Peasant reform.........................................................1
Liberal reforms 60-70....................................................4
Establishment of zemstvos............................................ .4
Self-government in cities........................................ 6
Judicial reform............................................ 7
Military reform............................................... .8
Education reforms............................... ....10
Church in the period of reforms........................................ 11 Conclusion........ ....................................…....... .13
Peasant reform .
Russia on the eve of the abolition of serfdom . The defeat in the Crimean War testified to Russia's serious military-technical lag behind the leading European states. There was a threat of the country sliding into the category of minor powers. The authorities could not allow this. Along with the defeat came the understanding that the main reason for Russia's economic backwardness was serfdom.
The enormous costs of the war seriously undermined the monetary system of the state. Recruitment, seizures of livestock and fodder, and increased duties ruined the population. And although the peasants did not respond to the hardships of the war with mass uprisings, they were in a state of tense anticipation of the tsar's decision to abolish serfdom.
In April 1854, a decree was issued on the formation of a reserve rowing flotilla (“sea militia”). Serfs could also enroll in it with the consent of the landowner and with a written obligation to return to the owner. The decree limited the area where the flotilla was formed to four provinces. However, he shook up almost all of peasant Russia. Rumors spread in the villages that the emperor was calling for volunteers for military service and for this he would forever free them from serfdom. Unauthorized enrollment in the militia resulted in a mass flight of peasants from the landowners. This phenomenon took on an even broader character in connection with the manifesto of January 29, 1855 on the recruitment of warriors into the land militia, covering dozens of provinces.
The atmosphere in the “enlightened” society also changed. According to the figurative expression of the historian V. O. Klyuchevsky, Sevastopol hit stagnant minds. “Now the question of the emancipation of serfs is on everyone’s lips,” wrote the historian K. D. Kavelin, “they talk about it loudly, even those in whom it was previously impossible to hint at the fallacy of serfdom without causing nervous attacks are thinking about it.” Even the tsar's relatives - his aunt, Grand Duchess Elena Pavlovna, and his younger brother Konstantin - spoke in favor of reforms.
Preparation of peasant reform . For the first time, Alexander II officially announced the need to abolish serfdom on March 30, 1856 to representatives of the Moscow nobility. At the same time, he, knowing the mood of the majority of landowners, emphasized that it is much better if this happens from above than to wait for it to happen from below.
On January 3, 1857, Alexander II formed the Secret Committee to discuss the issue of abolition of serfdom. However, many of its members, former Nikolaev dignitaries, were ardent opponents of the liberation of the peasants. They hindered the work of the committee in every possible way. And then the emperor decided to take more effective measures. At the end of October 1857, Vilna Governor-General V.N. Nazimov, who in his youth was Alexander’s personal adjutant, arrived in St. Petersburg. He brought the emperor an appeal from the nobles of the Vilna, Kovno and Grodno provinces. They asked permission to discuss the issue of freeing the peasants without giving them land. Alexander took advantage of this request and sent a rescript to Nazimov on November 20, 1857 on the establishment of provincial committees from among the landowners to prepare projects for peasant reform. On December 5, 1857, St. Petersburg Governor-General P. I. Ignatiev received a similar document. Soon the text of the rescript sent to Nazimov appeared in the official press. Thus, the preparation of the peasant reform became public.
During 1858, “committees for improving the life of landowner peasants” were established in 46 provinces (officials were afraid to include the word “liberation” in official documents). In February 1858, the Secret Committee was renamed the Main Committee. Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolaevich became its chairman. In March 1859, Editorial Commissions were established under the Main Committee. Their members were engaged in reviewing materials coming from the provinces and drawing up, on their basis, a general draft law on the emancipation of peasants. General Ya. I. Rostovtsev, who enjoyed the special trust of the emperor, was appointed chairman of the commissions. He attracted supporters of reforms from among liberal officials and landowners to his work - N. A. Milyutin, Yu. F. Samarin, V. A. Cherkassky, Y. A. Solovyov, P. P. Semenov, called by contemporaries “red bureaucrats” " They advocated the liberation of peasants with land allotments for ransom and their transformation into small landowners, while landownership was preserved. These ideas were radically different from those expressed by the nobles in provincial committees. They believed that even if the peasants were to be freed, it would be without land. In October 1860, the editorial commissions completed their work. The final preparation of the reform documents was transferred to the Main Committee, then they were approved by the State Council.
The main provisions of the peasant reform. On February 19, 1861, Alexander II signed the manifesto “On granting serfs the rights of free rural inhabitants and on the organization of their life,” as well as “Regulations on peasants emerging from serfdom.” According to these documents, peasants who previously belonged to landowners were declared legally free and received general civil rights. Upon release, they were allocated land, but in a limited amount and for a ransom on special conditions. The land allotment that the landowner provided to the peasant could not be higher than the norm established by law. Its size ranged from 3 to 12 dessiatines in different parts of the empire. If at the time of liberation there was more land in peasant use, then the landowner had the right to cut off the surplus, while land of better quality was taken from the peasants. According to the reform, peasants had to buy land from landowners. They could get it for free, but only a quarter of the allotment determined by law. Before the redemption of their land plots, peasants found themselves in the position of temporarily liable. They had to pay quitrent or serve corvee in favor of the landowners.
