oblomovism, in Turgenev - nihilism, in Chernyshevsky - emancipation, patriotism.

Nowadays, abstract nouns are perceived for the most part as stylistically neutral, but often they still retain expressive shades, which are associated with the idea of literature, a sublime way of expression, and therefore the scope of their stylistic use-reflection, the philosophical quest of the heroes. Making up a significant part of the intellectual vocabulary, abstract nouns are used to describe the speech characteristics of intellectual heroes:

He [Sergei] was looking for threads that connected the past with an even more distant past and with the future... Man, he said, will never come to terms with death, because he has a feeling of the infinity of the thread, of which he himself is a part. It is not God who rewards a person with immortality, and it is not religion that instills in him the idea, but this encoded, genetically transmitted feeling of belonging to an endless series...

(Yu. Trifonov)

It is important to emphasize this feature of the functioning of abstract nouns in a literary text: in speech they receive a specific meaning: “First joys” (Fed.); “The Long Goodbye” (Trif.); Death seemed to be flirting with the Cossack; ...Splashed his anger in a fight with Peter (Shol.); ...Life raged inside him. It rustled in the blood like a May thunderstorm in the bushes of a spring garden; Health flowed out drop by drop, like sap from a cut birch tree (Laurel). At the same time, the abstract semantics of abstract nouns is transformed as a result of metaphorical rethinking, expanding the boundaries of lexical compatibility, and updating their meaning. This reveals the most important feature of artistic speech - the object-shaped concretization of what is being described.

In the expressive function, abstract nouns also appear in the journalistic style of the modern Russian language, replenishing the composition of socio-political vocabulary with evaluative meanings: activity, atmosphere, struggle, friendship, campaign, slander, peace, public, stronghold, politics, potential, cooperation, start , tactics, escalation, etc. Such abstract nouns play a leading role in the combat vocabulary of the newspaper: distinguished by their particular breadth of semantics, they characterize various circumstances, events, phenomena, accompanying them with a sharp assessment.

Specific nouns

Contrasted with abstract nouns, concrete nouns also have great potential for creating speech expression in artistic speech.

Writers and publicists are characterized by predominantly visual thinking as opposed to abstract thinking, which is practically reflected in the widespread use of specific nouns. Their skillful introduction into the text creates visible pictures. Moreover, in artistic speech, the aesthetic function can be performed by nouns used in their literal meaning, without undergoing figurative rethinking:

Yesterday I arrived in Pyatigorsk, rented an apartment on the edge of the city, on the highest place, at the foot of Mashuk: during a thunderstorm, the clouds will descend to my roof. Today at 5 o'clock in the morning, when I opened the window, my room was filled with the smell of flowers growing in a modest front garden. Branches of flowering cherry trees look into my windows, and the wind sometimes strews my desk with their white petals.

(M.Yu. Lermontov)

The special stylistic value of specific nouns is determined by their visual capabilities when describing artistic details. In this case, words that name everyday realities, often very prosaic things, contain great figurative energy and represent unlimited visual possibilities for describing the lives of characters, settings, pictures of nature, and everyday life. Let's remember Gogol's lines:

Please humbly have a bite,” said the hostess. Chichikov looked around and saw that on the table there were already mushrooms, pies, skorodumki, shanishkas, spindles, pancakes, flat cakes with all sorts of toppings: topping with onions, topping with varnish, topping with cottage cheese, topping with skimmed eggs, and who knows what.

It should be emphasized that the possibility of stylistic use of such nouns in the process of object-figurative concretization in Russian literature testified to the triumph of the realistic method. To comprehend the aesthetic meaning of concrete everyday vocabulary in all the richness and diversity of its meanings, the genius of Pushkin was needed, who affirmed the artist’s right to show life in all its manifestations and proved that for a poet there are no base objects. With the recognition of the achievements of the natural school in Russian literature, all conditions were created for the aesthetic development of specific nouns as a source of vivid imagery of artistic speech.

Concrete nouns form the basis of figurative descriptions in modern authors as well. Experienced craftsmen pointed out the aesthetic value of artistic details. Thus, K. Fedin, K. Paustovsky noted that in the manuscripts of novice authors, verbal generalizations often crowd out detail. But nothing brings descriptions to life more than details. For their artistic depiction, specific nouns are needed, which always evoke an idea of a real object or phenomenon.

Proper nouns

The study of the expressive function of proper nouns opens up great scope for stylistic observations. Their expressive coloring is due to the stylistic features of their use in different styles of speech and the rich tradition of aesthetic development in Russian literature.

I. In the composition of the stylistic resources of the Russian language, first and last names of people occupy one of the prominent places, since they are distinguished by a wide variety of word-formation options that have received a certain stylistic coloring, and unlimited possibilities for figurative use in an artistic context.

A distinctive feature of the Russian system of naming persons is the contrast between the official address by surname: Comrade Ivanov, as well as the use of the surname with initials in written speech: Ivanov I.I. colloquial options: using the first name and patronymic in an official setting with polite address: Ivan Ivanovich and in conditions of casual communication - one name, and more often its abbreviated version: Ivan, Vanya, intimately affectionate: Vanechka, Vanyusha, Vanyushka, as well as stylistically reduced: Vanka, Vanyukha. The choice of name options reflects both the age characteristics of the interlocutors (elders are usually addressed by their first name and patronymic), and the distribution of social roles between them (it is not customary to address officials in a familiar form). Deviation from these conventions of etiquette can become a source of expression in artistic speech.

In the 19th century There was an even greater wealth of expressive shades in various variants of people's proper names, reflecting the class and property gradation of society, fashion, and the linguistic taste of the time. Therefore, without a stylistic commentary, a modern reader is not always able to comprehend the artistic meaning of a particular character’s name in Russian classical literature.

The expressive halos around proper names in Tsarist Russia primarily reflected the class stratification of society: lack of rights and humiliation of human dignity were manifested in the fact that people, according to V.G. Belinsky, they called themselves not by names, but by nicknames - Vanka, Vaska, Steshka, Palashka. According to historian V.O. Klyuchevsky, at the very beginning of the 18th century, Peter I forbade writing with diminutive names, but the monarch-converter failed to break this Russian tradition. Therefore, the use by writers of lowered versions of names in relation to representatives of low rank should be considered not as an expression of contempt, but as a tribute to tradition (for example, in Gogol - Petrushka). At the same time, the respectful names of faithful servants (for example, Eremeevna in Fonvizin’s “The Minor”) contain a connotation of special reverence. In a relaxed atmosphere, there was also a manner of friendly address not by name, but by surname, which was imprinted in numerous messages of poets of the Pushkin era. It was customary to use the names of reigning persons in Russia without patronymics: Peter, Catherine, although this, of course, did not give them either a familiar or democratic connotation.

The potential expressive capabilities of personal names are also due to the fact that many of them go back to Greek roots and carry a hidden symbolic meaning: Mitrofan - the glory of the mother, Elena - the chosen one, the bright one, etc. A writer, naming his hero, can briefly express his attitude towards him; cf.: from A.N. Ostrovsky Katerina is eternally pure, Varvara is savage and rude. However, the aesthetic meaning of these nouns in an artistic context is optional; For some readers they are significant, while for others they mean nothing. Therefore, a stylistic commentary is needed that will expand the perception of the artistic image.

When aesthetically evaluating the names of literary heroes, it is important to take into account the popularity of the name in the corresponding era, its assessment by the linguistic taste of the time, sound features, national or foreign appearance, history of development, etc. Class prejudices imposed a ban on certain times (remember Pushkin’s ironic remark about the old woman Larina, who “called Polina Praskovya”). Gallomania led to the implantation of names alien to Russian customs, which gave rise to their satirical ridicule (for example, in Gogol: the names of Manilov’s children are Alcides and Themistoclus). Therefore, in the writers’ appeal to simple Russian names, a deep meaning can be hidden, as, for example, in Pushkin’s decision to give his heroine - a noble lady - the common name Tatyana, with which contemporaries associated “memories of antiquity or maidenhood.” This audacity of the poet expressed his desire to democratize the literary language, his desire to overcome all conventions.

Rare, strange names give the speech a humorous coloring: Varukh, Solokha, Khivrya. A vivid expression is created by the collision of an uncommon name with a very common patronymic or surname: Feoduliya Ivanovna (G.); Apollo Merzavetsky (Ostr.); Vasisualiy Lokhankin (I. and P.). One of the techniques for playing on proper names is the application of a famous name to an ordinary or comic character: the shoemaker Hoffmann, the tinsmith Schiller (G.).

Russian onomastics provides writers with unlimited opportunities for word creation. Even in the era of classicism, playwrights composed expressive surnames and characteristics: Pravdin, Starodum, Beskoryst, Sanity, Vorov, Durykin, Plutyagin (Fonv.). The gallery of negative characters endowed with eloquent surnames was replenished by writers of the 19th century: Molchalin, Skalozub (Gr.); Buyanov, Count Nulin (P.); Derzhimorda (G.); Altynnikov, Grosh (N.). A comic sound is distinguished by nicknames that are homonymous with the most inappropriate nouns: Rooster, Scrambled Eggs, Cork, Wheel (G.); Pimple, Boa Constrictor, Rack (S.-Sch.).

