Roman aqueducts, being masterpieces of hydraulic engineering, have no analogues in the ancient world. Water is a vital commodity and the need is especially high in the Mediterranean region with its long, hot and dry summers. The growth of cities led to increased demand for water, and from at least the 5th century BC. some large Greek cities were supplied with water carried from distant sources through aqueducts. The very first Roman aqueduct dates back to 312 BC.
By the middle of the 1st century AD. There were nine aqueducts in Rome, about which the famous senator and consul Sextus Julius Frontinus, head of the water industry in Rome, wrote detailed treatises. Later, only two new aqueducts were built in the empire; together with them, the total length of the water pipeline exceeded 450 km.
Arches of the Aqueduct of Claudius, crossing the fields east of Rome and carrying the New Anio Canal above.
According to rough estimates, ancient Rome (the city) had a greater water supply per person than a modern city, although this figure raises some doubts: it is clear that aqueducts were built not only to supply the population of Rome with drinking water, but also for many other purposes . Part of the water was used to irrigate country gardens outside the city and for industrial purposes, but an increasing amount of water was required for public needs: baths, city fountains, circuses.
Private individuals had the right to connect to the public water supply and had to obtain permission from the Roman Senate and pay for the water. The supply of water to a private home was a luxury, and the display of water in fountains and pools was evidence of material wealth. In other parts of the empire, aqueducts were a matter of prestige, often built by wealthy benefactors, including when constructing a new bath complex.
Aqueduct technology
Almost all ancient aqueducts were simple gravity systems. The source had to be higher than the city it served, and the water supply had to have a constant downward slope so that the water would flow down by gravity. To reach the city, water usually flowed through a rectangular channel lined on the inside with waterproof putty made of lime and crushed terracotta. The gutter was closed at the top to keep the water clean, but was not clogged like modern water pipes. The angle of inclination was small enough to prevent water from washing out the bottom of the gutter, but it still had to allow it to move. Ancient authors spoke of a minimum inclination angle of between 1:5000 and 1:200, but actual examples range from 1:40 for the first 6 km of the Carthaginian aqueduct to 1:14000 for the 10 km section of the Nîmes aqueduct.
Where possible, the aqueduct trough lay in the ground, but could also be raised onto a secure foundation of masonry to create an even slope when crossing small depressions or depressions. From time to time, short vertical sections, similar to waterfalls, were introduced to compensate for the steep slopes.
The diagram shows how a curved part of the pipeline (return siphon) works using a closed pipe system when crossing a deep depression.
The use of a gravity system meant that the chute could not rise anywhere higher than the source. The aqueduct also had to bypass or tunnel through obstacles such as mountains. The difficulties this could entail are clear from a long inscription found in Algeria celebrating the work of a Roman military engineer and surveyor named Nonius Datus. Datus was responsible for laying a water pipeline for the city of Salda in Mauritania Caesarea. Unfortunately, during the construction of a large tunnel about 500 meters long, something went wrong, because, as the inscription says, two groups digging the tunnel from opposite ends each completed more than half of the work, but did not meet. Dat was called back, re-examined the line, and brought the enterprise to a successful conclusion. Tunneling has probably always been one of the most difficult stages of water pipeline construction. A study of the Cernac tunnel, part of an aqueduct that supplied water to the Roman city of Nemaus (Nîmes), showed that six groups of workers, evenly spaced along the conduit, worked over a 60 m long section for two months.
Problems also arose if there was a steep valley in the path of the aqueduct. Where possible, the Romans preferred to go around the lowland from above, since this, apparently, was the simplest and cheapest technical solution. The alternative was to build a bridge such as the Pont du Gard, which carried a 50 km long Roman aqueduct across the Gard River to the city of Nîmes. Its height is almost 49 m, and the length of the central span is 24.5 m. It is probably the most impressive of all the Roman aqueducts, but it was not the only one. Equally impressive are the remains of long arcade foundations left over from the aqueducts that supplied water to Rome. They are still visible on the plains of Roman Campania. Arches were used to reduce the volume of construction and to maintain ease of communications where the aqueduct crossed fields or residential areas.
On the approach to the city, the aqueduct often ran along arches, since many ancient cities were built on hills, and the water channel had to be raised to such a height so that water could flow into the city. The result was such impressive structures as the three-tiered aqueduct in Segovia (Spain).