The size of allotments, quitrents and corvée was to be determined by an agreement between the landowner and the peasants - Charter Charters. The temporary condition could last for 9 years. At this time, the peasant could not give up his allotment.
The amount of the ransom was determined in such a way that the landowner did not lose the money that he had previously received in the form of rent. The peasant had to immediately pay him 20-25% of the cost of the allotment. To enable the landowner to receive the redemption amount in a lump sum, the government paid him the remaining 75-80%. The peasant had to repay this debt to the state for 49 years with an accrual of 6% per annum. At the same time, settlements were carried out not with each individual, but with the peasant community. Thus, the land was not the personal property of the peasant, but the property of the community.
World mediators, as well as provincial presences for peasant affairs consisting of a governor, a government official, a prosecutor and representatives of local landowners, were supposed to monitor the implementation of the reform on the ground.
The reform of 1861 abolished serfdom. The peasants became free people. However, the reform preserved the remnants of serfdom in the village, primarily landownership. In addition, the peasants did not receive full ownership of the land, which means they did not have the opportunity to rebuild their economy on a capitalist basis.
Liberal reforms of the 60-70s
Establishment of zemstvos . After the abolition of serfdom, a number of other transformations were required. By the beginning of the 60s. the previous local management showed its complete failure. The activities of the officials who led the provinces and districts, appointed in the capital, and the detachment of the population from making any decisions brought economic life, health care, and education to extreme disorder. The abolition of serfdom made it possible to involve all segments of the population in solving local problems. At the same time, when establishing new governing bodies, the government could not help but take into account the sentiments of the nobles, many of whom were dissatisfied with the abolition of serfdom.
On January 1, 1864, an imperial decree introduced the “Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions,” which provided for the creation of elected zemstvos in districts and provinces. Only men enjoyed the right to vote in the elections of these bodies. Voters were divided into three curia (categories): landowners, urban voters and elected from peasant societies. Owners of at least 200 dessiatines of land or other real estate worth at least 15 thousand rubles, as well as owners of industrial and commercial enterprises generating income of at least 6 thousand rubles per year could be voters in the landowner curia. Small landowners, uniting, nominated only authorized representatives for elections.
The voters of the city curia were merchants, owners of enterprises or trading establishments with an annual turnover of at least six thousand rubles, as well as owners of real estate worth from 600 rubles (in small towns) to 3.6 thousand rubles (in large cities).
Elections for the peasant curia were multi-stage: first, village assemblies elected representatives to volost assemblies. At volost assemblies, electors were first elected, who then nominated representatives to county government bodies. Representatives from peasants to provincial self-government bodies were elected at district assemblies.
Zemstvo institutions were divided into administrative and executive. The administrative bodies - zemstvo assemblies - consisted of members of all classes. In both districts and provinces, councilors were elected for a term of three years. Zemstvo assemblies elected executive bodies - zemstvo councils, which also worked for three years. The range of issues that were resolved by zemstvo institutions was limited to local affairs: the construction and maintenance of schools, hospitals, the development of local trade and industry, etc. The governor monitored the legality of their activities. The material basis for the existence of zemstvos was a special tax that was levied on real estate: land, houses, factories and commercial establishments.
The most energetic, democratically minded intelligentsia grouped around the zemstvos. The new self-government bodies raised the level of education and public health, improved the road network and expanded agronomic assistance to peasants on a scale that the state authorities were unable to achieve. Despite the fact that representatives of the nobility predominated in the zemstvos, their activities were aimed at improving the situation of the broad masses.
Zemstvo reform was not carried out in the Arkhangelsk, Astrakhan and Orenburg provinces, in Siberia, in Central Asia - where noble land ownership was absent or insignificant. Poland, Lithuania, Belarus, Right Bank Ukraine, and the Caucasus also did not receive local government bodies, since there were few Russians among the landowners there.
Self-government in cities. In 1870, following the example of the zemstvo, an urban reform was carried out. She introduced all-class self-government bodies - city councils elected for four years. Voters of the Duma elected permanent executive bodies - city councils - for the same term, as well as the city mayor, who was the head of both the Duma and the council.
The right to elect members of the new governing bodies was given to men who had reached the age of 25 and paid city taxes. All voters, in accordance with the amount of taxes paid to the city, were divided into three curiae. The first was a small group of the largest owners of real estate, industrial and commercial enterprises, who paid 1/3 of all taxes to the city treasury. The second curia included smaller taxpayers, contributing another 1/3 of city taxes. The third curia consisted of all other taxpayers. Moreover, each of them elected an equal number of members to the city duma, which ensured the predominance of large property owners in it.
The activities of city government were controlled by the state. The mayor was approved by the governor or the minister of internal affairs. These same officials could impose a ban on any decision of the city council. To control the activities of city self-government, a special body was created in each province - the provincial presence for city affairs.