In the treasury of Russian literary and artistic onomastics there are names surrounded by expressions of sympathy, reflecting the inferiority of the heroes: Makar Devushkin, Prince Myshkin (Dost.); there are mockingly ironic ones: Krasotkin, Potseluev (G.); there are also sharply satirical ones: teacher Vralman (Fonv.), judge Lyapkin-Tyapkin (G.). The word formation gives them a comic coloring: Doctor Gibner - all his patients, according to Gogol, recovered like flies; funny consonances: Chichikov, Lyulyukov (G.); non-Russian phonetic appearance combined with transparent etymology: Chevalier Kakadu; Frenchman Kuku (G.).

However, along with a rich set of reduced characteristic surnames, Russian literature also contains many proper nouns, free from such associative evaluative meanings. They are perceived not as neutral, but as good, open to creating an aura of positive, emotionally expressive shades around them; Wed: Onegin, Pechorin, Larins, Lensky, Insarov, Rostov. Such surnames seem beautiful due to their aesthetic sound and the various shades of meaning layered on them, due to possible reminiscences. For example, according to the remark of V.G. Belinsky, the surname of Lermontov's hero Pechorin indicates closeness to his literary predecessor Onegin (“Their dissimilarity is much less than the distance between Onega and Pechora”).

Their figurative rethinking opens up special opportunities for the stylistic use of first and last names in artistic and journalistic speech. In this case, writers resort to antonomasia - a trope consisting in the use of one’s own name in the meaning of a common noun: From the latest times Mitrofan (P.); The silent, quiet hosts and the many-sided faces of Skalozub (Euth.). IN. Klyuchevsky wrote about the Russian autocrats: Since Alexander I, they felt like the Khlestakovs on the throne, not having anything to pay the tavern bill. As a special type of metonymy, antonomasia is considered in the section on lexical stylistics.

II. Another group of stylistically active proper names consists of geographical names. In the Russian literary language, special expressive halos are often created around them, due to various associations. Thus, during the Great Patriotic War, many geographical names acquired acute political significance: Brest, Stalingrad, Volga, Ural, Yalta, etc. They received a vivid journalistic sound thanks to the heroism of the soldiers who glorified the Russian land with their selfless fight against fascism. A number of geographical names are associated in the minds of Russian people with national pride and a patriotic theme: Moscow, Vladimir, Smolensk, Borodino; other names are associated with the traditions of Russian art: Kizhi, Palekh, Gzhel.

The appearance of evaluative shades in geographical names is especially characteristic of the journalistic style, since journalists like to use such nouns in a figurative meaning: The alarm of Buchenwald echoed in the hearts of all honest people on the planet; Humanity will never forget Auschwitz, Khatyn, Hiroshima; We remember the warm handshakes on the Oder (from the newspaper). In journalistic style, the names of capitals are often used instead of the names of states; they symbolize the social system, foreign and domestic policies of countries: Moscow, London, Washington; point to the lessons of history, facts of international life: Helsinki is a symbol of the will of all peoples to live in peace and cooperation; Reykjavik is a symbol of the emergence of a real opportunity to begin nuclear disarmament (from the newspaper).

In sports journalism, geographical names replace the names of international competitions and Olympics: Grenoble, Lake Placid, Calgary. In reports from international competitions and festivals, the names of cities such as Sofia, Sopot, and Cannes are painted with new expressive colors.

Geographic names can also be used by writers to create a comic effect. Thus, equating unknown or odious proper names with popular, famous ones gives an ironic coloring to speech:

Hundreds of thousands of people, wealthy people, will flock to Vasyuki... NKPS will build a railway line Moscow - Vasyuki... Airport "Big Vasyuki" - regular departure of mail planes and airships to all parts of the world, including Los Angeles and Melbourne.

(I. Ilf and E. Petrov)

Periphrases based on rethinking geographical names also play a satirical role, for example, the figurative definition of New York as Iron Mirgorod in S. Yesenin’s essay about America.

The expressive coloring of geographical names can change, which is, of course, due to the influence of extralinguistic factors. For writers of the 19th century. Moscow was a symbol of patriarchal life, a brides' fair. N.V. Gogol wrote:

Moscow is an old homebody, bakes pancakes, looks from afar and listens to the story, without rising from her chair, about what is happening in the world; Petersburg is a broken fellow, never sits at home, is always dressed and walks around the cordon, preening himself before Europe... Moscow is feminine, Petersburg is masculine. In Moscow there are all brides, in St. Petersburg there are all grooms.

Nowadays, the name of the city of Moscow is perceived as a symbol of Russia, the personification of democratic transformations in the new community of states of Eastern Europe.

In artistic speech, a noticeable stylistic role is played by occasional geographical names with expressive etymology: the city of Glupov (S.-Shch.); Terpigorev district, Pustoporozhnaya volost, villages of Gorelovo, Neelovo, Zaplatovo, Dyryavino, Neurozhaika (N.). The occasional word formation of proper nouns of this type also attracted Soviet writers: Ilf and Petrov have the names of the cities of Udoev and Kolokalamsk, and A. Platonov has the city of Gradov.

Stylistic use of grammatical categories of a noun

The noun stands out from all other names in that its grammatical categories - gender, number, case - are capable of receiving special stylistic meanings. The stylistic activity of these categories is due to their functional-style specialization and expressive use in artistic speech.

Stylistic characteristics of the gender category

The category of gender has the greatest expressive potential for a noun. In the modern Russian language there is a well-known functional and stylistic specialization of the gender of nouns.

I. Neuter nouns are most common in book styles, which is explained by the abstract meanings of many of them, popular in the scientific style. For example, words with productive suffixes -nie, -stvo indicate states, actions, and collectivity. Abstract-collective generalized meaning is also characteristic of numerous neuter nouns formed as a result of substantivization of adjectives: incredible, obvious, amazing; other nouns, going back to adjectives, name general species and genera of the animal and plant world, receiving the meaning of the terms: artiodactyl, lily-flowered.

The bookish nature of neuter nouns is also indicated by the fact that in common parlance neuter forms are often distorted, taking masculine endings: towels, porch, apples, or feminine endings: to school, in a herd, without a dress, in bad faith.

II. Masculine nouns also gravitate towards book styles. This affects primarily in cases where polysemantic words that have an unstable gender form are fixed in a scientific style in a strictly terminological meaning, mainly in the masculine gender: duct (honey) - a narrow connecting cavity, canal (bile duct); channel (and channels) - without litter - a branch of a river bed, as well as a river connecting two bodies of water; clearing (mining) - a horizontal opening for ventilating a mine or connecting openings in the thickness of a mineral deposit; clearing - without litter - a strip in the forest cleared of trees, serving as the boundary of the site; spasm (med.) - convulsive contraction of the muscular wall of the blood vessels of the esophagus, intestines with a temporary narrowing of their lumen; spasm (general use) - I took off my hat and could not answer him. A spasm squeezed my throat (Paust.). In this regard, stylists talk about the expansion of the masculine gender in a scientific style.

The consolidation of masculine nouns in book styles is facilitated by expressive neutrality, the absence of emotional and evaluative meanings that arise in feminine nouns formed by affixation; Wed: vest - vest, miss - miss, cashier - cashier, merchant - merchant's wife.

III. Feminine nouns are distinguished by the richness and variety of grammatical means of expressing gender. Affixation makes the feminine gender strong, emphasized, most clearly defined, creates various expressive shades in these nouns, and this leads to the fact that they often receive a very specific stylistic passport and cannot be used outside the boundaries of their style.

It is also significant that in cases of fluctuation of the grammatical gender of some nouns, the feminine forms are fixed in the professional sphere, and the masculine form remains in common use: typeface (prof.) - a complete set of typographic fonts of different styles and sizes, but identical in the nature of the design; set - without litter - a complete set, a set of items serving a specific purpose; gelatin (tech.) - a protein substance (colloid) of animal origin, the solution of which, when cooled, turns into a gelatinous state; gelatin (common use) - name of food product.

Nouns with the meaning of person, forming masculine and feminine pairs, are distinguished by a special stylistic originality: student - student, teacher - teacher, delegate - delegate, speaker - speaker, conductor - conductor, elevator operator - elevator operator, poet - poetess. Masculine nouns express a general concept about a person, indicating his social or professional affiliation, regardless of gender; they have an official connotation, while feminine personal nouns have a colloquial or colloquial connotation, which prevents their use in book styles, in an official setting. The stylistic use of such feminine nouns is influenced by many extralinguistic factors - from the social division of labor between men and women, their social inequality in pre-revolutionary Russia to prejudices that have arisen in everyday life about the unequal value of feminine words denoting professions. Thus, it is known, for example, the attitude of women who have made poetry their professional occupation towards the word poetess. Anna Akhmatova could not stand it when they called her “poetess.” She was angry: “I am a poet.”