An artistic reconstruction shows the arches of the Claudiev-Noviy Anio aqueduct crossing the loop of the older and lower Martsev-Teply-Yuliev aqueducts directly above the Via Latina road leading from Rome.
Another way to cross deep lowlands, in cases where it was impossible to build a bridge across them, was the construction of a closed pressure system in the form of a reverse siphon. In this case, the water entered a lead pipeline running from a storage tank located above, over a low bridge across the depression and up under its own pressure into a receiving tank located on the other side slightly lower than the first. Then normal operation of the aqueduct resumed. Stunning siphons have been preserved near the cities of Aspendos (now in Turkey) and Lyon (France). A description of lead pipes with a diameter of up to 0.3 m (1 Roman foot) has been preserved. The system as a whole could cope with differences in levels in excess of 100 m (300 Roman feet).
Where the aqueduct entered the city, a special reservoir (castellum aquae) distributed the water through several water pipes. It was equipped with sluices to control the water supply, which made it possible to close certain parts for repairs. Pipes were often made of lead, terracotta, and, in the northwestern provinces, wood. They were laid under streets or pavements, and water circulated under pressure in a closed circle. As suggested by the Roman architect and writer Vitruvius, distribution pipes were designed so that during periods of water shortage, private water supplies could be cut off first, followed by baths and public buildings. In the worst case scenario, all available water went only to publicly accessible fountains. Since all houses in Pompeii were no more than 50 m from a street fountain, the entire urban population had access to clean water.
Each element of the aqueduct's design, taken individually, is impressive. But if you consider the entire scope of the organization, as well as the practical implementation and ability of Roman engineers to solve the most complex problems relating to the water supply system as a whole - and they are truly amazing - it is easy to agree with such ancient authors as Pliny the Elder or Frontinus that aqueducts are one one of the greatest wonders of the ancient world.
An aqueduct is a water supply system that supplied water to populated areas.
Aqueducts were invented in the Middle East and became widespread in Ancient Rome.
Until 312 BC in Rome they used water from the Tiber, wells and springs, but with the growth of population and needs, water became scarce.
First Aqua Appia aqueduct erected by Appius Claudius in 312 BC. Its length was 16.5 km, most of it was underground.
In 272 BC. e. the second was laid in Rome Aqueduct Anio Vetus, its construction lasted 2 years. It supplied the capital with water from the Anio River, located 70 km from the city.
Third aqueduct in Rome - Aqua Marcia– built in 144 BC It was a unique hydraulic structure for that time. The grandiose aqueduct rose 60 meters above the level of the Tiber. The total length of the water pipeline was 91.3 km, the ground part was 11.8 km, the daily flow rate of supplied water was 200 thousand cubic meters. It was rebuilt several times, the Tepula aqueduct was laid along it, and 100 years later the Julia aqueduct. Now only ruins remain of the aqueduct.
Around 30 BC Agrippa created a special service that monitored the condition of the aqueducts, which included many specialists - hydraulic engineers, repairmen, etc. A large fine was imposed for damaging the water supply.
During the time of Emperor Claudius in 49, another grandiose aqueduct was built. It was the last one made of natural stone. All subsequent aqueducts were built from brick and concrete. The length of the aqueduct was 69 km, of which 15 km ran underground.
Total 11 aqueducts were built delivering water to Rome, with a total length of more than 500 km. Water consumption in the city was about 561 thousand cubic meters. meters per day. Rome was the most water-supplied city in the world.
Aqueducts were the most complex engineering structures in which water was transported by gravity. Water supply was carried out through channels in the form of grooves located on aqueducts made of stone, brick or concrete. When aqueducts approached the city, water towers were built, which distributed water using conduits between the private houses of wealthy citizens, public fountains, baths and swimming pools, and was also used for water shows and lakes. Water conduits were lead and ceramic pipes or trenches in the form of channels.
Aqueducts were the main evidence of the greatness of the Roman Empire, which retained their importance even after the fall of the empire.
In order to understand and appreciate the scale of these grandiose structures, it is worth visiting Aqueduct Park (parco degli Acquedotti), located in a green area in the southeast of Rome.
The area of the park is 240 hectares, on which the magnificent ruins of ancient Roman and papal aqueducts have been preserved: the underground Anio Vetus, Marcia, Tepula, Julia and the built Felice, Claudio and attached Anio Novus.
The park was laid out in 1965, and now it is a favorite place for Romans to play sports.
The Park of Aqueducts has repeatedly become the location for filming films, including “Dolce Vita”, “The Great Beauty” and others.
