In 1875, the International Bureau of Weights and Measures was founded by the Metric Conference; its goal was to create a unified measurement system that would be used throughout the world. It was decided to take as a basis the metric system, which appeared during the French Revolution and was based on the meter and kilogram. Later, the standards of the meter and kilogram were approved. Over time, the system of units of measurement has evolved and currently has seven basic units of measurement. In 1960, this system of units received the modern name International System of Units (SI System) (Systeme Internatinal d "Unites (SI)). The SI system is not static; it is developing in accordance with the requirements that are currently imposed on measurements in science and technology.
Basic units of measurement of the International System of Units
The definition of all auxiliary units in the SI system is based on seven basic units of measurement. The main physical quantities in the International System of Units (SI) are: length ($l$); mass ($m$); time ($t$); electric current ($I$); Kelvin temperature (thermodynamic temperature) ($T$); amount of substance ($\nu$); luminous intensity ($I_v$).
The basic units in the SI system are the units of the above-mentioned quantities:
\[\left=m;;\ \left=kg;;\ \left=s;\ \left=A;;\ \left=K;;\ \ \left[\nu \right]=mol;;\ \left=cd\ (candela).\]
Standards of basic units of measurement in SI
Let us present the definitions of the standards of basic units of measurement as done in the SI system.
Meter (m) is the length of the path that light travels in a vacuum in a time equal to $\frac(1)(299792458)$ s.
Standard mass for SI is a weight in the shape of a straight cylinder, the height and diameter of which is 39 mm, consisting of an alloy of platinum and iridium weighing 1 kg.
One second (s) called a time interval that is equal to 9192631779 periods of radiation, which corresponds to the transition between two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the cesium atom (133).
One ampere (A)- this is the current strength passing in two straight infinitely thin and long conductors located at a distance of 1 meter, located in a vacuum, generating the Ampere force (the force of interaction of conductors) equal to $2\cdot (10)^(-7)N$ for each meter of conductor .
One kelvin (K)- this is the thermodynamic temperature equal to $\frac(1)(273.16)$ part of the triple point temperature of water.
One mole (mole)- this is the amount of a substance that has the same number of atoms as there are in 0.012 kg of carbon (12).
One candela (cd) equal to the intensity of light emitted by a monochromatic source with a frequency of $540\cdot (10)^(12)$Hz with an energy force in the direction of radiation of $\frac(1)(683)\frac(W)(avg).$
Science is developing, measuring technology is being improved, and definitions of units of measurement are being revised. The higher the measurement accuracy, the greater the requirements for determining units of measurement.
SI derived quantities
All other quantities are considered in the SI system as derivatives of the basic ones. The units of measurement of derived quantities are defined as the result of the product (taking into account the degree) of the basic ones. Let us give examples of derived quantities and their units in the SI system.
The SI system also has dimensionless quantities, for example, reflection coefficient or relative dielectric constant. These quantities have dimension one.
The SI system includes derived units with special names. These names are compact forms of representing combinations of basic quantities. Let us give examples of SI units that have their own names (Table 2).
Each SI quantity has only one unit, but the same unit can be used for different quantities. Joule is a unit of measurement for the amount of heat and work.
SI system, units of measurement multiples and submultiples
The International System of Units has a set of prefixes for units of measurement that are used if the numerical values of the quantities in question are significantly greater or less than the unit of the system that is used without the prefix. These prefixes are used with any units of measurement; in the SI system they are decimal.
Let us give examples of such prefixes (Table 3).
When writing, the prefix and the name of the unit are written together, so that the prefix and the unit of measurement form a single symbol.
Note that the unit of mass in the SI system (kilogram) has historically already had a prefix. Decimal multiples and submultiples of the kilogram are obtained by connecting the prefix to the gram.
Non-system units
The SI system is universal and convenient in international communication. Almost all units that are not included in the SI system can be defined using SI terms. The use of the SI system is preferred in science education. However, there are some quantities that are not included in the SI, but are widely used. Thus, units of time such as minute, hour, day are part of culture. Some units are used for historical reasons. When using units that do not belong to the SI system, it is necessary to indicate how they are converted to SI units. An example of units is given in Table 4.