The official name of the profession of masculine nouns, accepted in book styles, can create inconvenience if it is unclear from the context whether we are talking about a man or a woman: The awards were given to the designer of the plant I.B. Tishchenko, deputy chief metallurgist of the plant T.I. Gurdzhienko, director of the plant M. Sholar (the women's names are given). In such cases, a comical statement is possible, and comedians can take advantage of this: - Do you know the driver Stepanov? - Of course! - Got married. - On whom? - At the station master. Or: When the war is over, we will marry your sergeant to my corporal (from a magazine).

In modern Russian, the perception of many feminine nouns with the meaning of person has changed. Before the revolution, they were perceived primarily as a designation of a married woman according to her husband’s position: chairman, governor’s wife, janitor, but now the importance of the profession comes to the fore. A number of nouns of this type have become archaic as lexical units, while others have lost their former meaning of a married woman receiving a name based on her husband’s occupation. And only a few words retain the ancient meaning of the suffixes: general’s wife. At the same time, many feminine nouns with the meaning of person received a professional connotation: jumper, swimmer, speed skater.

The influence of time also affects the productivity of word-formation models of feminine nouns in occasional word formation; cf.: colloquial ironic names: critic, agent, guide, clown, geologist, surgeon, director, boss. Many occasional words of this type have a good-natured, playful tone, but there are also sharply reduced ones: gidsha, teacher, teacher, teacher, teacher.

IV. Particularly expressive are nouns of the general gender, which represent one of the groups of nouns with the meaning of person, naming people by their characteristic action or property and expressing an emotional assessment (usually negative): reveler, greedy, breaker, crook, scribbler, quiet, smart , sneak. According to V.V. Vinogradov, the combination of masculine and feminine gender in such nouns is justified by their sharp expressiveness; they bear a strong imprint of familiar and even vulgar style. The expression of such nouns is determined, of course, by their semantics, but the transfer of the meaning of words with a formal sign of the feminine gender to male persons enhances and emphasizes evaluativeness. In addition, among writers of the past one can often find agreement with such nouns in the feminine gender: I am a wretched woman, an inexhaustible wretched woman! - complaints from shoemaker Kapiton in Mumu I.S. Turgenev. For modern language, the norm is agreement with common nouns only on semantic grounds: a girl is a big slob, a boy is a big slob.

Feminine nouns used in a figurative meaning are also semantically close to the group of words considered: hat, fox, snake, saw, rag, but unlike the former, they require strictly grammatical agreement. Violation of this norm gives the speech a crudely colloquial coloring and can be a source of comedy: She [the dog] may be dear, but if every pig pokes a cigar in her nose, how long will it take to ruin it. A dog is a gentle creature (Ch.).

Artists of words often use gender forms of nouns with a special stylistic setting. Thus, the combination of nouns of different grammatical genders, indicating the same person, gives the speech a comic coloring: - And tell the bride that she is a scoundrel (G.); But it will all end with this old woman Pyotr Nikolaevich and his sister asking him for an apology (Ch.).

A peculiar humorous technique is to change the form of the gender of nouns that name people. For this purpose, writers change the endings of such nouns: mustachioed nanny (Mayak.); A forest fairy was chasing me; The three nymphs looked at each other and sighed loudly (I. and P.).

A special source of expression in artistic speech is the figurative use of masculine and feminine nouns in personification. For example, M.Yu. Lermontov demonstrates this technique in the poem “Oak Leaf”: An oak leaf broke away from its native branch and rolled into the steppe, driven by a cruel storm...; A young plane tree stands by the Black Sea; the wind whispers with her, caressing the green branches; - What do I need you for? - the young plane tree answers, you are dusty and yellow, - and fresh are no match for my sons. The contrast of masculine and feminine nouns, taken as the basis for personification, creates a vivid expression. On the contrary, the imagery of speech is destroyed if the grammatical gender of nouns does not correspond to the conventional literary image. This sometimes happens when translating works of fiction. Thus, Lermontov, translating Heine’s poem “Ein Fichtenbaum steht einsam” (“The pine tree stands alone”), accurately repeated the name of the tree - pine. But in Russian it is a feminine noun, while in German it is masculine. Therefore, in the poem translated by Lermontov (“In the Wild North”), the contrast between the images of a man and a woman, forever separated by an insurmountable distance, was lost. As noted by L.V. Shcherba, Heine created the image of a man’s unsatisfied love for a distant, therefore inaccessible woman. Lermontov, with his feminine gender, robbed the image of all its aspirations for love and turned strong male love into beautiful-hearted dreams. Another poet, F.I. Tyutchev, trying to preserve the author’s image, in the translation of the same poem depicted a “lonely cedar” that dreams of a “young palm tree”. Examples of such replacement of nouns during translations are not isolated.

Stylistic incidents can also arise as a result of the figurative convergence of two concepts denoted by nouns of different kinds. Thus, the periphrasis “the mother of Russian cities, as Kyiv is often called, for some unknown reason, transforming it into a woman” evokes ironic remarks.

In special cases, when personifying, the writer can change the grammatical gender of the noun (preferring dialectal or vernacular, as well as obsolete forms), if there is a basis for this in the style of the image. Thus, V. Rasputin in “Farewell to Matera” gives a poetic description of the famous larch, or rather, foliage:

Matera, the island and the village, could not be imagined without this larch... It towered and was headed among everything else, like a shepherd is headed among a flock of sheep that had scattered across the pasture. She resembled a shepherd performing ancient guard duty. But no one, even five times literate, dared to say “she” about this tree; no, it was he, the “royal foliage” - so eternally, powerfully and imperiously he stood on a hillock half a mile from the village, noticeable from almost everywhere and known to everyone.

Variants of genus forms

The stylistic assessment of gender forms of nouns is also connected with another important problem of practical stylistics - the correct use in speech of nouns in which the gender form is unstable. Several groups can be distinguished among them.

I. Nouns in which different forms of gender coexist without differing stylistically: giraffe - giraffe: ...Far away on Lake Chad, an elegant giraffe wanders (Gum.). - I had a giraffe, I fed it from the closet (Barto). Variants of different grammatical types may belong to the same functional style, for example scientific: morph - morpha, periphrase - periphrasis, or they are of a commonly used nature: aviary - aviary, lobster - lobster, key - key, stack - stack, shutter - shutter . Most often in these cases, the forms of the masculine and feminine genders vary, occurring as an exception: ples - pleso, kaylo - kayla.

II. Nouns in which one of the parallel forms has been archaized: antithesis - antithesis; hall - hall; phalanstery - phalanstery; sanatorium - sanatorium; film - film. The variants that have fallen out of use are now absent from dictionaries or are given with a mark (verbal), but we find them among writers: He takes someone else’s idea, weaves in its antithesis, and the pun is ready (Vol.). Such nouns are also of interest to modern authors who strive to archaize speech when describing the past.

III. Nouns whose generic variants differ in stylistic coloring: rail - rail (simple); shoe - shoes (simple); metamorphosis - metamorphosis (special); jam - jam (dial.). Referring to such nouns can be justified by a stylistic purpose. For example, in S. Mikhalkov’s fable, the use of the masculine noun mouse gives the speech a reduced coloring: Timofey the cat - an open soul - brought a mouse to the cat Vasily in his teeth. Violation of a literary norm in such cases can also become a means of verbal characterization of the hero: I’m finishing in one second; Comrade Nagulnov! Wait, don’t raise your weapon (Shol.).

Word-forming variants of nouns often also belong to different forms of gender, which, as a rule, also differ in stylistic coloring: tablet - planchette, washcloth - washcloth, bracelet - bracelet. Their use in artistic speech gives it a casually familiar coloring: Over there stands our little house, the most extreme one (Trif.); ...At the Mayak cinema, the worst movie theater in Moscow, he saw the film “Red Devils” (Nag.).

Determining the gender of indeclinable nouns of foreign language origin causes particular difficulties. There is a well-known rule according to which all indeclinable animate nouns should be classified as masculine: kangaroo, cockatoo, chimpanzee, but if the context indicates a female, they can also be used as feminine nouns: The kangaroo carried a baby in her bag. Inanimate indeclinable nouns, according to this rule, must belong to the neuter gender: depot, muffler, cinema, taxi. But it should be noted that such a division does not cover all cases of the use of borrowed indeclinable nouns, among which there are many feminine words: avenue, beriberi, salami, hummingbird, iwasi, kohlrabi, tsetse. In addition, many nouns do not obey the general rule, which are recognized as masculine words due to their semantic proximity to synonyms or masculine generic names: argot [jargon], entrechat [jump], banjo, [instrument], Bengali [language], penalty [blow], sirocco [wind], embargo [ban]. It turns out that there are more exceptions to the rule than words that illustrate it.

Observations show that when determining the gender of indeclinable foreign words, we rely on generic concepts or synonyms only in cases where the borrowed word is not sufficiently mastered in our native language. In this case, fluctuations are possible, resulting in variations. It is no coincidence that a group of words are sometimes identified that are used in two gender forms: auto, argot, bibabo, brandy, whiskey. Forms of the gender of such words, not supported by dictionary markings, but motivated by the semantic connections of words in the language, do not seem to be a sharp violation of the norm. And only when using indeclinable foreign nouns denoting persons, the gender form must strictly correspond to the gender - sweet lady, blond franken, tired coolie, cheerful caballero, young miss. The words vis-a-vis, protégé, incognito appear as bi-generic: My (my) vis-a-vis turned out to be (turned out to be) a cheerful companion (cheerful companion).