Literature used:
“On Architecture” Pollio
Water pipelines of Ancient Rome
The most powerful industry for the production of water for drinking and domestic purposes was created in ancient Rome. During its heyday, according to various sources, from six hundred thousand to a million people lived in this city, each of whom received up to 1000 liters of water per day. It should be noted that this figure exceeds water consumption in modern Rome by almost 3 times. The water production industry involved significant exploration work aimed at identifying water sources, routing water pipelines, and designing treatment facilities. The research was followed by the construction of water pipelines, water treatment plants, distribution structures to supply public and private fountains, baths (thermal baths), baths, special aquarium cages for breeding sea and river fish, as well as the construction of drainage canals.
The construction of water pipelines in Rome was carried out with public funds, as well as with funds received as a result of victorious wars. Thus, the Asho water supply was built in 272 BC. e. with funds received as a result of the defeat of Pyrrhus, the Marcian aqueduct - in 144 BC. e. with funds received after the capture of Corinth. Funds for the operation of water pipelines were generated through several types of taxes related to water use. These were taxes on baths and canals.
Aqueducts
Water pipelines, or aqueducts, were built as follows. At a fairly high place, they found an abundant source of water and made a depression in the form of a large reservoir in which the water collected. From this reservoir, water flowed to the public or private (personal) water supply through underground pipes or above-ground water pipes.
Underground pipes were made of wood, clay or lead (by the way, this is one of the reasons for the fall of the Roman Empire. Lead is a provocateur of cancer. The Romans, especially the elite, did not live to be 30 years old due to cancerous tumors). Where the water pipeline intersected with hard rocks, drainage channels were cut down; in soft soils, these channels were lined with stone and vaults were built over them. Air holes were made at a certain distance from each other to keep the water clean and fresh.
Rice. 1. Water pipeline across the Gar River (Gard Bridge)
Aboveground stone water pipes were waterproofed with plaster and had holes at the top for air access. Water conduits were carried out on walls, which, wherever a passage was needed, had arches, such as part of Claudius's aqueduct. These arches formed one or several tiers, which made it possible to build water pipelines across rivers in the form of bridges and lay roads along them (Fig. 1). Some parts of Roman aqueducts and water distribution devices in the form of fountains are still functioning.
Roman aqueducts stretched for many kilometers in length, reaching a height of tens of meters. Thus, the Anio novus water pipe was almost 40 m high; the water supply system in France (Nimes) still rises above the surrounding area with two arches almost 50 m high. These are the same remains of water pipelines in Spain. By the way, aqueducts were also built in Russia. Before World War II, there was an aqueduct connecting Taitskiye Klyuchi with Tsarskoe (Detskoe) Selo.
Water treatment facilities
In addition to water pipelines, ancient water supply systems had special settling ponds for water purification and at the end of the water pipeline a special hydraulic device for convenient distribution of water throughout the city. The distribution was carried out using three reservoirs, one of which contained water intended for public wells and fountains (water cannons), the other - water for baths, and the third - for private houses.
Rice. 2. Sewage treatment plants in the area of Bailly (Etruria)
The wastewater treatment plants in the area of Bailly (on the shores of the Bay of Naples) are striking in their scale and magnificence. They occupy vast spaces and are covered with a vault resting on 48 columns (Fig. 2).
Less impressive in size, but more visible are the treatment facilities on Agrippa's aqueduct, preserved in Rome. They were arranged as follows (Fig. 3).
Rice. 3. Water purification tank of Agrippa's water supply in Rome
Through hole A, water entered room B. Purified (clarified) water from room H (through hole I) was supplied to consumers. During the purification process, water sequentially flowed from room B to room O (through hole C), from there to room P (through hole E), and from room P to room H (through hole O). In this case, suspended particles were deposited in rooms O and P, and then removed through hole K.
The first aqueduct in Rome (Aqua Arria) was built in 312 BC. e. Appius Claudius, the same one who built the first Roman road (the famous Appian Way). This conduit was about a mile and a half underground and about a kilometer long; in Rome itself (along the arches). Another, begun in 273 BC. e. also Appius Claudius, mostly walked underground. The third (Aqua Magsia) built in 146 BC. e., had a length of about 7 miles, of which about 1.5 miles were built on arches. This aqueduct is named Marcia. The fourth (Aqua Terula) was founded in 127 BC. e. and in 35 BC. e. was connected to the Julian aqueduct by Agrippa. The sixth (Aqua Viggo) built the same Agrippa to supply his baths with water. Water pipelines were also built by Augustus, Calligula and Claudius.
