Phraseological unit, phraseological unit or phraseme is a phrase or sentence that is stable in composition and structure, lexically indivisible and integral in meaning, performing the function of a separate lexeme (vocabulary unit). Often a phraseological unit remains the property of only one language; The exception is the so-called phraseological tracing papers. Phraseological units are described in special phraseological dictionaries.
Phraseologisms should be distinguished from free phrases. To understand their fundamental differences, let us dwell on the features of the use of phraseological units in speech.
An important feature of phraseological units is their reproducibility: they are not created in the process of speech (like phrases), but are used as they are fixed in the language,
Phraseologisms are always complex in composition; they are formed by combining several components. It is important to emphasize that the components of phraseological units bear emphasis. Therefore, in a strict sense, terms cannot be called phraseological units used together, but written separately, auxiliary and significant words such as under the arm, which have only one stress. The complexity of the composition of phraseological units suggests their similarity with free phrases (cf.: get into trouble - fall into a trap). However, the components of the phraseological unit are either not used independently, or they change their usual meaning in the phraseological unit (blood with milk means “healthy, with a good complexion, with a blush”).
Many phraseological units are equivalent to one word (cf.: spread your mind - think). These phraseological units have an undifferentiated meaning. However, there are also those that can be equated to a whole descriptive expression (cf.: run aground - find yourself in an extremely difficult situation). For such phraseological units, as V. A. Larin noted, “the starting points are free turns of speech, (...) direct in meaning. Semantic renewal usually occurs due to increasingly free, figurative use.”
Phraseologisms are characterized by constancy of composition. In free phrases, one word can be replaced by another if it fits the meaning (cf.: reading a book, looking through a book, studying a book). Phraseologisms do not allow such replacement. It would never occur to anyone to say instead of the cat crying, the cat cried. True, there are phraseological units that have variants (spread your mind - stretch your brain). However, the existence of variants of some phraseological units does not mean that words can be arbitrarily replaced in them. Variants that are fixed in the language are also characterized by a constant lexical composition and require accurate reproduction in speech.
The constancy of the composition of phraseological units allows us to talk about the “predictability” of their components. So, knowing that the word bosom is used in the phraseological unit, one can predict another component - friend; the word sworn suggests the word enemy used with it, etc. Phraseologisms that do not allow any variation are absolutely stable combinations.
Most phraseological units are characterized by an impenetrable structure: not allowing the inclusion of new words in them. So, knowing the phraseology to lower your head, you cannot say: lower your head low. However, there are phraseological units that allow the insertion of individual clarifying words (cf.; inflame passions - inflame fatal passions). In some phraseological units, one or more components may be omitted. For example, they say to go through fire and water, cutting off the end of a phraseological unit and copper pipes. The reduction is explained by the desire to save speech and has no special stylistic meaning.
Phraseologisms are characterized by stability of grammatical structure; the grammatical forms of words usually do not change in them. Thus, it is impossible to say to beat the thumb, replacing the plural form of the thumb, or to use a full adjective instead of a short one in the phraseological unit on bare feet. However, in special cases, variants of grammatical forms in phraseological units are possible (cf.: warm your hand - warm your hands).
Most phraseological units have a strictly fixed word order. For example, it is impossible to swap the words in the expression neither dawn nor dawn, although the meaning, it would seem, would not be affected if we said: neither dawn nor dawn. At the same time, in some phraseological units it is possible to change the order of words (cf.: leave no stone unturned - leave no stone unturned). Rearrangement of components is usually allowed in phraseological units consisting of both a verb and nominal forms dependent on it.
The heterogeneity of the structural features of phraseological units is explained by the fact that phraseology combines rather motley linguistic material, and the boundaries of phraseological units are not clearly defined
16. Nonverbal communication. Forms of nonverbal communication in various national cultures
Nonverbal communication and body language
Interaction between people requires numerous forms of nonverbal communication - the exchange of information through changes in facial expression, gestures and body movements. Nonverbal communication is sometimes also called “body language,” but this term is not entirely correct, since we, as a rule, use such nonverbal signs only to refute or supplement what is said in words.
Face, gestures and emotions
One of the main types of nonverbal communication is facial expression, which conveys certain emotions. Paul Ekman and his colleagues described the movements of the facial muscles that form one or another facial expression. They invented a system they called the Facial Expression Coding System (FEC). In this way, they tried to bring some clarity to an area that currently has many inconsistent and contradictory interpretations, since there are so many views on how emotions should be identified and classified.
Even Charles Darwin, the founder of evolutionary theory, argued that the basic patterns of expression of emotions are the same for all people on the planet. Ekman's research across cultures supports this view. Ekman and Friesen studied a native tribe in New Guinea whose members had virtually no previous contact with outsiders. When they were shown pictures of different facial expressions that conveyed six emotions (happiness, sadness, anger, disgust, fear, surprise), the natives correctly identified these feelings.
The results of similar studies conducted with different people support the idea that the expression of emotions and their interpretation are inherent in human nature. However, this theory also has opponents. Ekman agrees with their arguments that his experiences are limited, and perhaps here we are also talking about the cultural experience of non-verbal communication, which has become extremely widespread. Nevertheless, his conclusions are confirmed by the results of other studies. Psychologist I. Eibl-Eibesfeldt studied the behavior of six children who were born deaf and blind to find out how much their facial expressions corresponded to the expressions of sighted and hearing individuals in specific situations. He found that children smiled when they were involved in an apparently enjoyable activity; they raised their eyebrows in amazement when they were given an object with an unusual smell to sniff, and frowned when they were again and again given something that they did not like. Since they could not observe how other people behave, the conclusion is that these reactions are innate.
Using CSVL, Ekman and Friesen identified subtle contractions in the facial muscles of infants that are also present in adults when they experience some kind of emotion. For example, infants puff out their lips and frown, which is reminiscent of the expression of disgust in adults when they are given something sour. Although facial expressions of emotion are probably partly an innate characteristic of humans, individual and cultural factors influence their form and the contexts in which they are considered appropriate. For example, exactly how a person smiles, the precise movements of the lips and other facial muscles, and how long the smile lingers on her face all vary across cultures.