The use of personal indeclinable nouns in the neuter form gives rise to comedy: That would be nothing, - incognito damned (G.).

Stylistic characteristics of the number category

Number forms of a noun can also exhibit stylistic activity in certain speech situations. Singular forms have increased expressiveness, since they especially often develop a metaphorical meaning, which is unusual for plural nouns, which was noted by A.I. Efimov: log, crow, oak, turkey, quonka, fox, bear, donkey, rooster, saw, mattress, etc. In rare cases, the transfer of meaning is preserved in the plural: Donkeys! Should I tell you a hundred times? (Gr.)

Singular nouns can be used in a collective meaning, and then this grammatical form indicates an undifferentiated set of objects: To him [anchar] neither a bird flies, nor a tiger comes (P.); There was an incredible amount of every animal in the steppes and forests (Aks.). This figurative use of singular forms gives the speech aphorism and emotionality: An excellent position is to be a person on earth, how many wonderful things you see... (M. G.). In constructions that have a stable character, there is a folk-colloquial connotation, sometimes giving the speech an ironic overtone: But what’s good there is the merchant! A merchant to all merchants. If he treats you, he will treat you! (Ch.).

The use of singular nouns in a generalized collective meaning is also characteristic of journalistic speech. Often this stylistic device is used in the headlines of newspaper and magazine articles, the names of sections: “Agronomist and the field”, “Russian field”, “Why does a person study?”, “Through the heart of an artist”, “The reader suggests”. However, it is in newspapers that one can observe a stylistically unjustified replacement of the plural form with a singular one, giving the statement a colloquial coloring: The cucumber was not born this year.

In artistic speech one can find cases of using singular nouns that do not correspond to the modern language norm; they should be classified as grammatical archaisms: There was laughter and even applause, although not numerous (Ven.).

There is also a distributive use of the singular form of nouns, indicating that the named object refers to several persons or objects: The rebels lowered their heads; They are commanded to shave their beard (P.). Such a replacement of the plural by the singular is quite acceptable and does not carry any special stylistic load. However, the mixed use of number forms in such cases creates illogicality: People walked with a scarf tied around their noses and mouths (more correctly, nose and mouth with a scarf or: noses and mouths with scarves). Practical stylistics recommends avoiding the distributive use of singular forms in scientific and official business styles in order to avoid discrepancies.

Plural forms of nouns can also become stylistically active in certain contexts. The unmarked use of this grammatical form is often associated with emotionality and expression of the statement. For example, the plural form may indicate not many objects, but one, highlighting it, however, with special expression: You had lunch here, and they took us to the police station (Mak.) - we are talking about one police station. Another example: There are White Guard uprisings in the Far East and Manchuria, comrade. We do not have time to send any expeditions with Buddhas (Vs. Iv.) - this means one expedition carrying a statue of Buddha. Such expressive use of the plural is also typical for lively colloquial speech: What do they only teach you in institutes!; I don't have time to walk around theaters.

Vivid expression is contained in the forms of the plural of proper nouns, and above all surnames, with their figurative rethinking as a result of antonomasia. So, they say: derzhimorda - about people with rude, police habits; pompadours - about tyrant administrators; quixotes, ladies' men. Moreover, the transformation of number gives such nouns the meaning of common nouns (which is reflected in their graphic representation: they are written with a lowercase letter).

Geographical names used in the plural also receive stylistic meaning, which also leads to their rethinking and the creation of an appropriate expressive aura: We will not allow new Auschwitzes!; And how many of them, Maidaneks, are there on Polish soil! (from gas)

The singular and plural forms in modern Russian often vary. In many cases, both forms are possible - singular and plural, but the plural emphasizes the vastness of the space covered: The desert sand turned yellow to the horizon. - The desert sands turned yellow to the horizon. The expressive use of the plural in the second example can be contrasted with a purely informative one that does not allow options: Sand is poured in the corner of the yard.

The plural of abstract nouns emphasizes the intensity of the action, the strength of the manifestation of the attribute: frosts, colds, winds, giving them special significance: And on winter holidays there are brilliant anxieties (P.); Winter is luxurious. There is no end to her splendor and bounty (Inb.). Therefore, in artistic speech one can very often find the replacement of the singular with the plural as more expressive: And the waters are noisy in the spring (Tutch.); The floods of its rivers are like seas (L.). At the same time, some plural nouns also receive additional semantic connotations, for example, times are not just a period of time, but a long period, a historical period, a distant era; Wed: Autumn is coming. This is my favorite time (P.); The times of the Ochakovskys and the conquest of the Crimea (Gr.); There have been worse times, but nothing mean (N.).

Abstract plural nouns often indicate specific manifestations of qualities and actions: He began to list the beauties of his native country (Kaz.). Nouns denoting emotions, moods, sensations, in the plural, receive a connotation of specificity and intensity of the manifestation of feelings: the horrors of war, the joys and sorrows of first love. Some stable combinations with the plural form of nouns of this type have a colloquial coloring: they take joy, in their hearts, with envy.

Some cases of replacing singular nouns with plural ones among writers of the past are now assessed as grammatical archaisms. Thus, in the last century, when addressing politely, it was possible to use a personal noun in the plural in relation to the interlocutor: Let go, you flighty people, come to your senses, you are old people (Gr.). Over time, this transformation of number forms acquired a lackey connotation; cf.: Viktor Ivanovich, what smart people you are!

Some nouns in modern Russian have changed their number form, cf.: Let me ask you to sit in these chairs (G.); Every day he created new careers and plans for me; Of course, all this was just slander (Ven.). The modern reader perceives such grammatical forms as archaisms, but for the author, addressing them had no stylistic significance.

In the modern Russian language, and primarily in the journalistic style, the productivity of plural forms of nouns, for which previously only the singular form was considered the norm, is increasing. This applies primarily to abstract nouns: harmfulness, givenness, dependence, power, understatement, abstraction, obviousness, sameness, everyday life, reality, etc. As research shows, now it is impossible to name a single suffix of abstract nouns that would not allow the formation of forms plural. Moreover, this is connected with the grammatical, semantic and stylistic rethinking of those nouns that in traditional grammar are classified as groups of words that have only a singular number.

However, it is important to note that the stylistic marking of such forms is realized only in those cases when the correlative forms of the singular and plural are not recognized as regular, and this happens quite rarely in journalistic speech given the general high frequency of the use of abstract nouns in the plural. Expressive, for example, is the use of an unusual plural in this context: Leipzig Monument to the Battles of Nations, in which Wilhelm’s mediocrity and the architect’s servility combined the ugliness of all the imperialisms of the world... (from the newspaper).

In scientific style and professional speech, plural forms of nouns used in a special meaning are very common: power, speed, modes, repairs, energy; cf.: Physics of high energies and cosmic rays; oil, oil, marble, black soil, peat, feed. These plural forms are stylistically unmarked, but can be perceived as functionally attached: We pay great attention to the introduction of high-yielding varieties of strong wheat; These products include gasoline, diesel or boiler fuel, bitumen of various grades, liquefied flue gas (from gas).

Stylistic characteristics of variants of case forms

The development of the Russian declension is a living, active process. This leads to the appearance of variant endings that receive a certain expressive coloring and provide the opportunity for stylistic selection. In addition, individual nouns (some geographical names, first names, surnames, foreign words) can be optionally inflected, and this creates conditions for the functional and stylistic consolidation of changeable and unchangeable forms. Marked case endings often become a source of speech expression in artistic speech, which is also of stylistic interest.

Case forms in the modern Russian language are polysemantic, hence there is wide scope for the stylistic choice of various shades of grammatical meanings of Russian cases. However, the idea of the expressive possibilities of cases would be incomplete if we did not take into account the stylistic shades of the variants of case endings.

Variant endings differ from main endings in that they are found only in small word categories or in individual words, while main endings are characteristic of most words belonging to a given declension. Variant endings may have special shades in the meaning of the case form: A woodcutter's ax was heard in the forest (N.) - the ending -у indicates the place of action; The actor became famous for playing the main role in Ostrovsky's "The Forest" - the ending -e indicates the object; may differ in stylistic coloring, functional and stylistic consistency: valves (general use) - valves (special); on vacation (lit.) - on vacation (colloquial). And it also happens that the variant ending differs in both shade in meaning and stylistic coloring. For example, in Pushkin’s “Eugene Onegin” the variant ending, which has the meaning of an object, is at the same time perceived as outdated: Cherished in the eastern bliss [legs], on the northern, sad snow you left no traces.

The greatest stylistic interest is caused by those variant forms that have developed various stylistic shades. In this regard, the leading role in the Russian language belongs to the nominative plural of nouns. In this form, along with the traditional ending -и (-ы), the new one - -а (-я) is widely used, and for a large number of words it has already become leading: bills, monogram, tunic, poplar, wing, stack, etc. Sphere of distribution forms with inflection -a (-i) have become professional speech and vernacular, from where they penetrate into artistic and journalistic works. This provides interesting material for stylistic observations. Let us remember the words from V. Vysotsky’s song: We say not “storms”, but “storms”... “Winds” - not “winds” - drive us crazy.