These nine aqueducts supplied water to Rome at the end of the 1st century. n. e., providing a daily supply of 5.5 million buckets of clean water. It should also be noted that underground water sources were developed in a special way, and various buildings were erected above them (Fig. 4). Many of them have survived to this day.
Rice. 4. Subkalitolian Tallanium (later - prison)
The good condition of water pipelines was the concern of a significant number of officials. Water was one of the most popular and inexpensive goods. The low cost of consumed water and its huge volumes provided significant financial revenues to the state treasury.
The plan of ancient Rome with the location of water supply routes and the remains of famous baths is shown in Fig. 5.
Rice. 5. Plan of ancient Rome with the location of water supply routes and the remains of famous baths
Huge amounts of used water required disposal. Water was diverted into the Tiber through drainage ditches. Over time, the discharge canals began to be fenced off, and in the 2nd century. BC e. the main drainage channel (Сloаca maxima) was covered with a vault. The exit of the main Roman canal into the Tiber River is shown in Fig. 6.
Rice. 6. Exit of the main Roman canal into the Tiber River
The diversion of water also significantly replenished the state treasury. It was in ancient Rome, under Emperor Vespasian, that a tax on latrines was introduced, and it was from that moment that the sacramental phrase “money has no smell” became known. Inspecting the drainage canals took the emperor a whole day, and this indicates the significant size of the drainage system and the economic interest in its development. By the end of the 3rd century. BC e. the number of aqueducts in Rome reached 13.
Thermal Baths
Public and private baths were an integral part of Roman life. The Roman devoted considerable time to visiting thermal baths and steam sulfur baths in places where mineral waters naturally flow. The construction of personal baths, baths (or thermal baths), along with serving the fatherland and fulfilling public duty, determined the prestige of the Roman. More or less wealthy citizens built baths with walls lined with Alexandrian and Numidian marble, mosaic platforms, and marble pools with silver taps. According to Pliny the Younger, pampered Roman ladies had baths completely decorated with silver. The premises were decorated with statues, huge masses of water ran down the steps noisily. Pliny himself built his bath in such a way that, while swimming in warm water, he could see the cold sea. The imperial freedman Claudius Etruscus had a bathhouse with a glass roof.
He built the first baths in Rome in 24 BC. e. Agrippa, who carried out the sixth Roman aqueduct for this purpose. Before this, the Romans in private homes used simple baths or baths located in the kitchen. After Agrippa, emperors and rich people also built private baths, so that by the 4th century. there were more than 800 of them. The remains of three baths have survived to this day: Titus, Diocletian and Caracalla. The baths were named after the noble Romans, emperors or officials who built them. The baths of Caracalla, who built their main part, have reached us in their best form. The thermal baths could simultaneously accommodate up to 3 thousand people. In Fig. 7 shows the modern view of the baths of Caracalla, and Fig. 8-9 - plan of the thermal baths and reconstruction of the appearance.
Rice. 7. Interior of the Baths of Caracalla (reconstruction)
Rice. 8. Plan of the Baths of Caracalla
Rice. 9. Appearance of the Baths of Caracalla (reconstruction)
Daily visits to the baths became a custom due to the fact that, in addition to their main purpose, they served as unique local clubs and were one of the signs of the “Roman way of life.” Many Romans were able to visit the baths several times during the day due to their cheapness.
Thermae, as a rule, consisted of three rooms, which, in accordance with the temperature of the supplied water, were called:
cold bath (frigidariut);
hot bath (сaldariut);
moderately warm bathhouse (hall) (teridari).
Cold bath had a pool with cold water; on its sides there were niches with benches and chairs.
Hot sauna had an oblong pool with hot water, in the middle there was space for a dry sweat bath, and in the niches there were baths where you could splash yourself with cold water.
Moderately warm room was intended for warmth. Here the visitor’s body was rubbed with aromatic oils and prepared for a hot bath. This hall, decorated in the most luxurious manner, had wardrobes for clothes and benches for resting. There were no steam baths in Ancient Rome.
In addition to the baths themselves, the baths had rooms in which the water was heated and from where hot air entered the baths. Water of different temperatures was supplied to the baths through pipes from three large boilers placed above the stove, one above the other, so that the bottom one had hot water, the second one had moderately warm water, and the top one had cold water.