City self-government bodies appeared in 1870, first in 509 Russian cities. In 1874, the reform was introduced in the cities of Transcaucasia, in 1875 - in Lithuania, Belarus and Right Bank Ukraine, in 1877 - in the Baltic states. It did not apply to the cities of Central Asia, Poland and Finland. Despite all its limitations, the urban reform of the emancipation of Russian society, like the zemstvo reform, contributed to the involvement of broad sections of the population in solving management issues. This served as a prerequisite for the formation of civil society and the rule of law in Russia.
Judicial reform . The most consistent transformation of Alexander II was the judicial reform carried out in November 1864. In accordance with it, the new court was built on the principles of bourgeois law: equality of all classes before the law; publicity of the court"; independence of judges; adversarial nature of prosecution and defense; irremovability of judges and investigators; election of some judicial bodies.
According to the new judicial statutes, two systems of courts were created - magistrates and general. Magistrates' courts heard minor criminal and civil cases. They were created in cities and counties. Justices of the peace administered justice individually. They were elected by zemstvo assemblies and city dumas. A high educational and property qualification was established for judges. At the same time, they received quite high wages - from 2,200 to 9 thousand rubles per year.
The general court system included district courts and judicial chambers. Members of the district court were appointed by the emperor on the proposal of the Minister of Justice and considered criminal and complex civil cases. Criminal cases were tried with the participation of twelve jurors. The juror could be a Russian citizen aged 25 to 70 years with an impeccable reputation, living in the area for at least two years and owning real estate worth at least 2 thousand rubles. The jury lists were approved by the governor. Appeals against the district court's decision were filed with the trial chamber. Moreover, an appeal against the verdict was allowed. The Trial Chamber also considered cases of official misconduct. Such cases were equated to state crimes and were heard with the participation of class representatives. The highest court was the Senate. The reform established the transparency of trials. They took place openly, in the presence of the public; newspapers published reports on trials of public interest. The adversarial nature of the parties was ensured by the presence at the trial of a prosecutor - a representative of the prosecution and a lawyer defending the interests of the accused. An extraordinary interest in advocacy has arisen in Russian society. Outstanding lawyers F.N. Plevako, A.I. Urusov, V.D. Spasovich, K.K. Arsenyev became famous in this field, laying the foundations of the Russian school of lawyer-speakers. The new judicial system retained a number of class remnants. These included volost courts for peasants, special courts for the clergy, military and high officials. In some national regions, the implementation of judicial reform has been delayed for decades. In the so-called Western Territory (Vilna, Vitebsk, Volyn, Grodno, Kiev, Kovno, Minsk, Mogilev and Podolsk provinces) it began only in 1872 with the creation of magistrates' courts. Justices of the peace were not elected, but appointed for three years. District courts began to be created only in 1877. At the same time, Catholics were prohibited from holding judicial positions. In the Baltic states, the reform began to be implemented only in 1889.
Only at the end of the 19th century. judicial reform was carried out in the Arkhangelsk province and Siberia (in 1896), as well as in Central Asia and Kazakhstan (in 1898). Here, too, justices of the peace were appointed, who simultaneously served as investigators; jury trials were not introduced.
Military reforms. Liberal reforms in society, the government's desire to overcome backwardness in the military field, and also to reduce military spending necessitated radical reforms in the army. They were carried out under the leadership of Minister of War D. A. Milyutin. In 1863-1864. reform of military educational institutions began. General education was separated from special education: future officers received general education in military gymnasiums, and professional training in military schools. Mostly children of nobles studied in these educational institutions. For people who did not have a secondary education, cadet schools were created, where representatives of all classes were accepted. In 1868, military gymnasiums were created to replenish the cadet schools.
In 1867 the Military Law Academy was opened, in 1877 the Naval Academy. Instead of conscription, all-class military service was introduced. According to the charter approved on January 1, 1874, persons of all classes from the age of 20 (later from the age of 21) were subject to conscription. The total service life for the ground forces was set at 15 years, of which 6 years were active service, 9 years were in reserve. In the navy - 10 years: 7 - active, 3 - in reserve. For persons who received an education, the period of active service was reduced from 4 years (for those who graduated from primary schools) to 6 months (for those who received higher education).
Only sons and the only breadwinners of the family were exempted from the Yut service, as well as those conscripts whose older brother was serving or had already served his term of active service. Those exempt from conscription were enlisted in the militia, which was formed only during the war. Not subject to conscription were clergy of all faiths, representatives of some religious sects and organizations, peoples of the North, Central Asia, and some residents of the Caucasus and Siberia. In the army, corporal punishment was abolished, caning was reserved only for penal prisoners), food was improved, barracks were refurbished, and literacy training for soldiers was introduced. The army and navy were being rearmed: smooth-bore weapons were replaced by rifled ones, the replacement of cast iron and bronze guns with steel ones began; Rapid-firing rifles by the American inventor Berdan were adopted. The combat training system has changed. A number of new regulations, instructions, and training manuals were published, which set the task of teaching soldiers only what was necessary in war, significantly reducing the time for combat training.
As a result of the reforms, Russia received a massive army that met the requirements of the time. The combat effectiveness of the troops has increased significantly. The transition to universal military service was a serious blow to the class organization of society.