There are no gestures or postures that are characteristic of all, or at least most cultures. In any case, no one has yet been able to prove this. Thus, in some societies, people nod their head to indicate disagreement, which is contrary to our common custom of agreeing with the interlocutor by nodding his head. Certain gestures that Europeans and Americans use very often, for example, pointing a finger at someone, are completely absent among some peoples. And such a gesture as placing a straightened index finger on the cheek and twirling it, which in some areas of Italy is used as a sign of approval, is probably unknown anywhere else.
Like facial expressions, gestures and postures are constantly used to complement utterances and also to convey content in cases where nothing has been said. Facial expression, gesture, and posture can convey a joke, irony or skepticism. The impressions we unwittingly make non-verbally often demonstrate to others that what we said is not what we really wanted to say. There are many subtle signs of nonverbal communication that people can pick up on. The spontaneous expression of sincerity on the face usually disappears after four or five seconds. If the smile lasts longer, then this indicates its artificiality. An expression of surprise that lingers on the face is often used for parody to show that the individual is not at all surprised, although there would seem to be reasons for this.
17. Speech technique and its role in the activities of scst. Phonation breathing
Speech technique
The sound side of oral speech plays no less important role than its content. It is known that a speech that is brilliant in content loses in many respects if it is delivered sluggishly and inexpressively, with hesitations and speech errors. Conversely, a speech with little content, delivered phonetically flawlessly, can make a favorable impression. In order to master the technique of oral speech, it is necessary to have a general understanding of the human pronunciation apparatus and the process of speech formation, as well as such key concepts as diction, voice, intonation. In addition, you need to know the orthoepic norms of the language and methods of performing speech in front of an audience, including standards of bodily movements (facial expressions, gestures, postures). Effective use of all of these concepts is the key to success in oral communication.
Lexical norms also include rules for the use of phraseological units.
Phraseologism- this is an indivisible, integral in its meaning stable combination of words, reproduced in the form of a ready-made speech unit. It is also called idiom , or stable combination of words. If the author of a phraseological phrase is known, then the latter is called catchword .
When using phraseological units, the following errors are possible:
The use of phraseological units without taking into account their semantics,
Distortion of the grammatical form of a phraseological component,
Replacement of a phraseological component or its omission,
Contamination of phraseological units.
Phraseological units are characterized by constancy of composition. No one would think of the cat cried say "the cat cried" instead of spreading your mind- “scatter with your mind” or “spread your head.”
Most phraseological units do not allow the inclusion of new words. Yes, there are phraseological units lower your head, lower your gaze, but you can't say: lower your head low, lower your sad gaze even lower.
Phraseologisms are characterized by stability of grammatical structure; they usually do not change the forms of words. You can't tell to beat the thumb, to grind out the lasa, replacing plural forms baklushi, lasy singular forms.
Most phraseological units have a strictly fixed word order. For example, you cannot swap words in expressions neither light nor dawn; everything flows, everything changes, although the meaning would seem to be intact if we said: Everything changes, everything flows.
The main condition for correct speech is the use of phraseological units in accordance with their exact meaning. It is unacceptable to distort the meaning of stable combinations. These are the mistakes bad speakers make. For example, at the traditional “last bell” celebration at one institute, a freshman began his speech rather strangely: Today we see you off on your last journey my older comrades... And talking about the fun graduation party, the young man remarked: We sang ours swan song and danced for a long time.
Phraseologisms, as a rule, are used in a figurative meaning, but in some cases the content of speech suggests their incorrect interpretation, for example: This year Aeroflot managed keep the flow of passengers at a high level; Aviators on their wings are always on time come to the rescue (walk on wings?).
Speakers and authors who are inattentive to their speech most often distort the composition of phraseological units. In this case, extra words are mistakenly inserted into stable combinations, for example: The writer goes to one keep up with your time; Main The highlight of the evening was the magician's performance. Mixing (contamination) of phraseological units is unacceptable, for example: Gathered here a small circle of limited people (narrow circle, limited circle of people); His caught on my word of honor (taken at my word, honestly). We observe the contamination of phraseological turns, for example, in the phrase: “distributing honors, the chairman began to measure everyone with one brush” (it is necessary: either “to cut with one brush”, or “to measure by one arshin”).
The abbreviation of phraseological units cannot be justified, but sometimes they are cited inaccurately, omitting this or that word. For example, they say: this is an aggravating circumstance(instead of aggravating guilt circumstance). Erroneously truncated phraseological units lose their meaning; their use in speech can lead to the absurdity of the statement: This student's success leaves much to be desired.(instead of leave want better); Coach Williamson put on a good face (omitted: when playing poorly).
Often there is a distortion of the lexical composition of phraseological units: Without further ado (instead of slyly). False associations sometimes give rise to funny and absurd mistakes: Now go figure out which one of them hides an ax in his bosom(holds a stone in his bosom); The further into the forest, the more chips fly; This is the case not worth a penny.
A change in the composition of a phraseological unit can be caused by updating grammatical forms, for example: Children killed the worms and had fun(you cannot use the plural instead of the singular in a phraseological unit kill the worm); Her head whitened with gray hair (instead of gray hair); He wasn't from the timid ten(timid dozen).
As part of phraseological units, distortion of prepositions should not be allowed: He never thought that these words would come true in his destiny with full measure (instead of fully). Some phraseological units are “unlucky” - they are constantly replaced by prepositions: dot on and (instead of above and); seven spans on the forehead(in the forehead). The incorrect choice of case forms and prepositions in phraseological units gives rise to such “strange” errors: reluctantly, the powers that be, good riddance to him, his head is spinning. To avoid such mistakes, you need to consult phraseological dictionaries more often.