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Books
- Hydraulics. Textbook and workshop for academic bachelor's degree, V.A. Kudinov. The textbook outlines the basic physical and mechanical properties of liquids, issues of hydrostatics and hydrodynamics, provides the basics of the theory of hydrodynamic similarity and mathematical modeling...
- Hydraulics 4th ed., trans. and additional Textbook and workshop for academic bachelor's degree, Eduard Mikhailovich Kartashov. The textbook outlines the basic physical and mechanical properties of liquids, issues of hydrostatics and hydrodynamics, provides the basics of the theory of hydrodynamic similarity and mathematical modeling...
The reference book contains data on the mechanical, thermodynamic and molecular-kinetic properties of substances, electrical properties of metals, dielectrics and semiconductors, magnetic properties of dia-, para- and ferromagnets, optical properties of substances, including laser ones, optical, X-ray and Mössbauer spectra, neutron physics, thermonuclear reactions, as well as geophysics and astronomy.
The material is presented in the form of tables and graphs, accompanied by brief explanations and definitions of the relevant quantities. For ease of use, units of measurement of physical quantities in various systems and conversion factors are given.
The development of physical sciences in recent decades is characterized by an uncontrollable increase in the flow of information. This information needs systematic generalization and concentration. Tables of physical quantities naturally concentrate that part of the flow of information that allows for numerical expression.
Specialized reference books and tables have been and continue to be published on certain narrow branches of physics. Specialists usually turn to such publications.
The proposed tables are intended for a wide range of readers who need to obtain information from areas of physics that lie outside their more or less narrow specialty. Therefore, in the proposed tables the reader will not find, for example, detailed data either on the spectra of elements, or on the properties of solutions, etc. “Tables of physical quantities” do not pretend to compete with such multi-volume publications as the famous Landolt-Bornstein reference book or Technical Tables and etc. For everyday use, a widely available reference book of moderate length is usually required. The tables offered to the reader are intended to satisfy this need.
The compilers understand that the tables are far from perfect, and hope that readers will contribute to the improvement of this book in subsequent editions with their critical comments.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
From the editor
I. GENERAL SECTION
Chapter 1. Units of measurement of physical quantities
Chapter 2. Fundamental physical constants
Chapter 3. Periodic Table of Elements
II. MECHANICS AND THERMODYNAMICS
Chapter 4. Mechanical properties of materials
Chapter 5. Density of substances
Chapter 6. Compressibility of substances
Chapter 7. Acoustics
Chapter 8. Thermometry
Chapter 9. Temperature expansion coefficients and the Joule-Thomson effect
Chapter 10. Heat capacity
Chapter 11. Phase transitions, melting and boiling
Chapter 12. Vapor pressure of various substances
Chapter 13. Critical parameters of substances and virial coefficients
Chapter 14. Surface Tension Coefficient
III. KINETIC PHENOMENA
Chapter 15. Thermal conductivity
Chapter 16. Viscosity
Chapter 17. Diffusion of atoms and molecules
Chapter 18. Effective sizes of atoms and ions
IV. ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM
Chapter 19. Electrical properties of metals and alloys
Gland 20. Electrical properties of dielectrics
Chapter 21. Electrical properties of semiconductors
Chapter 22. Ionization potentials and dissociation energies
Chapter 23. Gas discharge
Chapter 24. Electronic emission
Chapter 25. Thermoelectric phenomena
Chapter 27. Magnetic properties of dia- and paramagnets
Chapter 28. Magnetic properties of ferromagnets
Chapter 29. Ferrites
Chapter 30. Antiferromagnets
V. OPTICS AND X-RAY
Chapter 31. Optical properties of matter
Chapter 32. Spectra of elements and some parameters of molecules
Chapter 33. Lasers
Chapter 34. Electro-, magneto- and piezo-optical effects
Chapter 35. X-ray radiation
VI. NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Chapter 36. Elementary particles
Chapter 37. Nuclear properties of nuclides
Chapter 38. Mössbauer nuclei
Chapter 39. Reactions under the influence of neutrons
Chapter 40. Reactions leading to the formation of neutrons
Chapter 41. The passage of neutrons through matter
Chapter 42. Nuclear fission
Chapter 43. Thermonuclear reactions
Chapter 44. Passage of ionizing radiation through matter
Chapter 45. Cosmic radiation
VII. ASTRONOMY AND GEOPHYSICS
Chapter 46. Astronomy and astrophysics
Chapter 47. Geophysics
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What does it mean to measure a physical quantity? What is a unit of physical quantity called? Here you will find answers to these very important questions.