Reforms in the field of education. The education system has also undergone significant restructuring. In June 1864, the “Regulations on Primary Public Schools” were approved, according to which such educational institutions could be opened by public institutions and private individuals. This led to the creation of primary schools of various types - state, zemstvo, parish, Sunday, etc. The duration of education in them did not exceed, as a rule, three years.
Since November 1864, gymnasiums have become the main type of educational institution. They were divided into classic and real. In the classical ones, a large place was given to ancient languages - Latin and Greek. The period of study in them was initially seven years, and since 1871 - eight years. Graduates of classical gymnasiums had the opportunity to enter universities. Six-year real gymnasiums were designed to prepare “for employment in various branches of industry and trade.”
The main attention was paid to the study of mathematics, natural science, and technical subjects. Access to universities was closed to graduates of real gymnasiums; they continued their studies at technical institutes. The beginning of women's secondary education was laid - women's gymnasiums appeared. But the amount of knowledge given in them was inferior to what was taught in men's gymnasiums. The gymnasium accepted children “of all classes, without distinction of rank or religion,” however, high tuition fees were set. In June 1864, a new charter for universities was approved, restoring the autonomy of these educational institutions. The direct management of the university was entrusted to the council of professors, which elected the rector and deans, approved educational plans, and resolved financial and personnel issues. Higher education for women began to develop. Since gymnasium graduates did not have the right to enter universities, higher women's courses were opened for them in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kazan, and Kyiv. Women began to be admitted to universities, but as auditors.
The Orthodox Church during the period of reforms. Liberal reforms also affected the Orthodox Church. First of all, the government tried to improve the financial situation of the clergy. In 1862, a Special Presence was created to find ways to improve the life of the clergy, which included members of the Synod and senior state officials. Social forces were also involved in solving this problem. In 1864, parish trustees arose, consisting of parishioners who not only focused on the study of mathematics, natural science, and technical subjects. Access to universities was closed to graduates of real gymnasiums; they continued their studies at technical institutes.
The beginning of women's secondary education was laid - women's gymnasiums appeared. But the amount of knowledge given in them was inferior to what was taught in men's gymnasiums. The gymnasium accepted children “of all classes, without distinction of rank or religion,” however, high tuition fees were set.
In June 1864, a new charter for universities was approved, restoring the autonomy of these educational institutions. The direct management of the university was entrusted to the council of professors, which elected the rector and deans, approved educational plans, and resolved financial and personnel issues. Higher education for women began to develop. Since gymnasium graduates did not have the right to enter universities, higher women's courses were opened for them in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kazan, and Kyiv. Women began to be admitted to universities, but as auditors.
The Orthodox Church during the period of reforms. Liberal reforms also affected the Orthodox Church. First of all, the government tried to improve the financial situation of the clergy. In 1862, a Special Presence was created to find ways to improve the life of the clergy, which included members of the Synod and senior state officials. Social forces were also involved in solving this problem. In 1864, parish trustees arose, consisting of parishioners who not only managed the affairs of the parish, but were also supposed to help improve the financial situation of the clergy. In 1869-79. the incomes of parish priests increased significantly due to the abolition of small parishes and the establishment of an annual salary, which ranged from 240 to 400 rubles. Old-age pensions were introduced for clergy.
The liberal spirit of reforms carried out in the field of education also affected church educational institutions. In 1863, graduates of theological seminaries received the right to enter universities. In 1864, children of the clergy were allowed to enter gymnasiums, and in 1866 - into military schools. In 1867, the Synod decided to abolish the heredity of parishes and the right of admission to seminaries for all Orthodox Christians without exception. These measures destroyed class barriers and contributed to the democratic renewal of the clergy. At the same time, they led to the departure from this environment of many young, gifted people who joined the ranks of the intelligentsia. Under Alexander II, the Old Believers were legally recognized: they were allowed to register their marriages and baptisms in civil institutions; they could now hold some public positions and freely travel abroad. At the same time, in all official documents, adherents of the Old Believers were still called schismatics, and they were prohibited from holding public office.
Conclusion: During the reign of Alexander II, liberal reforms were carried out in Russia, affecting all aspects of public life. Thanks to the reforms, significant sections of the population acquired initial skills in management and public work. The reforms laid down traditions, albeit very timid ones, of civil society and the rule of law. At the same time, they retained the class advantages of the nobles, and also had restrictions for the national regions of the country, where the free popular will determines not only the law, but also the personality of the rulers; in such a country, political murder as a means of struggle is a manifestation of the same spirit of despotism, the destruction of which in We set Russia as our task. The despotism of the individual and the despotism of the party are equally reprehensible, and violence is justified only when it is directed against violence." Comment on this document.
The liberation of the peasants in 1861 and the subsequent reforms of the 60s and 70s became a turning point in Russian history. This period was called by liberal figures the era of “great reforms.” Their consequence was the creation of the necessary conditions for the development of capitalism in Russia, which allowed it to follow a pan-European path.
The rate of economic development in the country increased sharply, and the transition to a market economy began. Under the influence of these processes, new layers of the population were formed - the industrial bourgeoisie and the proletariat. Peasant and landowner farms were increasingly drawn into commodity-money relations.