Russian language dictionaries
The importance of dictionaries in the life of every person cannot be overestimated. Reading dictionaries and constantly referring to them improves the culture of speech. Dictionaries enrich an individual’s vocabulary and phraseological stock, introduce them to the norms of the Russian language, and warn against the incorrect use of words, their grammatical forms, and pronunciation. Dictionaries expand our knowledge of language, deepen our understanding of words, and contribute to the development of logical thinking. From the biographies of scientists, public figures, writers, and poets, it is known that many of them highly valued encyclopedic and philological dictionaries, turned to them for information, and read dictionaries as fascinating literature.
The creation of dictionaries is the task of a special branch of linguistic science - lexicography.
Dictionaries are divided into encyclopedic And linguistic.
Encyclopedic Dictionaries provide brief descriptions of objects, phenomena, and various concepts. Among them are general(designed to provide broad information) and special(industry).
Linguistic Dictionaries contain information about words. There are different types of linguistic dictionaries. Bilingual and multilingual are transferable dictionaries. We turn to them while studying foreign languages and translating texts.
Extremely diverse are angry monolingual dictionaries. Information on the correct spelling of words can be found in spelling dictionary, about correct pronunciation - in orthoepic(i.e., a dictionary of correct literary pronunciation). Dictionaries etymological And historical describe the origin of the word, its path in the language, all the changes that occurred to it. Dictionaries grammatical contain information about the morphological and syntactic features of the word; V reverse In dictionaries, words are arranged alphabetically by their final letters (this may be necessary for some linguistic studies).
There are dictionaries that have the longest lexicographical tradition. These are dictionaries smart And ideographic. Both explain the meaning of the word. But in an explanatory dictionary, words are arranged alphabetically, and in an ideographic dictionary, they are arranged in groups, which are distinguished on the basis of certain general properties of things and concepts (for example, such as “person”, “animal”, “action”, “physical property”, etc.). p.).
There are also dictionaries foreign words, phraseological, terminological. A dictionary may not cover the entire vocabulary of a language, but certain groups of words. These are dictionaries synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, paronyms.
Separately, there are dialect dictionaries, dictionaries of the language of writers, dictionaries of proper names, surnames, morphemic, frequency dictionaries, reference dictionaries on speech culture, dictionaries of speech errors and difficulties.
Etymological dictionaries contain a wealth of material for knowledge and reflection. From them we learn how the word was formed, what its morphemic composition is, and what other words in Russian and other languages it is associated with. And if the word is borrowed, then when and from what language did it come to us.
A large scientific dictionary in terms of meaning and volume is the “Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language,” compiled by the honored teacher of the 4th Moscow Gymnasium A. G. Preobrazhensky (1850–1918).
Example of a dictionary entry: NEWSPAPER, newspaper, newsboy, peddler, newspaper seller. Borrowing from fr. gazette [fr. from it. gazzetta]. At first (the first newspaper appeared in Venice in 1563), this word meant a small coin (probably from gaza - treasure) for which a newspaper was bought, or more precisely, the right to read it, because newspapers were written and were offered for reading for a certain fee; then the newspaper itself. This explanation was proposed by Menage Ferrari (XVII century) and Gozzi (XVIII century). Others (Scheler) consider fazzetta to be a diminutive. from gazza - magpie, the first newspapers had a magpie as their emblem, as a chatty bird par excellence. Man adheres to the first explanation, Dietz to the second. The word newspaper poses a dilemma for modern researchers: either adhere to Mann’s point of view, or agree with Dietz.
Max Vasmer, a German scientist, devoted his entire life to compiling an etymological dictionary of the Russian language. This is the largest completed modern etymological dictionary. M. Vasmer's dictionary was translated into Russian by the Russian linguist, known for his fundamental works and numerous articles on etymology, O. N. Trubachev. He approached the translation creatively. In many articles he gave his additions and clarifications. It is also important that the dictionary has been expanded, new dictionary entries have been added to it. In total, M. Vasmer’s “Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language” contains more than 18 thousand dictionary entries.
The most widespread modern etymological dictionary is the “Brief Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language” by N. M. Shansky, V. V. Ivanov, T. V. Shanskaya, published in 1961 and republished in 1975 (3rd edition). It explains the origin of over 6 thousand of the most common words (there were 5 thousand in the first edition). This is the first popular scientific etymological reference book in Russian lexicography.
Of great interest to those who care about the culture of speech and seek to expand their vocabulary are explanatory dictionaries. Their main purpose is to explain the word, to determine all its meanings. The most complete is the “Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language”. It consists of 17 volumes. The first volume was published in 1950, and the seventeenth in 1965. This dictionary is the most representative lexicographic publication. It contains about 120 thousand words; covers the lexical wealth of the Russian literary language with its grammatical characteristics from Pushkin to the middle of the 20th century. This dictionary is explanatory, historical and normative. The meanings, shades of meaning and peculiarities of the use of words are richly illustrated in the dictionary with quotations from fiction, scientific and socio-political literature of the 19th–20th centuries.
On the basis of the “Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language”, the “Dictionary of the Russian Language” was compiled in four volumes, the fourth edition of which was published in 1999. The Dictionary contains more than 90 thousand words of the modern Russian literary language. With a word, an interpretation of its meaning is given, basic grammatical forms are given, the word is provided with normative stress and stylistic marks. Dictionary entries are illustrated. For words of foreign origin, an etymological reference is provided. This edition reflects changes in vocabulary over the past 20 years since the publication of the first edition. The most famous and more accessible is the “Dictionary of the Russian Language,” compiled by S. I. Ozhegov. Its 22nd edition was published in 1990.
After the death of S.I. Ozhegov (1964), N.Yu. Shvedova continued to work on the dictionary, becoming its editor. Gradually, the number of words increased from 57 to 70 thousand, the description of polysemantic words expanded, and the illustrative part was enriched. In accordance with changes in some accentological and grammatical norms, corrections were made. As a result, in 1993, a new “Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language” was published by I. S. Ozhegov and N. Yu. Shvedova; its second edition, revised and expanded, dates from 1994.