1. Let's find out what is called a physical quantity
For a long time, people have used their characteristics to more accurately describe certain events, phenomena, properties of bodies and substances. For example, when comparing the bodies that surround us, we say that a book is smaller than a bookcase, and a horse is larger than a cat. This means that the volume of the horse is greater than the volume of the cat, and the volume of the book is less than the volume of the cabinet.
Volume is an example of a physical quantity that characterizes the general property of bodies to occupy one or another part of space (Fig. 1.15, a). In this case, the numerical value of the volume of each of the bodies is individual.
Rice. 1.15 To characterize the property of bodies to occupy one or another part of space, we use the physical quantity volume (o, b), to characterize movement - speed (b, c)
A general characteristic of many material objects or phenomena, which can acquire individual meaning for each of them, is called physical quantity.
Another example of a physical quantity is the familiar concept of “speed”. All moving bodies change their position in space over time, but the speed of this change is different for each body (Fig. 1.15, b, c). Thus, in one flight, an airplane manages to change its position in space by 250 m, a car by 25 m, a person by I m, and a turtle by only a few centimeters. That's why physicists say that speed is a physical quantity that characterizes the speed of movement.
It is not difficult to guess that volume and speed are not all the physical quantities that physics operates with. Mass, density, force, temperature, pressure, voltage, illumination - this is only a small part of the physical quantities that you will become familiar with while studying physics.
2. Find out what it means to measure a physical quantity
In order to quantitatively describe the properties of any material object or physical phenomenon, it is necessary to establish the value of the physical quantity that characterizes this object or phenomenon.
The value of physical quantities is obtained by measurements (Fig. 1.16-1.19) or calculations.
Rice. 1.16. “There are 5 minutes left before the train departs,” you measure the time with excitement.
Rice. 1.17 “I bought a kilogram of apples,” says mom about her mass measurements
Rice. 1.18. “Dress warmly, it’s cooler outside today,” your grandmother says after measuring the air temperature outside.
Rice. 1.19. “My blood pressure has risen again,” a woman complains after measuring her blood pressure.
To measure a physical quantity means to compare it with a homogeneous quantity taken as a unit. 
Rice. 1.20 If a grandmother and grandson measure distance in steps, they will always get different results
Let's give an example from fiction: “After walking three hundred paces along the river bank, the small detachment entered the arches of a dense forest, along the winding paths of which they had to wander for ten days.” (J. Verne “The Fifteen-Year-Old Captain”)
Rice. 1.21.
The heroes of the novel by J. Verne measured the distance traveled, comparing it with the step, that is, the unit of measurement was the step. There were three hundred such steps. As a result of the measurement, a numerical value (three hundred) of a physical quantity (path) in selected units (steps) was obtained.
Obviously, the choice of such a unit does not allow comparing the measurement results obtained by different people, since the step length is different for everyone (Fig. 1.20). Therefore, for the sake of convenience and accuracy, people long ago began to agree to measure the same physical quantity with the same units. Nowadays, in most countries of the world, the International System of Units of Measurement, adopted in 1960, is in force, which is called the “System International” (SI) (Fig. 1.21).
In this system, the unit of length is the meter (m), time - the second (s); Volume is measured in cubic meters (m3), and speed is measured in meters per second (m/s). You will learn about other SI units later.
3. Remember multiples and submultiples
From your mathematics course, you know that to shorten the notation of large and small values of different quantities, multiples and submultiples are used.
Multiples are units that are 10, 100, 1000 or more times larger than the base units. Sub-multiple units are units that are 10, 100, 1000 or more times smaller than the main ones.
Prefixes are used to write multiples and submultiples. For example, units of length that are multiples of one meter are a kilometer (1000 m), a decameter (10 m).
Units of length subordinate to one meter are decimeter (0.1 m), centimeter (0.01 m), micrometer (0.000001 m) and so on.
The table shows the most commonly used prefixes.