More luxurious public baths had baths with sweat compartments, designed in the form of a round hall with a dome, into which hot air was supplied. To regulate the temperature, a hole in the vault was opened slightly.
Such baths, as a rule, had a dressing room, or dressing room, where a special attendant received and put the clothes of visitors into the closet and looked after them. The baths also had rubbing rooms, cleansing rooms, halls for scientific discussions (exedra), halls for playing ball, places for walking, shops and even hotels.
From the book "Clean Water" Miklashevsky N.V. Korolkova S.V.
The construction of aqueducts is often recognized as the main achievement of engineering in ancient Rome. It was these structures that performed the most important function of water supply to cities that consumed more and more water. But in a narrow sense, an aqueduct does not mean the entire water supply system, but only part of it, which is a crossing over rivers, ravines, and roads. And it is these parts of the complex water supply system that currently attract thousands of tourists. So today we'll look at Roman aqueducts.
History of Roman aqueducts
Construction of aqueducts began in Rome. The population of this city exceeded a million inhabitants, and there was a need to supply the city not only with water for drinking, but also for technical purposes. Here it is worth remembering the desire of the Romans to create widespread comfort and the abundant distribution of Roman thermal baths. Of course, it was possible to take water from wells, but the increase in consumption forced a direct supply of water from mountain sources.
The aqueduct in Rome appeared already in the 4th century BC, and by the 3rd century BC. there were already 11 of them here. In the 1st century AD, the famous Claudius aqueduct was built, which, with a height of 27 meters, was 30 km shorter than the old Marcius aqueduct (total length approximately 60 kilometers). The reduction in distance was achieved through the multiple use of a system of tunnels and bridges.
Aqueduct of Claudius
Pont du Gard in Nimes (France)
Another famous Roman aqueduct was built in the 2nd century AD in the south of France across the Garde River. Its modern name is Pont du Gard or Gard Bridge. The aqueduct provided water to the city of Nîmes. The bridge is the only surviving remnant of the complex system of the Nimes Aqueduct, which stretches for 50 kilometers. The height of the bridge is 49 meters, length - 275 meters. There are three arched levels. The first level consists of 6 arches. The central arch of this level, connecting the banks of the river, has a span of 24.4 meters. The second level already has 11 arches. The last third level, intended for the water pipe, has 35 smaller arches. Pont du Gard is currently used as a bridge crossing.
Pont du Gard
Roman aqueduct in Segovia (Spain)
The next aqueduct is located in the Spanish city of Segovia. The height of the aqueduct is 30 meters, the length is 17 kilometers. One of the surviving spans is now located right in the city center. To ensure central water supply in the old days, water from this aqueduct entered the central tank, from where it was already distributed to other intra-city systems. In the 11th century, this aqueduct was partially destroyed by the Moors, but in the 15th century it was restored and still provides water supply to the regions of Segovia.
Aqueduct in Segovia
Roman aqueducts were built even in Africa. Water supply was provided by Caesarea (23 km aqueduct), Maktar (9 km), and Carthage (80 km).
As Julius Frontinus (Rome's chief water supplier at the beginning of the 2nd century) noted, aqueducts are the main evidence of the greatness of the Roman Empire, and they cannot even be compared with the useless Egyptian pyramids and other idle buildings of Greece. Indeed, these water supply systems gave impetus to the development of civilization and established the construction of baths, swimming pools, and fountains. And considering that some of these buildings from the times of the greatness of ancient Rome function to this day, one can only be amazed and enjoy their greatness and the genius of engineering of deep antiquity.
These words belong to Sextus Julius Frontinus (late 1st - early 2nd century AD), a major statesman of Ancient Rome, who was twice consul, successfully fought in Britain and in his old age received the title of “water warden.” Having taken such a high position, Frontin, who thoroughly studied all the technical and economic issues related to the construction and operation of water pipelines, wrote the book “Water Pipelines of the City of Rome,” which was of great importance not only in the era of the Roman Empire, but also in subsequent centuries. Many of the building elements in Roman aqueducts were made of concrete.
Water among the Greeks and Romans, as well as among many more ancient peoples, was considered something divine, one of the main elements of the universe. This belief probably came from the Middle East, where fresh water has always been of great value. There, in the Middle East, long before the emergence of the ancient Roman state, dams, dams and stone conduits were built to collect water. In the 7th century BC e. A large water pipeline 40 km long was built near ancient Nineveh. To transfer it across the river valley, the Assyrians built a stone bridge (aqueduct) with five vaulted arches, each with a span of 2.74 m. For 900 m, it was an open channel laid in an artificial stone bed, about 2.3 m wide. Perhaps it was one of the first aqueducts built by humans.