The most complete description synonyms found in the two-volume “Dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian Language,” ed. A. P. Evgenieva (L., 1970–1971), containing about 4000 dictionary entries. The dictionary reveals the meaning of each synonym, indicates its stylistic coloring and scope of use. Dictionary entries contain rich illustrative material. For the first time in the history of Russian lexicography, this dictionary lists antonyms. Volume 2 of the dictionary contains a word index.
Another group of words - antonyms– partially presented in explanatory dictionaries. They are used along with synonyms to clarify the meaning of the core word (antonymic way of interpreting meanings). Thus, in the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language,” ed. D. N. Ushakova (M., 1935–1940) some dictionary entries indicate words with the opposite meaning.
In 1971, the “Dictionary of Antonyms of the Russian Language”, compiled by L. A. Vvedenskaya (Rostov n/D), and the “Dictionary of Antonyms of the Russian Language” by N. P. Kolesnikov (Tbilisi) were published almost simultaneously.
The “Dictionary of Homonyms of the Russian Language”, compiled by O. S. Akhmanova (M., 1974), presents over 2000 dictionary entries containing pairs or groups homonyms. Each homonym is translated into English, French, and German. If the word is foreign, then the original source is indicated.
The most complete dictionary of homonyms is the “Dictionary of Homonyms” by N.P. Kolesnikov, published in 1995. This is an original lexicographic work in which homonyms and homographs of the Russian language are collected and systematized.
From phraseological The first dictionary in terms of publication time is “Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language”, ed. A. I. Molotkova (M., 1967). It describes over 4 thousand phraseological units.
In Russian lexicography there are several dictionaries called dictionaries of difficulties. Getting to know them allows you not only to understand what the complexity of the Russian language is, what causes difficulty in expressing thoughts verbally, but also to understand how to avoid making a mistake and not violating one or another norm of the literary language. Such dictionaries should be reference books for everyone who is responsible for their speech. One of them is the dictionary-reference book “Difficulties of the Russian Language”. Compiled by: V. N. Vakurov, L. I. Rakhmanova, N. V. Tolstoy, N. I. Formanovskaya (M., 1993–1994). Dictionary entries explain difficult cases of distinguishing between words with similar meanings; new word usage, often found in the newspaper, as well as difficulties caused by the presence of variant grammatical forms and syntactic compatibility.
The most important and necessary dictionary for every student is spelling dictionary. The new academic “Russian Spelling Dictionary” (M., 1999) contains about 160,000 words and phrases. This is the most complete dictionary. Each word has stress and necessary grammatical information.
Of particular interest are dictionaries-"libraries". These are dictionaries, each of which includes several dictionaries. This type of dictionary includes the “Small Dictionary of the Russian Language” (M., 1999). It includes a “Spelling Dictionary”, “Etymological Dictionary” and “Dictionary of Foreign Words”. In addition, the “Spelling Dictionary” is supplemented by small reference dictionaries on the combined or separate spelling of words, on the writing of capital or lowercase letters, -n or -nn, words with unverifiable or difficult to verify vowels and consonants, etc. An integrated approach made it possible to place materials in dictionaries that complement each other. As a result, the reader can receive comprehensive information about the word. Complex dictionaries have now become available on the Internet. There are especially many of them on the best educational portal in Russia "Certificate".
Related information.
Phraseologisms are an important part of any person’s vocabulary; they form the linguistic picture of the world. There are many unknown (new and old) phraseological units in our lives. You need to be able to look for them, remember them and use them more often in speech. Then our speech will be richer and more expressive.
Observations on the use of phraseological units provide rich material for research. However, the role of these expressions in modern communication is reduced and distorted. Many people do not know how to correctly pronounce and understand phraseological units, when and why they should be used, which phrase is better to choose depending on the meaning of the statement. Modern studies have shown that “phraseological competence among adolescents remains at a low level.” This means that analyzing the role of phraseological units in our speech is a serious problem. It is also important to study phraseological units in cultural terms: phraseology carries information about the people who created it, about their customs, traditions, values, about their past, present and future.
Phraseological phrases need to be known and used correctly by everyone who wants to be cultured, literate, smart and successful in communicating with people. Many linguistic scientists address the problems of studying phraseological units [Bechina, Vartanyan, Volina, Kodukhov, Ladyzhenskaya,Ledeneva,Leonov, Lvova, Mokienko, Rosenthal, Sirotinina, etc.].
Target – explore options for modern uses of phraseological units and describe ways to improve the use of stable phrases in oral communication of native Russian speakers. The following were suppliedtasks .
1. Study scientific literature on the topic and dictionary interpretations of phraseological units.
2. Highlight the features of the use of phraseological units in the speech of people of different ages.
3. Classify speech errors in the oral use of phraseological units, analyze options for assessment using stable phrases and the causes of problems in the field of their speech use.
Scientist V.M. Mokienko called phraseological units “crystals that make up the “unique structure” of national speech.” There are many phraseological expressions in the communication of people from different countries. Oral speech is characterized bysuch signs as spontaneity, dynamism, brevity, dialogue forms, increased emotionality and evaluativeness, omission of phrases, sometimes illogicality, semantic redundancy or insufficiency, the presence of a greater number of speech errors than in written texts. Therefore, phraseological units in oral speech are sometimes used incorrectly. Then misunderstanding arises between people.
When using stable expressions in oral speech, we must pronounce them correctly, without introducing anything new, and have only a figurative meaning in mind. Phraseologisms are very conventional; with their help, you can identify and evaluate different facts. For example, when passengers are cramped in transport or on the street, they say “there's nowhere for the apple to fall " or " like herrings in a barrel ».