4. Getting to know the measuring instruments
Scientists measure physical quantities using measuring instruments. The simplest of them - a ruler, a tape measure - are used to measure the distance and linear dimensions of the body. You are also well aware of such measuring instruments as a watch - a device for measuring time, a protractor - a device for measuring angles on a plane, a thermometer - a device for measuring temperature, and some others (Fig. 1.22, p. 20). You still have to get acquainted with many measuring instruments.
Most measuring instruments have a scale that allows for measurement. In addition to the scale, the device indicates the units in which the value measured by this device is expressed*.
Using the scale, you can set the two most important characteristics of the device: measurement limits and division value.
Measurement limits- these are the largest and smallest values of a physical quantity that can be measured by this device.
Nowadays, electronic measuring instruments are widely used, in which the value of the measured quantities is displayed on the screen in the form of numbers. Measurement limits and units are determined from the device passport or are set with a special switch on the device panel.
Rice. 1.22. Measuring instruments
Division price- this is the value of the smallest scale division of the measuring device.
For example, the upper measurement limit of a medical thermometer (Fig. 1.23) is 42 °C, the lower one is 34 °C, and the scale division of this thermometer is 0.1 °C.
We remind you: to determine the price of a scale division of any device, it is necessary to divide the difference of any two values indicated on the scale by the number of divisions between them.
Rice. 1.23. Medical thermometer
- Let's sum it up
A general characteristic of material objects or phenomena, which can acquire individual meaning for each of them, is called a physical quantity.
To measure a physical quantity means to compare it with a homogeneous quantity taken as a unit.
As a result of measurements, we obtain the value of physical quantities.
When talking about the value of a physical quantity, you should indicate its numerical value and unit.
Measuring instruments are used to measure physical quantities.
To reduce the recording of numerical values of large and small physical quantities, multiple and submultiple units are used. They are formed using prefixes.
- Security questions
1. Define a physical quantity. How do you understand it?
2. What does it mean to measure a physical quantity?
3. What is meant by the value of a physical quantity?
4. Name all the physical quantities mentioned in the passage from the novel by J. Verne, given in the text of the paragraph. What is their numerical value? units of measurement?
5. What prefixes are used to form submultiple units? multiple units?
6. What characteristics of the device can be set using the scale?
7. What is the division price called?
- Exercises
1. Name the physical quantities known to you. Specify the units of these quantities. What instruments are used to measure them?
2. In Fig. Figure 1.22 shows some measuring instruments. Is it possible, using only a drawing, to determine the price of division of the scales of these instruments? Justify your answer.
3. Express the following physical quantities in meters: 145 mm; 1.5 km; 2 km 32 m.
4. Write down the following values of physical quantities using multiples or submultiples: 0.0000075 m - diameter of red blood cells; 5,900,000,000,000 m - the radius of the orbit of the planet Pluto; 6,400,000 m is the radius of planet Earth.
5 Determine the measurement limits and the price of division of the scales of the instruments that you have at home.
6. Remember the definition of a physical quantity and prove that length is a physical quantity.
- Physics and technology in Ukraine
One of the outstanding physicists of our time - Lev Davidovich Landau (1908-1968) - demonstrated his abilities while still in high school. After graduating from university, he interned with one of the creators of quantum physics, Niels Bohr. Already at the age of 25, he headed the theoretical department of the Ukrainian Institute of Physics and Technology and the department of theoretical physics at Kharkov University. Like most outstanding theoretical physicists, Landau had an extremely wide range of scientific interests. Nuclear physics, plasma physics, the theory of superfluidity of liquid helium, the theory of superconductivity - Landau made significant contributions to all these areas of physics. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for his work on low temperature physics.
Physics. 7th grade: Textbook / F. Ya. Bozhinova, N. M. Kiryukhin, E. A. Kiryukhina. - X.: Publishing house "Ranok", 2007. - 192 p.: ill.