Compilers of dictionaries usually indicate the consolidation of such forms in professional speech: pour out spare parts, fuselage and planes. However, the stylistic markings for variant endings of this type in dictionaries may be different. For example, in the Experience of a Frequency-Stylistic Dictionary of Variants by L.K. Graudina and others, a number of words are highlighted as (special): boatswain, weight, throttle, fishing, report, rotor, setter, stroke (ship); others - like (technical): diesel, casing, cone, press, sugar; (marine): pilot; (prof.): midshipman, lye; many options are marked (colloquially): wind, dispatcher, contract, instructor, sweater, truffle, driver; less often (simple): mechanic, turner. Such a variety of stylistic marks reflects not so much a functional-style stratification in the use of these forms, but rather an insufficient scientific elaboration of the problem.

So, the contrast between case endings, which have received a professional connotation, colloquial forms (which are inappropriate in book styles) and colloquial forms (i.e. reduced, perceived as a violation of the literary norm) has stylistic significance. At the same time, writers, journalists, and editors need to take into account the frequency of use of certain case forms in speech in order to correctly assess their stylistic capabilities and partly foresee their future fate, distinguishing between popular and less commonly used forms.

Another hot spot for noun declension that attracts the attention of stylists is the genitive plural, which gives scope to colloquial forms. The endings that compete most actively in speech are zero and -ov, less often - zero and -ey. They receive colloquial coloring in pairs: several oranges - oranges, hectare - hectares, grams - grams, kilograms - kilograms, tangerine - tangerines, sock - socks, tomato - tomatoes, rails - rails, and also - dol - doli, uncle - uncle , aunt - aunt, nursery - nursery. The variant ending -ov is usually more reduced and is perceived as colloquial if the norm is a zero ending: They, they say, have a lot of pickled apples! (Al.). Colloquial versions are often listed in dictionaries with appropriate labels; colloquial ones, as a rule, are omitted.

Some variants of this case have become archaic: candle - The game is not worth the candle; entrenched in the “high style”: knees - knees, with (neutral) knees. All this creates a significant diversity of stylistic coloring of the genitive plural forms of nouns.

Variants of the prepositional singular case of masculine nouns can also be stylistically unequal. Some have a colloquial tone: in the workshop, others have a colloquial tone: in the choir. However, in most cases, such options differ not stylistically, but in shades of meaning: in hell - about hell, the meaning of the place and the object.

Without stylistic markings, dictionaries usually give variants of the singular genitive case of masculine nouns: From the dark forest, an inspired magician comes towards him (P.); I came out of the forest, there was a strong frost (N.), the choice of which depends on various factors (for example, the definition of a noun, its material meaning is suggested by the old ending (s). In speech practice, one can observe the stylistic use of variant endings with a professional connotation, which is also reflected in fiction: “How much alabaster do you need?” asked Mulya (Sem.), but: There is a lot of stone in the mountain: white and yellowish alabaster, and selenite (Fersm.).

The ending -у in this form is consistently retained by material nouns with a diminutive meaning, the use of which is possible only in colloquial speech: “Well, then I’ll put some honey for you,” says Valentina Nikitichna (Ryl.); We could use some gas, Nikolai Illarionovich, to refuel the car (Dv.).

In some cases, variant inflections in the genitive singular have an archaic connotation; appeal to them may be due to the creation of folk-poetic coloring. So, M.Yu. Lermontov in “The Song about the Merchant Kalashnikov” replaced the literary ending with a “common folk” ending in the process of auto-editing, which even then had a tinge of obsolescence: He was not hidden from the light (originally the light) of heaven.

And yet, pointing to the stylistic activity of the variant endings of nouns in the genitive singular, it is necessary to emphasize that by now the special stylistic shades in their coloring have been lost: the opposition of endings - “high” -a and “despicable” -u, o than M.V. once wrote. Lomonosov, comparing the forms of the holy spirit, angelic voice that are “decent in high genres” and acceptable only in “low” ones - the pink spirit, the bird’s voice. For a modern speaker of the Russian language, the ending -у is a secondary variant form, characteristic primarily of oral speech, but in written styles it is found mainly in phraseological units and in diminutive forms. In cases of hesitation, taking into account the tendency of development of forms in -a - -y, practical stylistics recommends preferring inflection -a as the normative, basic form of the genitive case in all its meanings and for all styles of the literary language.

Variants of instrumental singular endings for feminine nouns starting with -а (-я): water - water often do not have stylistic meaning, they are convenient in poetic speech only for versification; Wed: That was in early spring (A.K.T.); In the spring, the warbler timidly sings here, an agile, motley bird (Marsh.). However, some variants have become archaic, and in prose it is no longer possible to use many nouns ending in -oy, although in the 20s they were still found on the pages of newspapers in both forms: democracy, organization, unloading, loading, Russia, command, request, number. Variant endings of this type should be recognized as grammatical archaisms, despite the fact that the compilers of dictionaries do not provide them with stylistic marks.

Related information.

Test on the topic: “Functional varieties of language"

8th grade /according to the textbook by S.I.Lvova, V.V.Lvova/

Task 1. List the main functions of language - _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Task 2. Complete the sentences, indicating the style(s) of speech

An informal, relaxed atmosphere is typical for ___________________________________

Artistic imagery, emotionality, expressiveness - main features _______________________________________________________________________________________________

Speech stamps and cliches are used in _______________________________________________________________________________________

The widespread use of tropes and figures of speech is characteristic of ____________________________________

The predominance of nominal parts of speech over verbal ones (the use of verbal nouns) is a sign_______________________________________________________________

The use of exclamatory sentences, rhetorical questions, appeals, reverse word order (inversion), sentences with rows of homogeneous members is typical ________________________________________________________________________________________________

Socio-political, book vocabulary is used in ______________________________________________________________________________________

Generalized-abstract nature of the presentation, logic, accuracy, concreteness, lack of imagery - the main features _______________________________________________________

To provide information of practical importance, to give directions, instructions - the task is _________________________________________________________________________________________

Emotionally evaluative and emotionally expressive vocabulary is used in ______________________________________________________________________________________

The use of the singular in the meaning of the plural is one of the signs of _________________________________________________________________________________________

Influencing the reader, forming a certain attitude towards certain problems of life, inciting action - the task is ___________________________________________________

Task 2.

Distribute the words below according to their belonging to a particular variety of language: resolution, note, textbook, story, laws, receipt, reference manual, interview, drama, novel, report, scientific monograph, statement, autobiography, encyclopedic article, review , fable, proverb, characterization, announcement, riddle, public speaking, scientific report.

Task 3. Carry out a stylistic analysis of the text. (Option 1)

Do you know Ukrainian night? Oh, you don’t know Ukrainian night! Take a closer look at her. The moon is looking down from the middle of the sky. The immense vault opened up and spread even more immensely. It burns and breathes. The earth is all in a silver light; and the wonderful air is cool and sultry, and full of bliss, and moves with an ocean of fragrances. Divine night! Charming night! The forests, full of darkness, became motionless and inspired, and cast a huge shadow from themselves. These ponds are quiet and peaceful; the cold and darkness of their waters are gloomily enclosed in the dark green walls of the gardens. ...The whole landscape is sleeping. And above everything is breathing, everything is marvelous, everything is solemn. But the soul is both immense and wonderful, and crowds of silver visions harmoniously appear in its depths. Divine night! Charming night! And suddenly everything came to life: forests, ponds, and steppes. The majestic thunder of the Ukrainian nightingale rains down, and it seems that even a month has listened to it in the middle of the sky... N.V. Gogol.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Task 3. Carry out a stylistic analysis of the text. (Option 2)

Memory and knowledge of the past fill the world, make it interesting, significant, and spiritual. If you do not see the past behind the world around you, it is empty for you. You're bored, sad, and ultimately lonely...

May the houses we walk past, may the cities and villages in which we live, may even the factory where we work, or the ships on which we sail, be alive for us, that is, have a past! Life is not a momentary existence.

We will know history - the history of everything that surrounds us on a large and small scale. This is the fourth, very important dimension of the world.

But we must not only know the history of everything that surrounds us, but also preserve this history, this immeasurable depth of our surroundings.

…Children and young people especially love customs and traditional celebrations. For they master the world, master it in tradition, in history. Let us more actively defend everything that makes our lives meaningful and spiritual. / D.S. Likhachev /

Task 4. Write a mini-essay on one of the statements given below. Explain how you understand the meaning of this statement. Give reasons for your point of view.

Language cannot be good or bad... After all, language is only a mirror. The same mirror that it’s stupid to blame. - S. Dovlatov

The Russian language in skillful hands and experienced lips is beautiful, melodious, expressive, flexible, obedient, dexterous and capacious. A.I.Kuprin

In fact, for an intelligent person, speaking poorly should be considered as indecent as not being able to read and write. A.P.Chekhov

Don't always say what you know, but always know what you say. Claudius

Speaking without thinking is like shooting without aiming. Cervantes.