To learn more about what information phraseological units carry in life, where they came from, and how to use them correctly, you need to refer to dictionaries, scientific and popular science texts. As a result of this work, we discovered some ways to study these expressions and sources of information on this topic. Firstly, the most reliable way is to interpret phraseological units - explain the meanings of phrases, select examples, synonyms and antonyms in explanatory dictionaries [Ozhegov 1988] and in special dictionaries of phraseological units [Bistrova, Okuneva, Shansky 1994; Phraseological Dictionary 1986; Ushakova 2008, Fedorov 2008]. Etymological comments [Ashukins 1996, Lvova 2004, Mokienko 1999, Otkupshchikov 1986], illustrations in dictionaries and encyclopedias for children [Volkov 2010;Dubrovin , Schenk 1979; Encyclopedic Dictionary of a Young Philologist 1984, etc.]. Secondly, there are theoretical sources (manuals, monographs, publications, reports) related to descriptions of the role of phraseological units in the texts of various writers, journalists, publicists [Bechina 2009, Mints 2009]. Thirdly, scientists are actively discussing the problems of using stable phrases in oral communication of people from different countries [Volina 1994; Kodukhov 1984; Leonov, Mazurevskaya 2007, gramota.ru,dictionary. ru].
Phraseologisms are purposefully studied only in Russian language lessons, but too few hours per year are spent on them in grades 5-7. The rest of the time is allocated for independent “immersion” in the topic, for intuitive clarification of meanings by analogy and searching for approximate explanations of phrases in the family or among friends.
The modern use of phraseological units increasingly includes a language game - a deviation from the norm, an irregularity deliberately committed by speakers for a specific purpose. On the one hand, using phraseological units for language play, the authors create new images that create conditions for the development of imagination and creative abilities. However, on the other hand, the habitual perception of stable phrases is destroyed, distorted phraseological units appear, and this cannot be allowed.
The interpretation of phraseological units requires special attention to what a person is talking about, deciphering the associative connections between words within stable phrases and a real life situation.
We conducted a study among fifth and tenth-eleventh graders in which we asked students to explain the meaning and origin of various phraseological units. In the course of analyzing the results, it turned out that adults are best oriented in the world of phraseological units, and representatives of the lower grades wrote the least number of correct answers.
Almost everyone answered questions related to the interpretation of phraseological units by explaining their meaning. In isolated cases that were focused on the rare use of phrases, there were no answers (eat locusts - "live from hand to mouth"eat locusts and (wild) honey - "to be malnourished without having enough food" , Danaid barrel – "useless and endless labor".
As the tasks became more complex, more and more discrepancies in answers appeared. Thus, it was necessary to come up with synonyms for phraseological units. Data analysis showed that it is difficult to select synonyms, although this process makes it easier to understand the meaning of phrases. Many of us get confused and write the wrong parts of speech that should be synonyms. This happens when people do not know what a particular phraseology means. For example, to turnoverlike a fish in water The following answers were written:too agile, fast, swimming in doubles . In the latter case, as we see, the result was already an antonym, since the meaning was the opposite. The most difficult thing turned out to be to select synonyms for those phraseological units that fade into history and disappear from active use:between a dog and a wolf - twilight, lamb in a piece of paper - bribe, spreading cranberry - deception. It was even more difficult for the subjects to select other phraseological units similar to set expressions. There were very few of them in the questionnaires. For example,headlong - sticking out your tongue, be a thumbs up - catch crows, stand as a ferret – hands on hips.
It also turned out that not all high school students are able to reveal the meaning of phraseological units and know about their origin associated with historical events, biblical legends and myths. Many fantasized, engaging in false etymology. For example, the expressionTrojan horse was interpreted as “a horse with three heads from the Trinity-Sergius Lavra”, andPotemkin villages , it turns out, “they came from the darkness - from places where nothing is visible.” In fact, the last turn was associated with the surname of Catherine’s favoriteIInobleman Grigory Potemkin, who constantly deceived the queen. This expression means “ostentatious brilliance that hides trouble, deception.”
So, “phraseological” errors in our speech are varied, they can be divided into groups. This is due to the fact that we know history poorly, read little, hear correct speech less and less, and do not maintain a careful attitude towards stable units of language. In addition, children have little life experience, so they do not remember verbatim and pronounce phraseological units somehow. To avoid mistakes, you need to know the historical roots of such expressions.
1. Neutral speed : in two steps, in the end, as a last resort, in one second (minute), first of all, recently, in fact, soon etc.
2. Phraseologisms with a negative assessment of reality : get on your nerves, as if you had no hands, the cat cried, a disservice, lose your temper, pout your lips, neither to the village nor to the city, zero attention, rub your glasses in, add fuel to the fire etc. Most often we use phraseological units to describe lazy or inattentive people:to chase a lazy person, to pour from empty to empty, he doesn’t hit a finger on a finger, he doesn’t lift a finger, he ignores the ears like peas against a wall etc. . Modern teachers often use phraseological units to evaluate students. Most of the expressions are associated with a negative attitude towards the following parties:
a) the behavior and attention of individual students or the entire class as a whole (“notplay the fool , but get busy”, “what are youtrembling like a leaf – answer faster”, “all the time youcatch the crows in my lesson”, “whether you listen or not listen, it’s all the samelike peas hitting a wall ", "No need kick your ass during the explanation of the material”, “I say - don’t run, but from youlike water off a duck's back ", "What do you hanging around idle ?»);
b) appearance (facial expressions, gestures, gaze, clothes) of boys and girls (“well, alreadystarted nagging ", "No need hang lips , but you have to work,” “you’re standingrooted to the spot and also hands on hips ", "don't look at me,like a rabbit on a boa constrictor ", "what are you wearing todaylike a scarecrow? ", "dressed up like this -at least take out the saints ", "you have some kind ofshabby look »);
c) the quality of completed tasks in class and at home (“you writelike a chicken paw ", "in homework andthe horse didn't lie », « out of hand poorly done job, "penny price your answer");
d) mental abilities of students (“this studentthere are not enough stars in the sky ", "he is in foreign languagesnot even a kick in the tooth ", "this student isneither fish nor fowl in my subject"),
e) characterization of one’s activities as opposed to the work of students (“I am in front of youmetal beads , but you didn’t listen”, “don’t shift the responsibility onto me -from a sick head to a healthy one ", "I'll tell you - about Thomas, and you tell me about Yerema "I have tofight like a fish on ice , and you are inattentive”, “today I feelout of place in your class because you always tell metalk with your teeth »).