The emergence of zemstvos, city self-government, and democratic transformations in the judicial and educational systems testified to the steady, although not so rapid, movement of Russia towards the foundations of civil society and the rule of law.
However, almost all reforms were inconsistent and unfinished. They maintained the class advantages of the nobility and state control over society. On the national outskirts, reforms were implemented incompletely. The principle of the autocratic power of the monarch remained unchanged.
The foreign policy of the government of Alexander II in almost all main directions was active. Through diplomatic and military means, the Russian state managed to solve the foreign policy tasks facing it and restore its position as a great power. The borders of the empire expanded due to the Central Asian territories.
The era of “great reforms” was a time when social movements transformed into a force capable of influencing or resisting power. Fluctuations in government policy and the inconsistency of reforms led to an increase in radicalism in the country. Revolutionary organizations took the path of terror, trying to rouse the peasants to revolution by killing the tsar and senior officials.
Question 1. Why, after the abolition of serfdom, did the state face the need to carry out other reforms?
Answer. Initially, it was clear that to modernize Russia, a whole set of reforms was needed, the basis for which should be the peasantry, but besides this, other transformations were also needed using the abolition of serfdom. For example, Russia lost the Crimean War largely because its soldiers used outdated smoothbore guns. The liberation of the peasants in itself could not rearm the army; this required a special reform.
Question 2. What circumstances determined the creation of local government? Give a description of the zemstvo reform. What do you see as its pros and cons?
Answer. Before the reform, all power was in the hands of officials who monitored not the state of affairs locally, but rather looking good in front of their superiors (this is perfectly shown in N.V. Gogol’s “The Inspector General”), therefore economic life, education, healthcare in the province has fallen into complete decline. At the same time, the nobles needed some kind of compensation for the way the peasant reform was carried out. Under these conditions, the zemstvo reform was developed. In general, the reform was carried out so that representatives of the propertied strata received local power. However, in the conditions of those years, this was reasonable, because it was the propertied strata who were often more educated and at the same time were against revolutionary changes because they were afraid for their property. Nevertheless, zemstvos were elected bodies of power, elected among a relatively limited circle of people, which made it easier to defend their opinions, that is, in general, they accustomed Russians to the use of civil rights. It was not for nothing that at the beginning of the twentieth century, supporters of the legal political struggle for reforms (the Cadets) relied mainly on the zemstvos. It is not known what Russia could have achieved thanks to zemstvos if fate had given these local self-government bodies more time.
Question 3. What principles formed the basis of judicial reform? Why do you think judicial reform has proven to be the most consistent?
Answer. Judicial reform reproduced a ready-made system that operated successfully in some Western countries. That’s why it was the most consistent: the government clearly saw what result it should achieve and what principles it should follow. The theoretical development of the basic principles was also taken care of long before in the West. These are principles such as:
1) equality of all classes before the law;
2) publicity of the court;
3) independence of judges;
4) adversarial nature of the prosecution and defense;
5) election of some judicial bodies.
Question 4. What changes have occurred in the army? Why did conscription no longer meet the needs of the state?
Answer. First of all, the army and navy were rearmed; from now on, they received new items in a timely manner in accordance with the latest achievements of world military thought. This required especially large expenses in the case of the fleet, because it actually had to be built anew every few years. The most important change was the change in approach to officer training. The cadet corps created during the reform made it possible to train truly competent personnel for the army. But what was most noticed in society, naturally, was the replacement of conscription with universal military service. When recruiting, the army remained almost the same in size at any time. Because of this, in a war its numbers might not be sufficient, and in years of peace it required too much expenditure from the treasury. Now, current tasks were carried out by those who were in active service, and in case of war, those who were in the reserves could be called up. However, the long term of service did not cause much indignation in society, because all men were subject to conscription, but in fact not all were conscripted. Every year the state determined how many soldiers and sailors it needed, and among the young people of the appropriate age, those who were drawn by lot wore the uniform. Among other things, such a system encouraged people to get an education, because it significantly reduced the length of active service.
Question 5. What do you see as the advantages and disadvantages of reform in the field of education?
Answer. Advantages:
1) the creation of primary public schools by institutions and individuals was allowed, thanks to which educational institutions of various types appeared;
2) gymnasiums were divided into classical and real, with graduates specializing in fundamental scientific knowledge, or practical skills (also related to engineering) and natural sciences (thus, real gymnasiums provided education no worse than classical ones, just with a different focus);
3) children were accepted into the gymnasium regardless of class, parental rank and religion;
4) women's gymnasiums also appeared;
5) the direct management of universities was in the hands of professors, who elected the main officials, that is, self-government was actually introduced in universities, which had never happened before in Russia;
6) higher women's courses were opened for graduates of women's gymnasiums instead of universities.
Flaws:
1) the amount of knowledge in women's gymnasiums was much lower than in men's;
2) certain levels of education remained paid (and there were no opportunities that exist today in some Western countries, for example, to take out a loan and then pay it back from the salary you receive thanks to your education), therefore, in fact, they were not available to all classes .
Question 6. Evaluate project M. T. Loris-Melikova. Can this project be considered constitutional?