Lesson content lesson notes and supporting frame lesson presentation interactive technologies accelerative teaching methods Practice tests, testing online tasks and exercises homework workshops and trainings questions for class discussions Illustrations video and audio materials photographs, pictures, graphs, tables, diagrams, comics, parables, sayings, crosswords, anecdotes, jokes, quotes Add-ons abstracts cheat sheets tips for the curious articles (MAN) literature basic and additional dictionary of terms Improving textbooks and lessons correcting errors in the textbook, replacing outdated knowledge with new ones Only for teachers calendar plans training programs methodological recommendationsIn science and technology, units of measurement of physical quantities are used that form certain systems. The set of units established by the standard for mandatory use is based on the units of the International System (SI). In theoretical sections of physics, units of the SGS systems are widely used: SGSE, SGSM and the symmetric Gaussian system SGS. Units of the MKGSS technical system and some non-system units are also used to a certain extent.
The International System (SI) is built on 6 basic units (meter, kilogram, second, kelvin, ampere, candela) and 2 additional ones (radian, steradian). The final version of the draft standard “Units of Physical Quantities” contains: SI units; units allowed for use along with SI units, for example: ton, minute, hour, degree Celsius, degree, minute, second, liter, kilowatt-hour, revolutions per second, revolutions per minute; units of the GHS system and other units used in theoretical sections of physics and astronomy: light year, parsec, barn, electronvolt; units temporarily allowed for use such as: angstrom, kilogram-force, kilogram-force-meter, kilogram-force per square centimeter, millimeter of mercury, horsepower, calorie, kilocalorie, roentgen, curie. The most important of these units and the relationships between them are given in Table A1.
Abbreviated designations of units given in the tables are used only after the numerical value of the value or in the headings of table columns. Abbreviations cannot be used instead of the full names of units in the text without the numerical value of the quantities. When using both Russian and international symbols of units, a straight font is used; designations (abbreviated) of units whose names are given by the names of scientists (newton, pascal, watt, etc.) should be written with a capital letter (N, Pa, W); In unit designations, a dot is not used as an abbreviation sign. The designations of the units included in the product are separated by dots as multiplication signs; A slash is usually used as a division sign; If the denominator includes a product of units, then it is enclosed in parentheses.
To form multiples and submultiples, decimal prefixes are used (see Table A2). It is especially recommended to use prefixes that represent a power of 10 with an exponent that is a multiple of three. It is advisable to use submultiples and multiples of units derived from SI units and resulting in numerical values lying between 0.1 and 1000 (for example: 17,000 Pa should be written as 17 kPa).
It is not allowed to attach two or more attachments to one unit (for example: 10 –9 m should be written as 1 nm). To form units of mass, the prefix is added to the main name “gram” (for example: 10 –6 kg = 10 –3 g = 1 mg). If the complex name of the original unit is a product or fraction, then the prefix is attached to the name of the first unit (for example, kN∙m). In necessary cases, it is allowed to use submultiple units of length, area and volume (for example, V/cm) in the denominator.