3. Phraseologisms with a positive assessment of reality : everything is in order, golden hands are worth their weight in gold, don’t let yourself be offended, don’t mince words, don’t be timid, take the bull by the horns with all your heart. In the speech of teachers, there are also approving remarks addressed to students, where you can hear positively charged phraseological units (“hedon't put your finger in your mouth – knows everything”, “this studentseven spans in the forehead ", "here she is filled my hand , ate the dog , so it is understood well"), but they are not used as often as we would like.
In order for the study of phraseological units to be productive and their use in our speech to become more accurate and frequent, we need to refer to them not only in Russian language lessons, but also in other classes. We propose to distribute sustainable phrases into thematic groups depending on the general content of the lessons at school. Evidence that phraseological units belong to a particular topic is
1) interpretation of their general meaning;
2) an excursion into etymology (explanation of the reasons for the occurrence of circulation, variants of origin);
3) formal elements (words, phrases that coincide with the topics in the lessons);
4) in some cases - a comparison of Russian phraseological units with similar phrases used by foreigners.
We tried to divide stable turnovers into thematic blocks. In the end there were 11 of them:
1. For example, biblical sayings, mythological and other ancient legends, historical events need to be explained in detail in lessonshistory . Let us give examples of some phraseological units: from myths and legends, traditions (Pyrrhic victory, Augean stables, Gordian knot, Ariadne's thread, in the arms of Morpheus, Achilles' heel, the torment of Tantalus ); from the Bible (way of the cross, sprinkle ashes on your head, Trumpet of Jericho, crown of thorns, Noah's Ark, like Christ has in his bosom ); from Russian history (like the Swedes near Poltava, Kolomna verst, Procrustean bed, forty forty, iron curtain, cold war ) etc.
2. Lessons literature are associated with the study of texts of works of art, therefore, stable phrases invented by specific authors can be collected in a separate group (man in a case, knight for an hour, Shemyakin's court, Demyan's ear, Filka's letter, muslin young lady, enter the proverb, golden age, Aesopian language, below all criticism ).
3. In class Russian language It is useful to learn expressions such asregister Izhitsa , stand (walk) in a frog, stand still, throw words around, the tongue gets twisted, for show, from the basics, from the basics to the Izhitsa, letter to letter, from board to board, from the red line, question point blank, dot the i's, dead language , decline in every way, rolls around on the tongue, wield a pen, put a full stop etc.
4. In class mathematicians it is necessary to deal with quantities, quantitative measurements, numbers, geometric figures. Therefore, the teacher must use and explain phraseological units such asneither two nor one and a half, absolute zero, damn dozen, It's clear like two and two are four , square, put at the forefront, bring to a common denominator, Pythagorean pants, be in seventh heaven, one or the other and miscalculated, by leaps and bounds, give a hundred points ahead, like an arshin swallowed, etc.
5. Lessons biology associated with the study of the world of plants, animals and the human body. This means that in such classes it is useful to pronounce phraseological units such askill a worm, a greenhouse plant, shorter than a sparrow's nose, with a gulkin's nose, swarming with crocodile tears, mouse fuss, the first swallow, the lion's share, eyes stick together like water off a duck's back, dog's joy, eat the dog, shot sparrow etc.
6. General topics of lessonsgeography requires knowledge of spatial coordinates, countries and peoples, natural weather signs. Therefore, one can recall expressions such asgalloping across Europe, discovering America, Chinese ceremonies, Columbus's egg, pitch darkness, you can't see a thing, even if you poke your eyes out, like a bolt from the blue, living like on a volcano, the navel of the earth, a guiding star, the milky way, terra incognita etc.
7. In class foreign language It is useful to use phraseological units that have similar or similar expressions in other languages. Some scientists call them internationalisms. For example, turnovertake the bull by the horns international, known to many European languages: English.take the bull by the horns , German den Ohsen beim Horn Fassen , fr. prendre le taureau ( la b ê te ) par les cornes , Italian prendere il toro per la conra , Spanish coger al toro por las cuernos etc. [Mokienko 1999b, p. 26]. Russian turnoversit back almost verbatim corresponds to English to fold one ʹ s hands (literally “fold hands”)German die H ӓ nde in den Scho V legen (“fold your hands on your stomach”),French se cruiser les bras (“cross your arms”)Spanish estar con manos cruzados , con mano sobre mano (“to be with your arms crossed, with your hand on your arm”). Russian expressions denoting wasted labor (Monkey labor, Sisyphean labor, pounding water in a mortar, pouring from empty to empty, carrying water with a sieve, catching crows, counting jackdaws, waiting for weather by the sea ) correspond to similar phrases about idlers in England who carry leaves into the forest ( to carry leaves in to the wood ) or transport coal to the coal industry center of Newcastle( to carry coals to Newcastle ), in Italy, where coal is transported to Legnano near Milan( portal cavoli a Legnaia ) . We are talking healthy as a bull , Germans - stupid as a bull . Russian expressionsdrinks like a horse And thin as a herring correspond to similar ones among the Frenchdrinks like a frog , thin as a cuckoo or like an owl . For us, an ant is the embodiment of hard work, but for Italians it is weakness, so they won’t sayhardworking like an ant , but they will say the opposite:he has the strength of an ant (few). Common expressionthrow pebbles into someone's garden is also known to the Germans (Steine in den Garten werfen - “to cause harm, to do dirty tricks, to put a pig on someone”), and the French (jeter des pierres dans le jardin de qn . - “to be sarcastic, to say barbs to someone”).