Answer. The project can be called an attempt to develop a constitution. This statesman did not propose specific foundations for the future structure of the state; he proposed principles on the basis of which these foundations could be developed democratically. Further, everything would depend on the work of the commissions described by Loril-Melikov, the State Council and the goodwill of the emperor himself. The developed mechanism could even lead to the adoption of a constitution, but only if the monarch shared his power voluntarily. However, the Loris-Melikov project itself, I repeat, was only a possible mechanism for developing a constitution, but not the constitution itself.
History lesson plan in 8th gradeLesson topic: Liberal reforms of the 60-70s.
Purpose of the lesson :
1. To form an idea of the essence of bourgeois reforms of the 60-70s. 19th century:
changes in the local government system;
the main provisions of zemstvo and city reform;
functions of local government bodies;
the essence of judicial reform;
main directions of military reform;
changes in the principle of recruiting the army;
reforming primary and secondary schools;
introduction of university autonomy.
2 .Continue to develop skills in working with documents, the ability to analyze, find cause-and-effect relationships, express your point of view, give your own assessment of historical events.
3.Form an active life and civic position.
Basic Concepts : zemstvo; curial election system; property qualification; age limit; civil society; rule of law; jury trial; world court; universal conscription; university autonomy.
Key dates : June 18, 1863 - new University Charter; January 1, 1864 - “Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions”; November 20, 1864 - publication of the Judicial Statutes; June 16, 1870 - City Regulations; January 1, 1874 - Charter on military service.
Personalities : Alexander II, D. A. Milyutin.
Lesson equipment: textbook documents, workbook, presentation .
Lesson Plan :
1. Local government reform.
2. Judicial reform.
3. Military reform.
5. The significance of liberal reforms of the 60-70s of the XIX century.
Lesson progress:
1. Organizational moment.
2.Checking homework.
Working with individual cards
1. Consider the historical situation and answer the questions: A) During the development of projects for the Peasant Reform in 1859-1861. the authors of individual projects proposed different conditions for the liberation of peasants from serfdom.
On what main issues were contradictions evident during the preparation of the Peasant Reform of 1861? How were these issues resolved during the reform of 1861?
2). What are the reasons for the Peasant Reform of 1861?
3). Describe the historical significance of the reform of 1861 point by point.
Work at the board with terms and dates
Terms: rescript, temporarily obligated, Charter, cut, ransom, Editorial commissions.
Dates: manifesto on the abolition of serfdom, work of editorial commissions, rescript to Nazimov .
Survey on paragraph 20.
Preparation of peasant reform
The main provisions of the peasant reform
The meaning of the abolition of serfdom.
Frontal survey
1.What did the reform of 1861 give to the peasants?
(personal freedom)
2.Which peasants were considered temporarily liable?
(those who did not enter into buyout deals with their landowners after the announcement of the reform)
3.What are segments?
(part of the peasant allotment that turned out to be “extra” compared to the norm established in 1861)
4.The progressive features of the peasant reform include:
(liberation of peasants with the right to have trades, enter into transactions, buy land)
3.Learning new material
1. . Reform of local government (zemstvo and city)
The abolition of serfdom led to the need to carry out bourgeois reforms in other areas of public life.
In 1864, Alexander II (on the advice of liberals) heldzemstvo reform. The “Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions” were published, according to which classless elected bodies of local self-government - zemstvos - were created. They were called upon to involve all segments of the population in solving local problems, and on the other hand, to partially compensate the nobles for the loss of their former power.
In the provinces and districts, zemstvo assemblies were created, which performed the functions of administrative bodies, and zemstvo councils - executive bodies. Elections to district zemstvo assemblies were held once every 3 years at three electoral congresses. Voters (men only) were divided into three curia: county landowners (landowners, as well as rich peasant landowners), urban voters (urban commercial and industrial bourgeoisie) and elected from rural societies (mainly peasants). Vowels (deputies) from all classes were elected to zemstvo assemblies; at its head was the leader of the nobility. The nobles predominated in the zemstvos; the representatives of the peasants did not play a big role. The governor controlled the zemstvos and could cancel any decision of the zemstvo assembly or council.
zemstvo
zemstvo assembly zemstvo council
(administrative (executive body,
representative body worked for 3 years, was elected
of all classes by the zemstvo assembly)
represented by deputies,
worked for 3 years).
The zemstvos were in charge of issues of local importance:
> construction and maintenance of roads locally;
> opening of schools, hospitals, nursing homes, etc.;
> providing food assistance to the population in lean years;
> providing agronomic assistance to peasants;
> collection of statistical information.
The importance of creating zemstvos
1. Zemstvos improved the life of the Russian village, schools, hospitals, post offices appeared, they helped in organizing local credit and road construction.
2. Initially not having any political functions, they began to play an important political role, becoming an opposition force to the bureaucracy and autocracy.
In 1870, according to the zemstvo type, aurban reform. City councils and city councils were created.