In Ancient Rome, water pipelines began to be built at the end of the 6th century. BC e. The first large aqueduct in Rome was built by Appius Claudius, the famous builder of the Appian Way. This event occurred in 312 BC. e., in the same year with the opening of the first strategic road. The relatively short pipeline, 16.5 km long, was mostly underground, starting outside the city from a spring in the quarries and ending at the Tiber, next to the harbor, where brisk contractors brought marble and granite blocks from Egypt. That's what they called him - Appian.
Most water pipelines, as well as temples, theaters, roads and other important and unique structures, received their name after their builders, or rather the people who financed the construction and were responsible for it. They were usually high-ranking state censors, praetors, aediles, and often consuls and the emperors themselves.
In 272 BC. e. a second water supply system was laid in Rome, which was completed two years later. It supplied the capital with water from the Anio River, located 70 km from the city.
Rome's water supply was hampered by the rugged terrain, as the city is located on seven hills surrounded by the flat territory of Campania. Water supply was carried out using water pipelines, which within the city were located on aqueducts - special structures in the form of bridges. The conduit ran over the top of the aqueduct and was a channel in the form of a trench made of stone, brick or concrete. When the water supply system approached the city, water towers were installed, which in their operating principle were reminiscent of modern water pressure structures, although they differed from them in the distribution systems for water.
The third aqueduct in Rome - Aqua Marzia - was built in 44 BC. e. This hydraulic structure, unique for that time, served as a standard for later Roman construction. In the books of ancient Roman authors, the Marcia aqueduct is mentioned as a significant milestone in the great days of the Republic. Especially on the water supply route, the grandiose aqueduct stood out, rising almost 60 m above the level of the Tiber. The total length of the water pipeline reached 91.3 km, of which the above-ground part was 11.82 km, and the daily flow rate of supplied water was 200 thousand m3. It was built from beautiful natural stone by the hands of slaves - captured Greeks and Carthaginians.
Its culvert bed had a width of 1.37-1.68 m and a height of 2.44-2.75 m. Unfortunately, this water supply system with its wonderful aqueduct arcade has reached us in pitiful ruins, especially since the aqueduct itself has been destroyed several times. was rebuilt. So, 17 years after the completion of construction, the Tepula aqueduct was laid along it, and another 100 years later - the Julia aqueduct, where brick and concrete were already used as building materials.
During the time of Emperor Augustus, when large construction work began in the country, the emperor’s friend and son-in-law, the commander Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, became their leader. He is credited with the construction of many structures, including temples, baths and aqueducts.
According to Frontinus, Agrippa was the first curator of aqueducts. He trained his slaves in the “plumbing business” and created a special “water team” from them, which was later reorganized into the “water department.” At the end of the 1st century. The “water team” included many different specialists: hydraulic engineers, repairmen, and operators. It also included the so-called “villici” - managers, “castellarii” - observers of reservoirs and water towers, bridge inspectors, levelers, etc.
Some of them were constantly outside the city to carry out repair work, and some carried out their service at water towers and large fountains. For deliberate damage to the water supply network and connection without the permission of the magistrate to the city water supply system, a huge fine was imposed on the culprit. It is not for nothing that Frontin mentions “water thieves,” the so-called “drillers,” who secretly, at night, dug into culverts or canals and connected to them to draw water.
It is assumed that it was Agrippa, starting from 19 BC. e. was the curator of the construction of one of the most beautiful aqueducts in the world - Pont du Gard, located in the south of France. This aqueduct lay on the route of the Virgo water pipeline to the city of Nîmes, one of the southern cities of Galia, a Roman colony. Looking at this aqueduct, you are amazed at its beauty and majesty. It was built in the Gordon River valley and rests on a three-tiered stone arcade made of local golden-brown limestone. Huge blocks weighing up to 6 tons were hewn out of this stone, which were laid on top of each other without mortar, “dry”. The maximum height of the aqueduct is 50 m, length - 269 m. It is assumed that the inside of the aqueduct supports is made of Roman concrete.