8. Classes music - these are lessons in comprehending the world of sounds, musical instruments. Here you need to know phraseological units:swan song, minor tone, sing like a nightingale, brass throat, play as if by notes, final chord, play the first violin, mutely, in one voice, not in your own voice, sing Lazarus, stringless balalaika, start a barrel organ, Jericho trumpet, let the rooster, a song is sung, a long song, a long song, sing from someone else’s voice, from the wrong opera, set the tone etc.
9. Lessons Fine art and drawing – this is a world of colors, lines, pictures. Students will benefit from hearing what it really is.thicken the colors, black on white, according to all the rules of art, come out from under the brush, come out from under the chisel, look at the world through rose-colored glasses, green street, blue bird, gray-brown-crimson speckled, red like a lobster, take on a pencil, red line, oil painting, draw monograms, throw in paint etc.
10. In class works (technology) boys and girls are required to be inventive and have special skills in making products with their own hands (planing, sawing, working with wood and metal for boys, girls - sewing, embroidering, knitting and cooking). Phraseologismsmaster not all hands, put your hand in, no hitch, no nails, be between a rock and a hard place, tighten the nuts, carelessly, fall out of hand, no match, hit the nail on the head, you can’t spoil the porridge with butter, there’s a burn on the side, forbidden fruit , you'll lick your fingers, sewn with white thread, easier than a steamed turnip, nowhere to stick a needle, on a living thread, the size of a pin's head, at random, topsy-turvy, gimp, muslin young lady, trained eye, neither sews nor flogs and others will be useful.
11. Lessons physical education And life safety associated with the manifestation of mobility, lightness, self-defense skills, and methods of survival in extreme situations. This means that we must not forget about such revolutions asthe palm of the championship, the Olympic calm, the finish line, with all your legs, sticking out your tongue, press all the pedals, tearing your soles as you go, at a snail's pace, back and forth, crawl on your bellies, hurry up slowly, quieter than water, the feeling of an elbow, like behind a stone wall, wall to wall, leave the ranks, enter the ranks, take over the baton, judge and order, not from the cowardly dozen etc.
In our lives there are phraseological units that can be remembered and practiced in different lessons, thereby restoring meta-subject connections. For example, the expressionKolomna verst in origin it is related to history (in the 1660-70s, Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich ordered high mileposts to be installed on the road to his residence in Kolomenskoye), and in use it is related to biology (the study of the growth of the human body). Orthe bear stepped on my ear (biology and music),red as a lobster (Art and biology), give birch porridge, Ariadne's thread (history, literature, history, work for girls), etc.
Thus, taking into account that “you cannot properly master a language without studying its phraseology,” we must understand that phraseological units need to be seriously analyzed, relying not on spontaneous comments in oral speech, but on well-known interpretations of scientists. It is necessary to use these phrases competently when communicating with other people and, if possible, be able to explain their meanings. Without knowledge of the meaning of phraseological units and without the ability to use them in a figurative meaning, our speech becomes inaccurate and uninteresting, it can be distorted, we will not be fully understood, and we will not be able to fully convey our thoughts to those around us.
NORMATIVE ASPECT OF SPEECH CULTURE
The concept of a language norm
A linguistic norm (literary norm) is the rules for the use of speech means in a certain period of development of a literary language, i.e., the rules of pronunciation, word usage, and the use of traditionally established grammatical, stylistic and other linguistic means accepted in social and linguistic practice. This is a uniform, exemplary, generally accepted use of language elements (words, phrases, sentences).
The norm is mandatory for both oral and written speech and covers all aspects of the language. There are norms of orthoepic, spelling, lexical, word-formation, morphological, syntactic, punctuation.
Language norms are not invented by scientists. They reflect natural processes and phenomena occurring in language and are supported by speech practice. The main sources of language norms include the works of classical and modern writers, the language of the media, generally accepted modern usage, data from live and questionnaire surveys, and scientific research by linguists.
Norms help the literary language maintain its integrity and general intelligibility. They protect the literary language from the flow of dialect speech, social and professional argot, and vernacular. This allows the literary language to fulfill its main function.
The literary norm depends on the conditions in which speech is carried out. Linguistic means that are appropriate in one situation (everyday communication) may turn out to be absurd in another (official business communication). The norm does not divide language means into good and bad, but indicates their communicative expediency.
Language norms are a historical phenomenon. Changes in literary norms are due to the constant development of language. What was the norm in the last century and even 15-20 years ago may become a deviation from it today. For example, in the 30-40s of the twentieth century the words graduate student And graduate were used to express the same concept: “A student completing a thesis.” Word graduate student was a colloquial version of the word diploma student In the literary norm of the 50-60s. there was a distinction in the use of these words: the former colloquial graduate student now denotes a student, a student during the period of defending his thesis, receiving a diploma. In a word graduate began to name mainly the winners of competitions, prize-winners of shows, competitions awarded with a diploma (for example, Diploma winner of the All-Union Piano Competition, Diploma winner of the International Vocal Competition).
Competition between the old, original norm (A) and the new (B) takes place in four stages.
At the first stage, the only form A dominates; its variant B is beyond the limits of the literary language and is considered incorrect. At the second stage, option B already penetrates into the literary language, is considered acceptable (additional mark) and, depending on the degree of its distribution, is qualified as colloquial (additional mark) colloquial) in relation to norm A or equal to it (litter AND). At the third stage, the senior norm A loses its dominant role, finally gives way to the junior norm B and becomes obsolete norms. At the fourth stage, B becomes the only norm of the literary language.
The sources of changes in the norms of the literary language are different: live, colloquial speech; local dialects; vernacular; professional jargon; other languages.
Changes in norms are preceded by the appearance of their variants, which actually exist in the language at a certain stage of its development and are actively used by its speakers. Variants of norms are reflected in dictionaries of modern literary language.