Table A3 shows the main physical and astronomical constants.
Table P1
UNITS OF MEASUREMENT OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES IN THE SI SYSTEM
AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP WITH OTHER UNITS
| Name of quantities | Units of measurement | Abbreviation | Size | Coefficient for conversion to SI units | ||
| GHS | MKGSS and non-systemic units | |||||
| Basic units | ||||||
| Length | meter | m | 1 cm=10 –2 m | 1 Å=10 –10 m 1 light year=9.46×10 15 m | ||
| Weight | kilograms | kg | 1g=10 –3 kg | |||
| Time | second | With | 1 hour=3600 s 1 min=60 s | |||
| Temperature | kelvin | TO | 1 0 C=1 K | |||
| Current strength | ampere | A | 1 SGSE I = =1/3×10 –9 A 1 SGSM I =10 A | |||
| The power of light | candela | cd | ||||
| Additional units | ||||||
| Flat angle | radian | glad | 1 0 =p/180 rad 1¢=p/108×10 –2 rad 1²=p/648×10 –3 rad | |||
| Solid angle | steradian | Wed | Full solid angle=4p sr | |||
| Derived units | ||||||
| Frequency | hertz | Hz | s –1 | |||
Continuation of Table P1
| Angular velocity | radians per second | rad/s | s –1 | 1 rev/s=2p rad/s 1 rev/min= =0.105 rad/s | |
| Volume | cubic meter | m 3 | m 3 | 1cm 2 =10 –6 m 3 | 1 l=10 –3 m 3 |
| Speed | meter per second | m/s | m×s –1 | 1cm/s=10 –2 m/s | 1km/h=0.278 m/s |
| Density | kilogram per cubic meter | kg/m 3 | kg×m –3 | 1 g/cm 3 = =10 3 kg/m 3 | |
| Strength | newton | N | kg×m×s –2 | 1 din=10 –5 N | 1 kg=9.81N |
| Work, energy, amount of heat | joule | J (N×m) | kg×m 2 ×s –2 | 1 erg=10 –7 J | 1 kgf×m=9.81 J 1 eV=1.6×10 –19 J 1 kW×h=3.6×10 6 J 1 cal=4.19 J 1 kcal=4.19×10 3 J |
| Power | watt | W (J/s) | kg×m 2 ×s –3 | 1erg/s=10 –7 W | 1hp=735W |
| Pressure | pascal | Pa (N/m2) | kg∙m –1 ∙s –2 | 1 dyne/cm 2 =0.1 Pa | 1 atm=1 kgf/cm 2 = =0.981∙10 5 Pa 1 mm.Hg.=133 Pa 1 atm= =760 mm.Hg.= =1.013∙10 5 Pa |
| moment of force | newton meter | N∙m | kgm 2 ×s –2 | 1 dyne×cm= =10 –7 N×m | 1 kgf×m=9.81 N×m |
| Moment of inertia | kilogram-meter squared | kg×m 2 | kg×m 2 | 1 g×cm 2 = =10 –7 kg×m 2 | |
| Dynamic viscosity | pascal-second | Pa×s | kg×m –1 ×s –1 | 1P/poise/==0.1Pa×s |
Continuation of Table P1
| Kinematic viscosity | square meter per second | m 2 /s | m 2 ×s –1 | 1St/Stokes/= =10 –4 m 2 /s | |
| Heat capacity of the system | joule per kelvin | J/C | kg×m 2 x x s –2 ×K –1 | 1 cal/ 0 C = 4.19 J/K | |
| Specific heat | joule per kilogram-kelvin | J/ (kg×K) | m 2 ×s –2 ×K –1 | 1 kcal/(kg × 0 C) = =4.19 × 10 3 J/(kg × K) | |
| Electric charge | pendant | Cl | А×с | 1SGSE q = =1/3×10 –9 C 1SGSM q = =10 C | |
| Potential, electrical voltage | volt | V (W/A) | kg×m 2 x x s –3 ×A –1 | 1SGSE u = =300 V 1SGSM u = =10 –8 V | |
| Electric field strength | volt per meter | V/m | kg×m x x s –3 ×A –1 | 1 SGSE E = =3×10 4 V/m | |
| Electrical displacement (electrical induction) | pendant per square meter | C/m 2 | m –2 ×s×A | 1SGSE D = =1/12p x x 10 –5 C/m 2 | |
| Electrical resistance | ohm | Ohm (V/A) | kg×m 2 ×s –3 x x A –2 | 1SGSE R = 9×10 11 Ohm 1SGSM R = 10 –9 Ohm | |
| Electrical capacity | farad | F (Cl/V) | kg –1 ×m –2 x s 4 ×A 2 | 1SGSE S = 1 cm = =1/9×10 –11 F |
End of Table P1
| Magnetic flux | weber | Wb (W×s) | kg×m 2 ×s –2 x x A –1 | 1SGSM f = =1 Mks (maxvel) = =10 –8 Wb | |
| Magnetic induction | tesla | Tl (Wb/m2) | kg×s –2 ×A –1 | 1SGSM V = =1 G (gauss) = =10 –4 T | |
| Magnetic field strength | ampere per meter | Vehicle | m –1 ×A | 1SGSM N = =1E(oersted) = =1/4p×10 3 A/m | |
| Magnetomotive force | ampere | A | A | 1SGSM Fm | |
| Inductance | Henry | Gn (Wb/A) | kg×m 2 x x s –2 ×A –2 | 1SGSM L = 1 cm = =10 –9 Hn | |
| Luminous flux | lumen | lm | cd | ||
| Brightness | candela per square meter | cd/m2 | m –2 ×cd | ||
| Illumination | luxury | OK | m –2 ×cd |