Plan for stylistic text analysis

Extralinguistic text analysis.

Type of speech (monologue, dialogue, polylogue).

Form of speech (oral or written).

Functional and semantic types of speech (description, narration, reasoning).

Scope of application of the functional variety of language.

Linguistic text analysis.

Stylistic functions and features of lexical and phraseological means of the text.

Features and stylistic functions of word-formation means of the text.

Features of syntactic means and their stylistic role.

Tools for creating imagery and expressiveness of text.

Individuality of the syllable (techniques, deviations from norms, etc.)

III. Conclusion: functional text style, substyle, genre.

Let us consider the features of the use of all parts of speech in each style separately.

Formal business style:

1. The use of verbonominants (verb-nominal phrases), which in business language become a universal means and are often used instead of their actual verb forms parallel to them: provide assistance(instead of help), make repairs(instead of repair), conduct an investigation(instead of investigate) etc.

2. Functioning of attributive noun phrases like: conviction, writ of execution, disciplinary sanctions, acquittal, preliminary investigation, cassation appeal, higher authorities, established procedure.

3. The same noun in business texts can be repeated even in adjacent sentences and not be replaced by a pronoun.

4. Widespread use of nouns that name people based on a characteristic determined by some action or attitude: adoptive parent, tenant, plaintiff, defendant, witness, tenant, applicant and under.

5. The use of nouns denoting positions and titles is possible only in the masculine form: police officer Lavrenova, witness Vilchinskaya, applicant Fedorova etc.

6. The use of verbal nouns in -nie, -enie: execution, notification, offense, resolution, permission(disputes), subordination, division etc.; with prefix non-: non-election, non-recognition, non-return, shortfall, non-fulfillment etc.

7. Use of denominative prepositions: in force, for purposes, in part, on the subject, in the name of, in the course of, etc.

8. A preposition is used to indicate cause and effect By with dative case: for family reasons, for illness, for valid reasons etc.

9. To indicate a period of time, prepositions are usually used from - to, not from ¾ to: 1983 to 1989(not: from 1983 to 1989).

10. Numerals are written in numbers, with the exception of such monetary documents as bills, powers of attorney, receipts, etc.

11. Predominant use of the infinitive compared to other verb forms.

12. Of the conjugated forms here, the most commonly used forms of verbs are the present tense: If the defense attorney is unable to appear within this period, the investigator takes the measures provided for in Part 3 of Article 47 of this Code..

Scientific style:

1. The predominance of the name over the verb, the widespread use of nouns in -nie, -ie, -ost, -ka, -tion, -fication etc. with the meaning of a sign of action, state, change.

2. Widespread use of neuter nouns: radiation, definition, view, state of mind, redistribution, tension, occurrence, oxidation etc. Among masculine and feminine nouns there are numerous words with abstract meaning: factor, impulse, stimulus, syncretism, period, method, method, process, result, opportunity, power, need, form, mass, size, intensification etc.

3. Most nouns are used only in the singular form. The use of the singular in the plural is typical: Magnifier ¾ the simplest magnifying device; Jay ¾ a bird common in our forests; Every year thousands of people went to the taiga to hunt sable. And abstract and real nouns are used in the plural form, acquiring a specific meaning (heart murmurs, power, capacity etc.) or meaning ‘variety’, ‘variety’ (lubricating oils, active oxygens, low temperatures, white and red clays etc.).

4. Frequent use of genitive case forms, which often act as a definition: compound reaction, attempt to solve, melting point, standard of literary language, language of interethnic communication, Pythagorean theorem, parallel axiom, sign of congruence of figures. After the genitive case, in terms of frequency of use, there are forms of the nominative and accusative cases; As part of passive constructions, forms of the instrumental case are common: discovered by Mendeleev, established by Newton, defined by Pavlov, created by the people.

5. Use of analytical forms of comparative and superlative degrees of adjectives (more complex, more compact, more inert, simplest, most important).

6. Short adjectives in a scientific style, in deviation from the general pattern of the Russian language, express not a temporary, but a permanent attribute of objects and phenomena: Pure ethyl alcohol is colorless; Fluorine, chlorine, bromine are poisonous.

7. The vast majority of verbs are used in the present tense.

8. The abstraction of meaning extends to the forms of verbs of the future and past tense, acquiring a timeless meaning: Determine the area of the triangle; Let's make an experiment; Let's make an equation; The formula was applied; Research was carried out.

9. Of the aspectual forms of verbs, the imperfective forms are the most frequent as they are comparatively more abstractly generalized in meaning. In scientific speech they make up about 80%.

10. Perfective verbs are often used in the future tense: let's draw (line)¾ carry out, compare (results)¾ compare, consider (inequality)¾ We are considering.

11. The 3rd person singular and plural forms of verbs are common as the most abstractly generalized in meaning. Forms of the 1st person plural of verbs and the pronoun used with them We are characterized by additional semantic shades: we can determine the area...; we will come to a conclusion...; if we designate...

12. 1st person singular forms of verbs and pronouns I are almost never used in scientific speech.

13. In the scientific style, conjunctions, prepositions and prepositional combinations are active, the role of which can be full-meaning words, primarily nouns: with the help of, with the help of, in accordance with, as a result of, for the reason of, on the basis of, in relation to, depending on..., compared with..., in connection with..., to the extent etc.

Journalistic style:

1. Use of the singular noun in the plural meaning: Russian people have always been distinguished by their understanding and endurance; this proved ruinous for the British taxpayer and under.

2. Use of uncountable nouns in the plural form: conversations, freedoms, moods, circles, searches etc.

3. Frequent use of imperative verb forms (imperative mood): People of the planet, stand up and boldly move forward! Promote social justice!; Dear readers! Send your suggestions, wishes and tasks to the editor.

4. The use of rhetorically elevated forms of nouns of the 3rd declension singular in the instrumental case: power, life, blood and under. (cf.: power, life, blood). Participle formations on -my (driven, driven, carried) and so on).

5. The past tense form is more frequent here compared to official business and scientific speech and less frequent than in the language of fiction: The current theater season at the Dresden State Opera ended with great success. Half a million Dresden residents, guests of this beautiful city from dozens of countries around the world were able to attend opera and ballet performances during this time; Events unfolded with lightning speed(from newspapers).

6. Negative particles are the most frequent Not and neither, particle same in amplification function, conversational particles, after all, even, only etc.

Fiction style:

1. All forms of person and all personal pronouns are used;

2. The figurative uses of words are activated here as the most specific.

3. In artistic speech, there are three times fewer indefinite-personal forms of the verb, as more generalized, than in scientific speech, and nine times less than in official business speech.

4. Low frequency of use of neuter words with an abstract meaning and high frequency of specific masculine and feminine nouns.

5. Abstract words acquire a concrete figurative meaning (as a result of metaphorization).

6. The inherent dynamics of artistic speech (in contrast to the static character of scientific and official business speech) is manifested in the high frequency of use of verbs: it is known that their frequency is almost twice as high as in scientific speech, and three ¾ than in official business speech. speech. Here, for example, is a fragment of the text of Yu. Bondarev’s novel “The Game”: He cut down a Christmas tree in the forest, brought it along with the metal spirit of snow, completely covered with snow, and Olga began to decorate it with garlands cut from the remains of wallpaper, but he interfered with her, stomped behind her, joked, advised, saw her tilted, smoothly combed head, tight knot of hair on the back of her head and every now and then he took her by the shoulders and turned her towards him.

Colloquial style:

1. Characteristic shapes on -A in the nominative plural, where in book styles the normative form is -s (bunkers, cruisers, searchlights, instructors), forms on -y in genitive and prepositional cases (a kilogram of sugar, a glass of tea, a bunch of grapes, in the workshop, on vacation); zero inflection in the genitive plural (five grams, ten kilograms, a kilogram of tomato, compare books: grams, kilograms, tomatoes).

2. In first place in terms of frequency is the nominative case, the genitive is rarely used with the meaning of comparison, qualitative characteristic; The instrumental is not used with the meaning of the subject of the action.

3. Possessive adjectives are used, synonymous with the indirect case forms of nouns: Pushkin's poems (Pushkin's poems), the brigadier's sister (the foreman's sister), Katya's brother (Katya's brother). In the predicative function, it is usually not the short form of the adjective that is used, but the full form: The woman was a woman of few words; The conclusions are indisputable(compare books: True wisdom is terse; The conclusions are indisputable). Short forms of adjectives are active only in intensifying constructions, where they are characterized by a pronounced expressive coloring: What a cunning one!; It's too simple; Your business is bad!

4. Widespread use of pronouns, not only replacing nouns and adjectives, but also used without relying on context. For example, the pronoun such may denote a positive quality or serve as an intensifier (She's such a woman!¾ beautiful, magnificent, smart; There is such beauty all around!). A pronoun in combination with an infinitive can replace the name of an object, i.e. exclude the noun. For example: Give me something to write; Bring something to read; Do you have something to write about?; Get something to eat. Due to the use of pronouns in colloquial speech, the frequency of use of nouns and adjectives is reduced.