The indicators of various normative dictionaries give reason to talk about three degrees of normativity:
norm of the 1st degree - strict, rigid, not allowing options;
the 2nd degree norm is neutral, allowing equivalent options;
norm 3 degrees - more flexible, allows the use of colloquial as well as outdated forms.
The historical change in the norms of a literary language is a natural, objective phenomenon. It does not depend on the will and desire of individual language speakers. The development of society, changes in the social way of life, the emergence of new traditions, the improvement of relationships between people, the functioning of literature and art lead to the constant updating of the literary language and its norms.
According to scientists, the process of changing language norms has become especially intensified in recent decades.
Lexical norms
Lexical norms , that is, the rules for using words in speech require special attention. The word must be used in the meaning (literal or figurative) that it has and which is recorded in Russian language dictionaries. Violation of lexical norms leads to a distortion of the meaning of the statement.
For the correct use of words in speech, it is not enough to know their exact meaning; it is also necessary to take into account the features of lexical compatibility, that is, their ability to connect with each other. So, “similar” adjectives long, lengthy, long, long-lasting, lasting combines differently with nouns: long period, long period(but not long, long, long period); long way, long way; long fees, long-term loan. Often words with the same meaning can have different lexical compatibility (true friend- original document).
Combining words into phrases may encounter various kinds of restrictions. Firstly, words may not be combined due to their semantic incompatibility. You can't tell purple orange, leaning back, water is burning. Secondly, combining words into a phrase can be excluded due to their grammatical nature (my- swim, close- funny). Thirdly, the combination of words can be hampered by their lexical features. Yes, it’s common to say cause grief, trouble, but you can't say cause joy, pleasure.
Violation of lexical compatibility can be dictated by the conscious desire of the speaker (writer) to surprise listeners (readers) with an unusual combination of words, which often leads to a comic effect
Violations of lexical norms may be due to the fact that speakers mix words that are similar in sound but different in meaning.
To clarify the lexical norms of the modern literary language, it is recommended to use explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language and special reference literature.
The main types of lexical errors are presented in the table
| ERROR TYPE | EXAMPLES | |
| 1. | Using a word in a meaning that is unusual for it | We were shocked by the excellent acting. The idea develops throughout the entire text. |
| 2. | Non-distinction of paronyms | My attitude towards this problem has not changed. Effective measures were taken. |
| 3. | Non-distinction of synonyms | In the final sentence the author uses gradation |
| 4. | Inappropriate use of words and phraseological units of a different stylistic coloring | The author, addressing this problem, tries to direct people into a slightly different direction. Astafiev continually resorts to the use of metaphors and personifications. |
| 5. | Unjustified use of colloquial words | Such people always manage to outdo others. |
| 6. | Violation of lexical compatibility | The author enhances the impression. The author uses artistic features. |
| 7. | Use of unnecessary words, incl. pleonasm | The author conveyed the beauty of the landscape to us with the help of artistic techniques. A very handsome young man... |
Correct use of phraseological units
Particular attention is required to the use of phraseological units in speech, that is, linguistic units that are complex in composition and have a stable character. (rack your brain, exaggerate, the cat cried, upside down).
Phraseological units are characterized by constancy of composition, which presupposes the prevention of replacement of any. elements. Phraseologism cannot be replaced the cat cried expression "the cat cried" spread your mind- “scatter with your mind” or “spread your head.”
Most phraseological units do not allow the inclusion of new components. So, you can’t spread phraseological units lower your head, lower your gaze: lower your head low, lower your sad gaze even lower.
Phraseologisms are characterized by stability of grammatical structure; the forms of their components usually do not change. You can't tell to beat the thumb, to grind out the lasa, replacing plural forms baklushi, lasy singular forms.
Most phraseological units have a strictly fixed word order. For example, you cannot swap words in expressions neither light nor dawn; everything flows, everything changes, although at first glance the meaning would remain unchanged.
The main condition for correct speech is the use of phraseological units in accordance with their exact meaning. It is unacceptable to distort the meaning of stable combinations: Today we see you off on your last journey their older comrades...
Phraseologisms, as a rule, are used in a figurative meaning, but in some cases the content of speech suggests their incorrect (literal) interpretation, for example: This year Aeroflot managed keep the flow of passengers at a high level; Aviators on their wings are always on time come to the rescue (walk on wings?).
Speakers and authors who are inattentive to their speech most often distort the composition of phraseological units. In this case, extra words are mistakenly inserted into stable combinations, for example: The writer goes to one keep up with your time; Main The highlight of the evening was the magician's performance. Mixing (contamination) of phraseological units is unacceptable, for example: Gathered here a small circle of limited people (narrow circle, limited circle of people); His caught on my word of honor (taken at my word, honestly).
The abbreviation of phraseological units cannot be justified, but sometimes they are cited inaccurately, omitting this or that word. For example, they say: this is an aggravating circumstance(instead of aggravating guilt circumstance). Erroneously truncated phraseological units lose their meaning; their use in speech can lead to the absurdity of the statement: This student's success leaves much to be desired.(instead of leave want better); Coach Williamson put on a good face (omitted: when playing poorly).
Often there is a distortion of the lexical composition of phraseological units: Without further ado (instead of slyly). False associations sometimes give rise to funny and absurd mistakes: Now go figure out which one of them hides an ax in his bosom(holds a stone in his bosom); The further into the forest, the more chips fly; This is the case not worth a penny.
A change in the composition of a phraseological unit can be caused by updating grammatical forms, for example: Children killed the worms and had fun(you cannot use the plural instead of the singular in a phraseological unit kill the worm); Her head whitened with gray hair (instead of gray hair); He wasn't from the timid ten(timid dozen).
As part of phraseological units, distortion of prepositions should not be allowed: He never thought that these words would come true in his destiny with full measure (instead of fully). An incorrect choice of case forms and prepositions in phraseological units is possible: reluctantly, the powers that be, good riddance to him, his head is spinning. To avoid such mistakes, you should refer to phraseological dictionaries