A city mayor was elected, who headed the city duma and government, coordinating their activities. Only those residents who had property qualifications had the right to vote and be elected, i.e. bankers, owners of houses, commercial and industrial establishments. The bulk of the population was excluded from participation in city government. The governor and the minister of internal affairs could impose a ban on any decision of the Duma. The city councils participated weakly in the social movement, since the merchants and manufacturers had little interest in politics.
city government
city council city government
(administrative body, (executive body)
consists of elected deputies)
city councils and councils were in charge
mainly economic issues:
> improvement of city streets, squares, gardens, parks;
> organizing local healthcare, opening hospitals;
> care about public education, opening schools;
> opening shops, setting up markets, bazaars;
> maintenance of the police, prisons;
> organization of fire safety measures;
> doing charity work.
The importance of creating city government bodies
1. Contributed to the involvement of broad sections of the population in solving management issues.
2. The prerequisites for the formation of civil society and the rule of law in Russia were being formed.
2. Judicial reform.
At the insistence of the public, in 1864 the government carried out judicial reform, which was developed by progressive lawyers. Before the reform, the court in Russia was class-based, secret, without the participation of the parties, and corporal punishment was widely used. The trial depended on the administration and the police.
In 1864 Russia received a new court based on the principles of bourgeois law. It was an unclassified, transparent, adversarial, independent court; some judicial bodies were elected.
Two court systems were established:
> magistrates - courts that heard minor criminal and civil cases with a claim of up to 500 rubles, they were created in cities and counties, magistrates were approved by the Senate;
> general - district courts, usually created within the provinces, and judicial chambers, uniting several judicial districts. The district court was appointed by the emperor and decided complex criminal and civil cases. The Trial Chamber heard appeals, official misconduct and political cases. If the decision was made with the participation of a jury, it was considered final. If without them, then it could be appealed in the judicial chamber. The highest authority was the Senate. He considered appeals against decisions of district courts and judicial chambers made with the participation of jurors, if these decisions violated the legal order of legal proceedings.
Judicial reform was the most consistent and progressive of all the reforms of this period. The outstanding Russian lawyer A.F. Koni, criminal law specialist N.S. Tagantsev, and lawyers F.N. Plevako and V.D. Maklakov gained great popularity in society. Judges have repeatedly acquitted defendants even in political cases. True, there remained separate courts for the clergy, military and high officials. But soon people’s judges and investigators began to be removed from conducting political cases, and investigations into them were increasingly transferred to the gendarmerie authorities.
Court system according to new judicial statutes (1864)
SENATE
(Highest court)
Magistrates Court General Court
(considered minor criminal and
civil cases; was created indistrict court judicial chamber
cities and counties; magistrate (members of this court (considered
judged alone; the judge could appoint an imper- appeal on
become a “local resident” from the age of 25; torus; considered decisions
for judges, high criminal and complex district courts were established and
educational and property civil cases with cases of officials
qualification). 12 jury crimes
aged 25 to 70 years). officials).
The new trial meant:
> the same courts heard the cases of all citizens, regardless of what class they belonged to;
> the trial was held openly, reports about the trial could be published in newspapers;
> an adversarial process was introduced: the prosecutor supported the prosecution, and the defense was carried out by the lawyer;
> jurors selected from all classes (except workers and servants) - 12 people determined the guilt or innocence of the defendant;
> the punishment was determined by the judge and two members of the court, and only special authorities could sentence the death penalty
(military court or Senate);
> judges were appointed by the government, but they can be dismissed
was only in court - this is the most important principle of judicial
devices, the principle of irremovability of judges.
3.Military reform .
Russia's defeat in the Crimean War showed that it was necessary to reconstruct the entire military system. The commission “to improve military affairs” was created during the war. However, transformations began only in 1861, when D. A. Milyutin, a highly educated and progressive figure, became Minister of War. Military reform was carried out until 1874.
Milyutin proceeded from the fundamental position of the need to reduce the army in peacetime and significantly increase it during the war at the expense of trained reserves. Military educational institutions were reformed. Military gymnasiums and cadet schools for the training of junior officers were opened for all classes, and the Military Law and Naval Academies were created.
As a result of the reform, conscription was abolished and universal conscription was introduced. It was served by all men, regardless of class, who had reached the age of 20 and were fit for service due to their health. The length of service in the army was significantly reduced: instead of 25 years in the infantry - 6 years, in the navy - 7 years. The following were exempt from military service: the only son, the only breadwinner in the family, a conscript whose older brother is serving or has served in the army, as well as the peoples of the North, Central Asia, and part of the inhabitants of the Caucasus and Siberia. For those with higher education, the service lasted six months, for graduates of gymnasiums - one and a half years, for those who graduated from city schools - up to three years, for those who received primary education - up to four years.
The system of military administration was changed: 15 military districts were introduced in Russia, the management of which was subordinate only to the Minister of War. Corporal punishment was abolished, food was improved, barracks were refurbished, and soldiers began to be taught literacy. The Russian army was being rearmed.
Result: As a result of military reform, Russia received a massive army of a modern type.
4. Reforms in the field of education.
N Popular education also attracted the attention of the king. Of particular importance in this regard was the publication of a new and general charter of Russian universities on July 18, 1863, in the development of which, on the initiative of the Minister of Public Education A.V. Golovkin, a special commission under the main board of schools, composed mainly of professors from St. Petersburg University, participated. The charter provided universities with fairly broad autonomy: the election of the rector, deans, and professors was introduced, and the University Council received the right to independently resolve all scientific, educational, administrative and financial issues. And in connection with the development of universities, science began to develop at a correspondingly rapid pace.