5. Verbs take precedence over nouns.

6. Of the forms of participles, only the short form of the passive past participle of the neuter singular is active (written, smoked, plowed, done, said.

7. A striking sign is the use of multiple and single action verbs (read, sat, walked, spun, whipped, fucked), as well as verbs with the meaning of ultra-instantaneous action (knock, clink, jump, jump, fuck, walk).

A visible feature of Lokhvitskaya’s poetic style was simplicity and clarity.

ity of syntactic constructions. This trait was already visible in her early poems, and

did not disappear over time, but on the contrary became more and more noticeable - against the background

general tendency towards more complex syntax, towards the predominance of anacoluthians and

naked periods. In Lokhvitskaya, on the contrary, the verb carries almost the main

semantic load. In contrast to Fet, who has a whole poem

there may not be a single verb, Lokhvitskaya’s norm on average is a verb in ka-

Each line, in individual stanzas, the number of verbs exceeds the number

Here are some examples:

1. How hot the lilies breathe in the garden!

The whole air is filled with their breath...

And the garden slumbers: to the mirror pond

He was all bent over, immersed in daydreaming. (“Nights” I, 29)

There are five verb forms in four lines (three active personal forms and two

short passive participles, one is the nominal part of the predicate, the other is the nominal

part of an adverbial phrase, both with the meaning of the result of an action.

2. The bright shield of the sun is dimming,

The sleepy air does not stir...

One fountain sings, gurgles -

And it flows with a restless stream. (“To what?”, I, 89)

There are five active personal verb forms in four lines.

3. Waking up early, Jaco got up and stepped over the fence.

The dawn barely colored the tops of the distant mountains.

A grasshopper chirped in the grass, a swarm of bees buzzed,

The gospel was buzzing over the world - and a damp fog was floating.

Jaco walks and sings a song; his braid rings;

Behind it lies a stripe of cut flowers. (“Murgit”, IV, 99)

In six lines there are eleven personal verb forms and one adverbial form.

stia, and in addition the form of the passive participle in the function of definition (“sub-

cut flowers"), also naming the result of an action.

In the first two cases, the depicted pictures are absolutely static, in

The third one also doesn’t have much dynamics. However, in all three cases the verb is

a new visual medium. Obviously, this is what creates that feeling

“pressure”, which V.F. wrote about. Markov, characterizing Lokhvitskaya’s style. Possible

but Balmont had this same property in mind when he mentioned Lokhvitskaya in the sonnet “Gla-

bare rhymes", in which there are no actual verbal rhymes, with the exception of

gerunds.

Comparing the style of Lokhvitskaya and Balmont, one cannot help but notice that they have

there were completely opposite trends in the transmission of dynamic characteristics

cov. Balmont has a desire to convey the process in its solidification, hence the love

pay attention to the active participles of the present tense - “burning out”, “melting”

living”, “dying”, etc. The next stage is the “ossification” of the trait into an existing

nouns such as “verblessness”, “subordination”, “extremity”. At Lokhvits-

There are no such nouns (perhaps the only example is “azure ne-

immensity", but here the desire to avoid the cliche is obvious), and the actual

participles extremely rarely carry a logical emphasis - except in poetry,

where Balmont's style is deliberately imitated. She herself prefers passive

participles and gerunds of the past tense, conveying the result of an action

viya. In combination with verbs, they make it possible to achieve maximum fullness.

innocence by action:

...The wind blowing through the deserts

Almond aroma flows.

Terrible there, in a ruined country,

He became quiet at the end of the day...

The static picture of evening tranquility includes the memory of

the fury of the wind in a distant country, and the swiftness of its movement - such

Thus, peace is filled with tense expectation, which is resolved in emotional

nal call of the lyrical heroine:

...My desired one, my beloved!

Where are you? Can you hear me? (“Hymn to the Beloved”, II, 3)

Like Fet, Balmont’s entire poems can consist of nouns

proposals. Lokhvitskaya does not have such poems. One even gets the impression that

loud sentences irritate her and cause her to feel melancholy and anxiety.294

For example, here is the poem “Two Beauties”:

Azure day. Against a turquoise background

The decoration of the branches shines like an emerald,

And their whispers are about eternally new happiness,

About the happiness of living - it repeats to my soul.

Silent night. Scattered over the abyss -

The twinkling of stars in the distant heights...

There is longing in my chest! - And I rush into the world above the stars,

I want to fall asleep... and die in my sleep. (I, 134)

In both stanzas the syntactic parallelism is sufficiently maintained.

lism to notice the difference. In the first, “day” quatrain, there is a sign of

amazed by the verb: “the dress of the branches shines.” Accordingly, the whisper of the branches “repeats about

happiness,” and this external influence calms the lyrical heroine, inspiring her

desire to live. There is no action in the second stanza. The attribute is expressed by a noun-

nom: the second nominal sentence is “The twinkling of stars.” Syntactically and metrically

Skilly, nothing prevents you from making a phrase a verb - for example: “Ras-

scattered over the abyss, / The stars twinkle in the distant heights.” But, apparently, it is

the nominative sentence was needed in order to convey the threatening tension of peace. The response of the lyrical heroine is desire

odsivtobsyao, d viytyrsvyaa, t vysyar viazt zassyat yizv shzaesgtoy mvshireag.o the world.

In the same sense, the poem “Waltz” is interesting, one of the rare

almost verbless poems, the principle of which is completely general

opposite to that described above: a dynamic action - dance - is described in the same way -

calling sentences, the movement is conveyed only rhythmically: 295

Fire of harmonies,

Oh, melodious waltz,

My oblivion

You're sneaking around

A false dream

You are a sweet rest

An anxious soul,

With an unfaithful ring

The links are closed,

In measured motion

The peace of oblivion.

In the fire of harmonies,

In living aspiration -

And a burning thrill,

And quenching. (PZ, 31)

There is only one full verb for the entire poem - “you cling.” Why

So? “Perhaps the biography of the poetess provides the answer.” Approximate writing time

niya - 1902 (autograph - RO IRLI, f. 486, sheet 132 vol.). During this period she already had four

very little children to whom she is chained, especially if they are sick, she herself

She also gets sick often and for a long time, in rare hours of release she goes to literature.

business acquaintances and in publishing matters. In reality there is no talk about balls and dances

out of the question. And so - consciously or subconsciously - in his poem -

nii, she conveys a languishing feeling of nostalgia, the inability to respond, how

once upon a time, to the inviting, favorite melody of a waltz. Hence her characteristic

the image of “closed links” (cf. the poem “Ringed Serpent” above) – the lyrical

Roina feels like something is strangling her.

Thus, nominal sentences for Lokhvitskaya are a non-

natural, abnormal, painful.

In connection with the described features, it is understandable that it is often used

characteristic verbs (“alet”, “whiten”, etc.) and often homonymous verbs

heads with the meaning of the process (“lighten”, “darken”, etc.):

“Through the morning fog the heights of the mountains were red, / The distant shores were darkening, / The meadows were colorful

uncut carpet..."

“Where unmown gorse turns yellow...”

“The sun is glowing - the angry king...”

“There, between the linden and birch trees, / The bench is a little whiter...”

“I see my face turning white in the mirror...”

“The distance of the sea turned red under the sun...”, etc.

Adverbial definitions for similar verbs (a characteristic feature of the style

Bunin) are rare in Lokhvitskaya:

“They rose like a double wall, / Aleli brightly above the clouds...”

It is more common for her to use comparisons:

“The forest turned black like coal...”

“Her young lips turned red like the roses of midday lands...”

“My robe turned white like smoke...”

“As if they were alive, their lips reddened and blushed...”, etc.

Of all parts of speech, the verb is singled out by linguists as the most complex and most capacious; In addition, it accumulates enormous potential power of expression, since it has wide possibilities for describing life in its development and movement.

In different styles, the verb plays a different role. Thus, the use of verb forms is reduced to a minimum in the official business style, which is distinguished by the most pronounced nominal character of speech. Here, the average frequency of verb use per thousand words is 60, while in scientific style it is 90, and in artistic speech it is 151. The prescriptive nature of the official business style, the predominance of stating, descriptive types of speech in it over narration and reasoning determine its static nature, the displacement of verbal forms by verbal nouns.

Among the semantic groups of verbs presented in this style, the main role is given to words with the meaning of obligation: should, must, imputed, obliges and abstract verbs indicating being, presence: is, is

The scientific style, which in general is also characterized by a nominal type of speech, still appears more verbal in comparison with the official business style. And although in scientific texts “the narration itself, the event plan are insignificant in volume compared to artistic speech, the characteristics of actions, processes, and patterns occupy a considerable place.” It is no coincidence that the verbosity of the scientific style is one and a half times higher than that of the official business style. The desire for abstraction in scientific texts is reflected in the selection of verbs of abstract semantics: to be, to be, to have, etc.: The main cause of syringomyelia is a defect in the embryonic development of the nervous system. There are several ways to introduce drugs into the human body using direct current; A physiotherapist has several methods...