The conduit channel is blocked from above with stone slabs to avoid clogging and evaporation of water, as well as exposure to ultraviolet rays of the sun, due to which, as Vitruvius warned, rapid growth of algae begins in the water. The water conduit has a rectangular cross-section made of stone, plastered inside with coarse-grained mortar with the addition of pozzolana.
A group of American scientists, based on detailed examinations of the main structural elements of the Pont du Gard aqueduct, came to the conclusion that Roman engineers almost 2000 years ago were able to calculate building structures using abaci and wax tables. At the same time, the Americans claim that many Roman structures were designed taking into account the so-called additional, i.e., possible future loads. It is difficult to agree with such a statement. Any calculation of a structure or material requires mandatory knowledge of the stresses that arise depending on various combinations of loads. Without this, it is impossible to calculate the building structure and assign the cross-section of all its elements. Only in the 20s of the XIX century. Henri Navier (1785-1836) was the first in the world to introduce the concept of “stress” and create a mathematical calculation tool for the strength of materials, which made it possible to solve most problems based on experimentally obtained permissible stresses. Until that moment, construction had developed mainly empirically, and even the brilliant works of Galileo, Hooke, Mariotte, Coulomb and other scientists of the 17th-18th centuries. only prepared the ground for the emergence of calculation methods.
It should not be forgotten that there were few structures similar to the Pont du Garou. Most of the others, including the Pantheon, were completely different from them in constructive terms. These were massive, heavy buildings with a large margin of safety, the stresses in which were 5-50 times less than the actual compressive and tensile strength of the materials used.
During the time of Emperor Claudius (41-45), another water supply system with a large stone aqueduct was built to supply Rome with water. According to a number of researchers, this was the last aqueduct made of natural stone. Subsequently, such structures were made only of concrete and brick.
Typically, part of the water supply route near and in the city itself passed above the surface of the earth, which was explained by the need for its distribution. The largest arcade of the aqueduct was the so-called arcade of the Palatine branch, built under Nero. It reached almost 20 m in height and consisted of more than 200 arches with a span of 7.75 m and a thickness of supporting pillars of 2.3-2.4 m. Almost all of it was made of concrete.
Water was distributed to individual houses and other buildings using water pipelines, mostly underground.
Water conduits were lead and ceramic pipes or trenches in the form of channels. Pipe sizes were strictly standardized and produced in specialized workshops.
Frontin developed standard water pipe sizes for 25 diameters, although only 15 were used.
According to Vitruvius, the largest lead pipe had a circumference of 100 inches (about 60 cm in diameter).
The bottoms and walls of the conduit channels were made either of concrete with a layer of plaster, or of stone, and the roof was made of flat stone slabs or slabs laid in two slopes. Since the time of Nero, canal coverings have generally been made in the form of a concrete barrel vault. The dimensions of the canal lumen were often made in such a way as to ensure that a person could walk through it without bending. The height of the section ranged from 1.5-3 m, and the width was 0.6-1.2 m.
In the 80-90s. To supply water to the Roman colony of Agrippina, from which Cologne later arose, an 80 km long water supply system was built. It is believed that it worked until 475. Its walls and base are made of concrete, and the vault, which is supposed to be made somewhat later than the canal, is rubble concrete masonry.
German researchers Gamblach and Grün claim that the binder for the concrete of this conduit was not aerated lime with the addition of trass, as was assumed before them, but highly hydraulic lime obtained from nearby limestone deposits in the Eifel region. In this case, brick dust was used as a hydraulic additive.
Subsequently in Cologne in the 2nd century. n. e. A 100 km long water pipeline was built. The lower part of its channel is made of concrete with mortar plaster, and the ceiling is made of natural stone “set” on the mortar.
Interestingly, the Romans developed concrete pipes, which, according to modern experts, could withstand higher fluid pressures than ceramic or lead pipes. Their prototype was pipes made of natural stone with holes hollowed out in the middle part. The outside concrete pipes had a square shape with a side size of 21 cm, and the internal diameter of the pipes was 6-8 cm. The pipes were made in the form of separate links about 95 cm long and connected to each other “joint to joint”, followed by caulking the joint with mortar and concrete. Such pipes were discovered by West German archaeologists in Tunisia, in the area of Carthage and other places of the former Roman Empire.
In total, there were 11 water pipelines in Rome with a total length of more than 500 km. Water consumption in the city was about 561 thousand m3 per day. Rome was the most water-supplied city in the world. It contained about 500 liters per capita. Some scientists even believe that water consumption reached 800-1000 liters.