According to the Regulations on Primary Public Schools approved on June 14, 1864, the state, church and society (zemstvos and cities) were to jointly educate the people.
On November 19, 1864, a new charter for gymnasiums appeared, which proclaimed equality in admission to all classes. But due to the high fees, this was only available to children of wealthy parents.
Attention was also paid to women's education. Already in the 60s, instead of the previous closed women's institutions, open ones began to be established, with the admission of girls of all classes, and these new institutions were under the department of the institutions of Empress Maria. The Ministry of Public Education began to approve similar gymnasiums. In 1870, on May 24, a new Regulation on women's gymnasiums and pro-gymnasiums of the Ministry of Public Education was approved. The need for higher women's education led to the establishment of pedagogical courses and higher women's courses in St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kyiv, Kazan and Odessa.
Education system after 1864:
primary education secondary education higher education
(primary schools
different types:gymnasiums
state,
zemstvo, church
parish, resurrected - classic realUniversities
new; duration of study - (training 8 years, (training 7 years, (1864 - new
3 years). prepared young - prepared for the un- university charter,
help for the post-personal industries that restored them
dulling autonomy in the uni- industry).
universities). and trade; access
to universities for
their graduates were
closed).
Children of all classes were accepted
but there was a high tuition fee
5. The significance of liberal reforms of the 60-70s of the 19th century.
The implementation of the reform was very difficult. The reforms were developed by young liberals and implemented by old conservative officials. Alexander II sought to adjust reforms in order to maintain social stability in the country.
Liberal reforms became a major phenomenon in the history of Russia; they changed the entire way of life of the state. Modern bodies of self-government and courts were created. The reforms contributed to the growth of the country's productive forces and its defense capability. The civic consciousness of the population grew sharply, education began to spread rapidly, and the quality of life improved. Russia has taken the first steps in the process of creating civilized forms of statehood.
4. Generalization of new material.
Testing:
1) Which of these issues were among those dealt with by the zemstvos?
a) issues of rural improvement and medical care;
b) legislative activity;
c) redistribution of peasant land within the community;
d) legal proceedings.
2) Which of the following was the result of the judicial reform of 1864?
a) a single court was formed for representatives of all classes;
b) landowners lost the right to court over peasants;
c) the adversarial nature of the trial is limited;
d) jurors were given the functions of lawyers.
3). The term “era of Great Reforms” refers to the reign of which monarch?
a) Alexander I;
b) Nicholas I;
c) Alexander II;
d) Alexander III.
4) . What name did the elected bodies of local self-government created during the Great Reforms of the 60s and 70s receive? XIX century?
a) volosts;
b) magistrates;
c) zemstvo;
d) assemblies.
5). Which of the following refers to the consequences of the reforms of the 1860–1870s?
a) limitation of autocracy;
b) strengthening the class system;
c) development of the civilian labor market;
d) destruction of the peasant community.
6).
Which of the following provisions relate to the content of military reforms of the 1860–1870s?
A) creation of Reitar troops
B) dividing the country into military districts
B) the introduction of universal conscription
D) technical re-equipment of the army
D) establishment of the War Ministry
E) creation of the General Staff.
5. Homework : § 21-22 (before “Putting reforms into practice”).
References:
1.A.A. Danilov, L.G. Kosulina History of Russia 19th century. Textbook for 8th grade of general education institutions. M., Education, 2012
2. A.A. Danilov, L.G. Kosulina Lesson developments for the textbook History of Russia 19th century. 8th grade." M., Education, 2013
3.E.A. Gevurkova, V.I. Egorova, L.I. Larina History collection of tasks. M., EKSMO, 2009
4. Russia. Illustrated encyclopedia. Editor-compiler Ph.D. Yu. A. Nikiforov. M., OLMA MEDIA GROUP, 2008
5.History in tables and diagrams for schoolchildren and applicants. 2nd edition. Compiled by A. S. Timofeev. St. Petersburg, Victoria Plus LLC, 2010
Zemstvo reform was carried out in 1864. As part of the reform, zemstvos were established in counties and provinces. The zemstvos had executive bodies represented by councils and legislative bodies represented by assemblies. The zemstvo was headed by a governor who held an elected position. Thanks to this reform, local self-government appeared in Russia, and the “local” level ceased to depend on the central government.
Judicial reform was also carried out in 1864 and established the modern image of the judicial system. According to the reform, the old courts were abolished, and instead of them there were now magistrates' and crown courts, where cases of all classes were heard. The principle of publicity and transparency was introduced, the parties competed, and the judges became independent. Plus, there was a jury trial.
Military reform took the longest to implement between 1862 and 1874. As part of the reform, military districts appeared, rearmament was carried out, and soldiers received military education. And also universal conscription was introduced - after 20 years, everyone had to serve in the army.
Peasant reform began in 1861 and continued until 1907. This reform implied the transfer of peasants from a dependent position to a temporary one with the obligation of redemption and the provision of “allotments”. This began the fight against serfdom.