In a journalistic style, verbosity can become a defining feature of a particular text if the functional-semantic type of speech focuses on the narrative, eventful nature of the presentation. However, under other conditions in newspaper and journalistic texts (especially if they are strongly influenced by the official business style), verbosity is sometimes reduced to a minimum, which in some cases is quite natural, and in others is assessed as a manifestation of the negative influence of the standard, which reduces the aesthetic side of speech.

Verbality as a functional-style parametric feature distinguishes artistic speech. A significant number of verbs (two and a half times more than in the official business style) is the advantage of figurative speech; it indicates that narrative occupies a large place in literary texts.

The expressive capabilities of the main verbal categories are due to the fact that they are directly related to the most important conceptual categories that reflect reality in our consciousness and are necessary for its artistic recreation. Verb tense reflects the category of temporality, aspect - aspectuality, mood conveys modality, person - personality, voice - subject-object relations. These functional-semantic categories can, of course, be expressed by other linguistic means (for example, lexically, syntactically), but the verb, unlike other parts of speech, has specific grammatical forms for their embodiment, which puts it in an exceptional position.

In book styles, and especially in scientific and official business, the repertoire of tense forms of the verb is much poorer. Present tense verbs in scientific speech, as a rule, indicate constant properties, qualities of objects, patterns known to science, processes characterizing the world of living and inanimate nature: The Volga flows into the Caspian Sea.

The scientific style is distinguished by the use of such rarely used meanings of the present tense as the present registering: Experiments and analyzes lead to the conclusion...; present assumptions (unreal): Let's say there are two points...; with very rare reference by the authors to the usual meanings of this temporal form - to the present time of the moment of speech: The topic that I decide to propose...; extended present: In recent years, the problem has been developed... In the scientific style, the present historical time is not used at all.

Past tense forms in a scientific style are rare, and only in some works of a scientific nature (for example, in essays on history) do past tense verbs predominate.

In documents of a legal nature, the present prescription is used very consistently; verbs with the meaning of timeless action are less common: An insurance contract is concluded with a person to whom the vehicle belongs as personal property.

In the official business style, the future tense of the verb is also used, which appears here in two meanings: in the meaning of the future obligation: This will allow you to decide; The boundaries will be as they existed... and in the meaning of the future conditional: The insurance amount is paid if within a year from the date of the accident... permanent loss of legal capacity occurs.

Tense forms of the verb are much more widely represented in the journalistic style, although in different genres their nature varies depending on how close the style of presentation is to book or colloquial speech. In the first case, the same patterns can be traced in the use of verb tenses as in other book styles - the predominance of present tense forms used in an abstract meaning: The combine cuts blocks from the monolith, submits them for laying; Old steel pipelines are increasingly being replaced with polyethylene ones.

The use of past tense forms in expressive styles opens up even greater opportunities for enhancing the effectiveness of speech. Verbs of the past tense turn out to be predominant in artistic speech, however, in a figurative meaning - to indicate actions occurring in the present or future tense - they are used extremely rarely, since “the grammatical sphere of the past tense is most deeply and sharply outlined in the Russian language. This is a strong grammatical category." Therefore, the forms expressing it are difficult to subjectively rethink. However, the transformation of time plans when using past tense verbs creates a striking stylistic effect.

In combination with a particle as a verb in the form of the future tense of the perfect form, used in the meaning of the present historical, indicates the sudden onset of an action characterized by particular intensity

The journalistic style is also rich in specific forms of the verb, reflecting life in all its dynamics and influenced by colloquial and artistic speech. However, in genres influenced by official business and scientific styles, the percentage of imperfective forms increases, which in terms of lexical-grammatical and functional meaning are more abstract and generalized (in the scientific style the ratio of imperfective and perfective verbs is 77.8 to 20.8 ; 1.4% - two-type verbs).

In the official business style (with a general preference for imperfect forms), there are sharp differences in particular types of forms in different genres. Thus, in charters, legal acts, notes, statements, codes of laws, which are a statement of general rules and norms of social life, the style is more abstract in nature, which, therefore, creates conditions for the use of imperfect forms: Capacity is a property that denotes the ability persons independently, through their actions, acquire rights and create obligations.

In orders, protocols, resolutions, acts, contracts - genres of more specific content - verbs of the perfect form may predominate, since they indicate an obligation, command, permission to perform this or that action, etc.: consider, prescribe, inform, warn, check, transfer, provide, improve, eliminate, approve, etc.

Of particular interest is the study of aspectual forms of the verb in artistic speech. Its specifically figurative character, it would seem, should have manifested itself in a decisive predominance of perfective verbs. However, an increase in their number in fiction is hampered by the fact that a large role in it is given to narration, which requires the use of the present historical and past narrative tenses, expressed by imperfective verbs. But still, a general pattern can be traced here: the specificity of the content turns the author to the use of specific linguistic units, including perfective verbs.

It is also important to emphasize that perfective verbs convey progressive movement from one fact to another in a chain of events, while imperfective verbs do not express the development of events over time. Therefore, the element of dynamics is associated with the perfect form, and the element of statics is associated with the imperfect form.

The indicative mood is universal in its sphere of use; it is freely used in any style and therefore does not require stylistic comment.

The object of study of stylistics should be the imperative and subjunctive moods, which, as “indirect”, are opposed to the indicative or “direct” mood. Denoting an unreal action, they are “strong” members of the opposition in the system of moods, which determines their expressive coloring. Due to their limited use in functional styles, the imperative and subjunctive moods are stylistically marked.

The imperative mood belongs primarily to colloquial speech and penetrates into those book styles that are open to its influence. It is significant that in the official business style, which is very characterized by a modality that distinguishes the imperative mood (order, demand, motivation, etc.), “pure” imperative forms are not popular (we will not find in any order: “award with an order... ”, “thank the employees”, “pay a fine”, “recompense losses”).

The subjunctive mood does not encounter functional and stylistic barriers. It is used both in colloquial speech and in book styles. However, the need for it - due to extralinguistic factors - appears infrequently, since the modality of the hypothetical nature of an action is much less common than the modality of the reality of an action or motivation for it; cf.: Half an hour ago, my sir, you would have seen me in a completely different position. (T.) - Soon I saw some buildings in the foggy darkness. The second construction is undoubtedly more common. As for the figurative use of the subjunctive mood (to express desire, impulse), its scope is limited to colloquial and artistic speech

The infinitive as an unconjugated form of the verb is devoid of the most important grammatical categories - mood, tense, person, gender, number, which determines its special position: the infinitive is not the center of the verbal system, but its outskirts, as V.V. figuratively said about it. Vinogradov. However, giving minimal grammatical information, the indefinite form of the verb expresses the idea of the process in its purest form, which determines the specifics of its use in different styles of speech.

Statistical calculations yielded interesting data on the use of the infinitive in book styles. It is not enough to know how often the indefinite forms are used in each of them. It is important to take into account the average frequency of infinitives in relation to the total number of verbs in these styles. “It is characteristic that with the smallest number of verbs, business speech gives the largest... number of infinitive forms.” This corresponds to the stylistic features of official documents, where the “pure” name of the action or process is most important.

COMMUNION

In modern Russian, participles are widely used in a scientific style: Abbreviations are letter abbreviations used in writing by different nations, composed of the first letters of the words that make up a given concept; in official business: Under an insurance contract paid in a lump sum, the policyholder can receive the redemption amount regardless of the period that has elapsed from the start of the contract; in journalistic: The completed seminar, organized on the initiative of the international committee “Science for Peace,” was dedicated to the development of broad and fruitful cooperation for the purpose of peaceful and safe use of nuclear energy.

The sphere of wide figurative use of adjectival participles is journalistic style. Here, the expressive function is played by participles that have replenished the composition of negative evaluative vocabulary, meaning an extremely high degree of manifestation of the intensity of the action: blatant lawlessness, a massive blow, a bankrupt course, an unruly hooligan, etc.

As part of the participles, a few variants of morphological vernacular are distinguished, used in the dialect and vernacular environment: removed, driven, given, given. These variants, being on the periphery of the grammatical system of the literary language, do not enter into competitive relations with their neutral equivalents, but are always expressively colored. Such reduced participles are now found as a rarity, but S.P. Obnorsky also cited living forms: otdat, naslat, torn, ubrata, broken, given, braden, vzyadeny, etc.

In terms of stylistic coloring, participles in modern Russian fall into two diametrically opposed groups: book forms with the suffixes -a, -ya, -v: breathing, knowing, having said, and colloquial forms with the suffixes -lice, -shi: having said, having come.

However, the expressive function of gerunds is not limited to their use as tropes, because these inconjugated forms of verbs, along with personal ones, are constantly used by writers as a vivid means of figurative concretization in “verbal plot studies.” In this regard, the stylistic use of verbs and gerunds is the same

For gerunds in the reflexive form of the perfect form, the suffix -I is not a violation of the norm: having met, hiding, catching yourself, without asking. The same should be said about gerunds that are fixed in stable combinations: headlong, carelessly, hand on heart, folded arms, a little later, open-mouthed, etc.